186 Froquency response x() = @s(9x(0) + K fp ext — Dor) de quation (6.11) is « matrix equation, and although the time solution is ranetely indicated, the actual determination of tho solution is tedious Hae tne equation ts eolved ao that the reeponsex() is known analyti= Ey in order to plot x() versts time itis necessary to proceed in 8 Point by-point fashion. This is even more work eihough Faq. (B.4-1) is a general solution for any iuputy the dis- qussign in Chap. 4 was restricted roainly to impulse and step inptts Saari mportant class of inputs that was not mentioned in the preseding Ghapter isthe sinusoidal funtion. ‘This ebapter is devoted enti chap iet an of the response to sinusoidal inputs. Initially the disaussion dae wyn of n general transfer funetion, 17(=)- Particular tranfer “une: ini erin are of inorest ave the transfer funetions of the plants @,(8); drone aaa oop apslem, y(#/r( and the internal transfer functions relat ihe the varios state variables with the input ws) and with themselves i ne ve are ingerested. in. 2(0)/3(a) and 2/20), 14d the aponss of the later transfer funetions to s sinusoidal input 6 par wee important if the plant is unlknown and one is seeking to determing by measufement its transfer function Santian 5.2 is devated toa discussion of the frequency response funcs tion WGn) OF particular hnlerest are ite magoitude and phase ane. Banton 83 disgutves menns of sketching, the magnitude of this furetion Sferifally, its important to develop means of petting che eater Serpe function that are Less tedious than the point-by Point method Teited to plot x(), Section 5.8 uses the straight-line pproximations roaming the plot of the magnitude of the frequency-respouse fanetion ‘almost trivial to wecomplish, Saar Set ia prefiminaty discussion of the phase plot; in penticulay the conditions under which it is pos mine the phase-angle flagearn dieetiy from the amplitudo diagram aro stressed. soe) fine means of representing the phase angle at any point i8 discussed, ‘with the aretangent approximation ‘Sections 5.3 to 5.5 fall into the eategory of “how to do it that ts they explain the mechanies of handling the frequency: sosto0e aoa eas but give Hite indication as to why the frequency-responss As ton ie important. Its importanee is emphasized in Sec. 6.5 plants tion eatin, ‘The assumption of the preceding sestions is thet the in eretion is Known, and we are asked (o represent the freq wet trator amsciated with the given transfer funetion, In See “8 the function Sbtem is discussed; that ia wo have a plot of an untied froqueney-response function, and it i desired to find the transfer fun oe see. 8a Priel? dor arene UT] tion, ‘This problem occurs in practice when a plant w Sa nk to be eal en tere step in tha denny lant must be identified; that i, its transfer function mst be deter oa Bie! elewstonsrgarng tvs moaca of one sah betas THEM Banas nano rating Weve ate Prat to the plant 2,(s)/u(s) and the transfer a eeeanTenetreead state variables a¢(s)/.;(s) prove to be impor anetions between the’ various 5.2 Frequency-response function Oy the nual Ce fea) = au pleted 5 quency as the input of the form AR(a) sn Jol + g(o)), Here Ra) is He ratio of the magnitude of th to the input, and the phase angle ¢(w) racetee Dae ies input and the output Se a Tinear system driven q w since, in general, they vary as the input frequency is vz The abject of this section is to show that re ata a Rw) = (W6S)| |, = [Get 6(u) = phase angle of W(s) |, = arg W(ja) Tis mae tht te mage and pe ofthe ot for a isda may be found by simply determining the magnitude and sed of Bs). The omcex Cancion 7) in esl oun the Feuer response function i a Te ‘To demonstrate the truth of ae Je the truth of this statement, let us exam apes transform of y(1) for the indicated input. eae asform of A sin of it Au/(6t + w), yl) is Since the Laplace AwW (3) HO) = Woo) = FeV, «A oF ies Fe) AaW(s) Ita partial-fraoti partial-fraction expansion of y(s) is made, using any of the approaches Fig.5.2-1. General linear system witha sinusoidal r= Asinet input [rap188 Frequency response of See. 4.2, we obtain spe “other terms” arise from the po'es of Wis). Tn ‘mathematical ter- srrsology, the frst two terms on the right side of Ba. 2-1) are due to air dal foreing function and are therefore related to particular ine ion, the “other terms” are the uaforeed or complemouty solution, ons th va refers to the particular solution as the stendys1046 solu, tion andthe complementary solution as the transient solution Although roe evesignations are often appropriate, there are situations control- instem applications where such Iabelingsinappropria’ Tnsomeplants, eaecrumple, which we shall refer to Inter as unstable, +5 possible for the tor menrary solution to grow without bound as time nett lh complemnerinr ase of the term transient response to deseribe the comple: mentary solution Is meaningless Fe ajorty of systems, Fowever, the complementary so) vaiovin nature and tho particular solution becomes he Tn these eases, the frequency-response func ‘useful physical meaning; we shall discuss is, in fact, tran usual steady-state response. tion may be given « particularly this interpretation Inter. rerPrendent of whether the complementary solution is efets not, our present interest is only inthe particular so) We therefore enor te complementary portion of thesoktion: find the sinusoidal portion of 9(0), which we designate as u(. fOr ‘sinusoidal, it is necessary Perot i and Ry. This is ensly done by the method of residues © ‘that AaW() | tn toxma of those values for Ry. and Ra, vs may now be wate Tn ta inverse transform of the Gest two tarms on the Fgh’ side Eq, (62-1), oF ye = Bucs + Rue HAW i) ge 4 AUG) 2 3 Frequency-response function 189 ‘We now let the complex func! , plex function W(ja) be expressed in rectangular Ws) = X) + IY) ere bo! r( nl here oth X() and ¥) ar ral funtion of equeney crepond to ‘and imaginary parts of WG). Noto that [WGa)lis [WGe)| — VX) EVP and the phase angle or argument of W(js) is erg W(jo) = arctan 4) Xe) For any particular frequeney, 17 (i ney, W (Ju) ise.complex numberso that W' Be trocamfics mals af WUC sor a. soon ake W(—i0) = Xl) -5¥@) ‘The substitution of these expression Z G22) tory). for W(s) and W(— je) into Eq Making use of the Buler formula, we may write y(. a (9s = AX() sin wl + AY(W) eos wt 4 It yi) is written as & sine funetion with a phase angle, y(t), becomes Hs = AIX()* + ¥(o)' sin fot + a(e)] here a(w) = arctan (¥(4)/X(@)]. But Boi oe) = arotan )]. But this is exactly the form for fail component of 0 pont Doriantagot ha tid Rl) = [X(o)* + Yo)" = We) q (Ge)] (24) a) (a) = arctan 9) = v Ae) = o(0) = arotan 45} = ang Wie) (625) sce we have established that the frequenc lined from the transfer function by letting » -response function may be je. sr funetion, the fre- On the other hand, ifthe This is an important result, Given the tran Rsncy-response function follows immediately.192 Frequency response n for the network shown in Fig. 5.2-4, Samy as id RC network with the RC of the frequen em ae ons formed by ensuing & rene hewn in Fg, 5.22 = 4 ‘Tf we assume that the impedance levels of the that no loading occurs, the transfer funetion of the works are such, ade network is dees Gls) = FRC + sh pponse function is therefore and the frequency-resh a = GACi8) = TF FORIGIT + FRC) assumption to simplify the task, plotting jay isnot easy. Although the asymptotie, fall be easily determined, there is no longer Even with the no-loading it 20 of G, the magnitude and pha: character of the two plots may s () rae function for the network of ee ne “Magnitude; (b) phage. Fig. 522. @) Fig. 5.224 Casale network even a single frequency for which the value of the magnitude or phase may he determined by inspection. In addition, since the character ofthe eas- cade frequency-response function may not be ax obvious aa its simple components, more points may be necessary to achieve an accurate representation. ‘Even ifthe magnitude plots ofthe tivo networks were knovn exactly, the job of finding the eascade plot. would not be trivial, sinee point-by- point multiplication would be necessary. Since the easeading of various component blocks is commonplace in eontrol-system design and analysis, the above direst method is obviously inadequate. The approach is cum- hersome in the handling of simple networks, and its inability to facilitate the eascading of component systems makes the technique completely nacooptable Hence we are led to seek alternative procedures for plotting the magnitude and phase of the frequeney-response function. Such a pro- cedure should have one or more of the following characteristis. First, the procedure should allow a rapid and reasonably accurate plot”t0 be made, Secon, eomposite systems ehould be handled with relative ease ‘Third, it should be possible to make the plots as accurate as needed in & fiven Frequency range or ranges by 8 zeasonably small amount of addic ional work Although it may appear that the above requirements are too mueh {© hope for, in the following seetions we shall develop procedures that more or less meet all these requirements. We begin by considering the representetion of the magnitude plot by means of a straight-fine approximation 5.8 Magnitude plot—straight-line approximation In the precoding section we showed that the ratio of the magnitude of the “tinusoidal component of the output to the magnitude of the sinusoidal194 Prequency response chap. input is ingly the magnitao ofthe Hoqueny-repense {ONO fet don, he hase ane of he simul compere Tia aye the pase angle ofthe sinusoidal input i on he the outat st or W7Ci)Thu foray particular eauoney 1 Seen sith sine te ampli, equeey, nd pe sf pal to HO Tower, bene the pt of simul (ues the reap es usally nt done; rather, abe amplitude and Sonn Pa reno ral eqns Thee cree Oe oe eemary to draw yO for any frequeney wish a bot is ever required ver Te gmp an phate dngrune are considered eae pot wl bm dened inte allowing eho\e seers Pee dag. Ta this weston wo concent he Ly mage of tha frequaney-responeefaushion Ay tans by whith He nium of ily. ‘The phot pt wll be die ve hatha wi ye proce developed inti ston invelva he cam Fv mgd ok wa aenurce of ti res soprorimatn oy matody rater smpl-example tafe neton af the form 7) . Keto be WO = were) ay is considered. ‘This specific example i trates the principal features of the ‘The extension of the approach to the 1s used to derive the procedure, sinee it :pproach wit problems. + Byely direct. In addition, several numerical examples are used 10 aeevastrate further the application of the technigve. been factored and were outset, notice that WV(a) ing. (68-1) hes vwritten in pole-zero form 1, as the poles and eros are 53-1) in an alternative form, is L/wo This is referred to as the ities 1/1 and 1/« has the dimension of time: a) in this form, the results obtained below are» constant form is used. ‘each written as 5} e+ so that the coefficient of in euch f time-conalant form sinet necessary to write 17( convenient if this tin Eq, (6.81) becomes ig) = Kot WO = at s/o) ‘The frequeney-response function in time-constant form i then Koy_Ltjo/on WG) = ES jac tod) illus shout extensive notational feneral situation is rela- tog |1 +22 "That is, the eoelicient of a in each factor is Let us rewrite Eq. ctor ich of the Although it is not Tn time-constant form. Similarly for large « 1 is small Dox|1 +2] « See. 5.3 Magnitude plot— ugnitude plot—straight-line approximation ‘The magnitude of the frequency-response ‘ funetion is seen to be | Ker) [t+ jo/eul [Gell = prea oe | [Get + 0/a5] (63-2) se ana ea a are le ‘associated with this logarithmic Remoeant rie | Kor Tog [FP(j0)| = lo ogi +2! jo] log || + Tog] 1 +25] — og ol — toe + ‘ona Let us examine in detail on of ‘ Inseam det one tem 659) hem ef Totus examine the asymplati behavior for both large and soll Fs yh mat uf ny aun ve Pee tling datas way tt aie rnin ed log. 0 fore Ke ona) ath ha lt this quan agua a done in Be. 3.2, ne ta he aap eed with he hort viable a le er than just @. Then the slope of the asyr t ated fale th at "hen the spe of the agmueahention log ao) FeO log 3-5) mpared with je/wy, and hence ees || ~ eft] toro Since we are concerned 01 escnee d only with positive values of froqueney, this result logo log fan] for > a (5.36)196 Frequency response cha ‘The slope of this asymptotic approximation for large » when plotted against log w is a Sy (log w — log foil) = +1 The exact logarithmic plot of [1 + ju/a i plotted vereus log # a8 the daoked ine in Fig, 53-1, ‘The straight-line asymptotio approxima Che eetetinge and small » are azo indicated in that figure. | Note that tion tor erught-line approximations that form the high and low-fre rresnoy saymptntes for the exact plot intersot at @ = [als FOE We aqueney asfmfien refered to asa break frequency since it the point at re fhe vorner, or break, of the straight-line approximation oocur denen egal, we obverve that, whenever o < fal/10 oro > 10} The exact and approximate plots are almost identical. ean retrol applications, the straight-line asymptotic approxi- mations are often of sufficient accuracy, However, if a more necurats rarimation i needed, an exact eatelaton for oue OF two points ae SO avernt ean be made, Note, in particular, that forw = jl the ee ore ot [1 + jo/e| is V2. If correction of the straight-line setroximation is neceasry, this point is often adequate Tariel npplicatious, itis often more convenient to plot the ctual aetass of [1 jv) and « on log-log paper, os in Fig. 53, at ean the logartinos of these quantities on Hinese paper, as in Fig Pe aatthis way, one may work direstly with the quantities of interest 58-1 al pain the advantages of the logarithmic plot. ‘This appronch ix teed in all numerical examples. Tog + i/o 10 v0 Seb Fig. 58-1, Logarithmic plot of [+ Ja ‘Magnitude plot—streight-line oppresim XA Beaghtine o =lny10 le 10a Fig. 5.3-2 Asymptotic stra ex + ic straight-line approximation and exact Aaya 1 exnct plot of [1 + jf! Noto that inthis case the rel the Sul nga the UBesteqesorncym fe a Sues with this line.” ‘The slope of the high-frequensy aaymptote ie india ted By lacing +1 o the higeteumey Cente KO og og ETE shpe of imps tat te magoitide Shag by detects an ny changes yee dene” For amp nF. 532 the ma Suna Jun chasm oA ne from Bo, sherhy Ba (523), the lst term is som foe intial for ta tars og |1 + jio/un| exoept that it is preceded by a minus gains Wecostat "9 break frequeney of ws, this term breaks Mivit Hence, at Otherwise, it is the same as the 1 + ju/e, term. a is made on log-log paper, the in g-log paper, the line coincides with the |W(iu)| = [Kox/exl In order to treat the jw term, observe that log i] = log198 Frequency response Moanitude plot—straight-line approximoti and the slope is 19 Wes ton 3) dilog «) a 100} “phigh x just the equation of «straight Tne with slope of 2 passing which i a on ae legate plot On logo paper this rea through the oe ough the [ia] = tw = Epon Note tbat ng tha he ag Py neled in ths case and hatte eae lo i a sige aan C-), tia term appears with «negative Sgn wo sini dope becomes —1 rather than. +1 ee oreo the four eonaituent terms of the fog 1) ag een ee 3) om one lathe lo, a in Fig Se, Tn ord even in Ba ecnon more specie, numeral values have been chosen Tern, and ox ao that W (ju) becomes 1001 + ja/8) Tja)(l ¥ 0/50) In other words, K = 100, 01 = 5, and os = her wordy ne tne done toad tho gontibutions of the four dere eeNfnd the magaitade pot of Wa), since addition of tere ee ialent to mltpiation of magnitudes. The relag 1 rae af he ng of Ge) shown in Fg, $8, lo 2 or aomparion. neo agin, note that the appro Thation is reasonably accurate pe Tas nbered that when adding the effects of the bai Ce add the logarithms. On the logog plot where thy Lome sigh ata anagstude, we masta it terms of the itor a a sanefrom the |F7Ge)|~ axe hati he og (i) 0 yanrocmatcn Ft efor une pose of adding the elects of the fo terms the vertical scale must be (ought of a 2 Hiner stl cont hs vero reterenc atthe [WG»)| = 1 line Coe neat nding the composite pot of [W7()] ean bo ea era ese aed, nay each of he four tars involves onk stra Mr open The [W7Ge) plot must be sinsasly compet Tine of integer J) i determine hy xing single eit om Hens th Pe dng the fects of the four terms and then eon tig Me i aghtinewgment by ang the elope of the fot eel iat) Coates em terms ‘ sae the aloo of the composite plot ofthe [T(J eum change a fen me content terms, itis very simple otf Ar se example forthe iequeney range S So = SM sree of the [1/u)| i equal to ~1+ 3 0.0! Cees Wie) we Exact pot200 Frequency response ‘the renon for selecting the time-constant form for W(j4) rather ‘han the orginal form of Eq. (6341) should now be clear. It the latter RRpresentation had been selected, the low-frequency s=ympiote would hhave been of the form Jog [jv + eal = Toe lol ‘Therefore, rather than being ine coincident withthe ine log Ze}l = 0, sere Rave been a Tine coincident with log [Gel = log bel 1p tis ieee tach of the factors of this form would have had a diferent low-fre- Graney aspmaptote, thereby making the addition of thet effects more siecle wThe time-constant form is used whenever we plot ssymptotie diagrams. Example 5.3-1 As another illustration of the use of the asymip- err regnitade diagram, let us determine the magnitude plot fo the following transfer function: Ol +10)" w(a) ~ aCe + 100) ‘Thisis the transfer function of the so-called lend-lag equalizer thal atten put in series with the plant to modify the elosed-oop re se mey Fesponse and to ensure stability. The use of such sri qMfaponsation networks will be discussed in Chap, 10. “Arter putting 2(8)/u(s) into time-constant form, we have a(s) _ 0.1(-+ 8/10" us) 8 + 6/100) ‘The logarithm ofthe magnitude of +(J4)/u( ju) is therefore io Gall "The only difference between the form of this exprossion at at of Be, 02-2) othe 2 that precedes the 1 + ju/10 term. | TH an ection by 2 i due 10 Uh fact that this term is rerenlel ran sya double zero. This means thatthe slope of the hills dt oy asymptote bs +2 rather than +1 eo that beyond trea jency o ~ 10 the plot rises by to decades of maxnitade for every decade of frequency. er eee ght movifeation, the constituent torms of lr 4(j)| nay noe be paced on the log og plo, ee shown n Fi 5528 wie) may a pot of the [x(jo)/uGe)| 8 obtained as before, O79 rae coca plot of the magnitude alo shown for compari veg 0.1 42 log +29 ~ le tok — to + fy aco +2 tot +f — te il ~ + fn Magnitude plot—straightoli (ier/utjan I+ fe/10%2 20r + ja/t007-® jn) /uCJoy| @) Fig. 5.3-4 Example 53-1 plot, (@) Constituent terms; (2) resultant202 Frequency response Chap. 5 With some practic, the reader should be able to draw the asymp. totie pot for the {Ho} directly from the time-eonstant form for W (0) tot ya) without expanding the log [WV js] oF showing component terms or Mel Myram. Tis suggested that the reader work several of the ao aia the end of this section until such a facility is gained, since oxen agin our Iter work. Once such an ability in achieved, the i i aaa be ale to determine the asymptotie plot for the |W7(jo)| rea ite eforl. Perhaps, evon mare important, he is able to Motel the general nature of the plot rapidly. tthe Benerafer tunction W(s) contains complex conjugate poles or sores he approndh must be somewhat altered, although the results are see gly ceelar, To iluctrate the treatment of such terms, let us sup wean aL We) nacually a plant transfer fanetion consisting of only ear of complex eonjugate poles so that WO) = G0 = ow FaTond + Han)? Once agnin the use ofthe time-constant forms emphasized. "The magri- tudo of @,Cis) is now 1 ‘ (6.091 = Saas el 637) or w > we, the quadratic term of the real part becomes predominant, and the log |@,(j)| becomes vr) ~~ (2) [= —? ee 2 Fence the high-frequeney asymptote has a slope of —2. rom the abovediscussion, we see that the pair of complex conjugate poles ure identical to two real poles lorated at = as as far as the TEE ete nlot is eoncored. In other words, the asymptotic, straight-line pepvoximation treats the situation asiff = 1. A normalized asymptath aris shown in Fig. 53-5 where the double break onsurs at 2/sn = 3 ‘Mlihough the value of the damping ratio ¢ doos not influence te straight-line approximation, it does havo an effect on the exact plot 8 Straight-line spprorimation ac | i Fig. 5.355 Asymptotic and exact pote the magnitude. + 2jfefon + (olen204 Frequency response Chap. 5 shown in Fig 6.35. As f approaches zero, the exact curve begins t0 rise aoe a eyraptotic plot. In order to determine the exact value of ¢ stove chic etlect fest occur, we solve the following expression forthe frequeney at which the maximum occur diG,(50)l | o ds sone From this equation we find Ome #2 VIRB 628) ‘Therefore there is 8 maximum in the magnitude plot, that is, a real value Tar cane only if < -V2/2 Otherwie, the exact plot always lies below the saymptotie plot and no maximum occurs Tf-a maximum does oceur, that is, iff < 42/2, the maximum value of the (@,] may be obtained by substituting nus for win Eq. 3-7), with the result that 16.6 for§ > 0.707 639) L xvi “Lent the reader become confused, it should be noted that the step responge of the system has an overshoot whenever F <1. Howover the reepoieade portion of the frequeney-respome funtion dons not display me rchoat until { 2oy, the error isloss than 0.04 rad, or about 2", Hence theapprox- imation is fairly accurate as long as the frequeney is not near a, break print, One way to overcome this dificulty partially is to assume a value af x/4 whenever the frequeney is ator very close to. break point, that is, arolan u/s; ~ 1/4 fore = wy. In any ease, one should be very cautious whenever working with near-break frequencies Now we return to the problem posed at the beginning of this seotion Belore the erctangent approximations may be applied to Tq, (5.5-2) to find the zoro-phase-shift frequency, itis nesessary to answer two qualita- tive questions. First, Does the phase shift ever equal zero? Second, In what range of frequencies does it oeeur ot, more specifically, between which two break frequencies? ‘The second question must be answered s0 that we know which of the two arctangent approximations, Fa. (5.5-5) or Eq, (65-0), to apply to each term of Hag. (5.5-2) Both questions can be quickly answered by making a rough sketch of the strairht-line magnitude plot and then applving the approximate Bode method of See. 5.4 to sketch the qualitative nature of the phase “Characteristic. ‘The result of this process is shown in Fig. 5.5-2. Although this plot is not accurste, it enables us to answer the two questions raised Above, Yes, there is a frequency for which the phase shift is ero, and SP elley ie ee oe 2 wo” 3\e bo. il arctan - ‘verge #0 rapidly that we now a, OS) 4 the first, two terms in Eq. (5. fiat term in Bq. (5.59) andthe it tw fer approximate arctangent expression foro Set along with the exact ‘These two approximations are plotted in Fig. 6 vee for hoth approximati pe axamm error for both aD Tot — x/4 rad, oF approximately 12.5. However, for # is equal to 1 — 2/4 rad oy antl < oftChap. 5 220 Frequency response 1G, ie) 16,0 ne = 2 @ aa iGyCiedly ) function for 5.52 Rough skotch of the frequeney-respone f Ga) = a/{0 + s/10)41 + 2/100)'). G@)_ Straightdine ‘magnitude plot; @) approximate phase plot Fie. it appears to be between the break point at 10 rd/see and the one-at 100 rad/see, that is, 10 < w < 100. For this frequency range, the second term of Eq. (6.5-2) becomes since @ > 10, and therefore the approximation of Eq. (9.5-0) is us On the other hand, the third term is approximated by using Eq. (6.5: S00. 8.5 Phase plot—arctangent approximation 221 since w < 100 and is therefore aretan T99 ~ 705 Resico apreelh x han ia Gere 7; ae fs _W\ _ 4 w 100 856 Gy(s) = —w + 210 for w > 100 If we set the right side of this equation equal to zero aud solve for we we222° Frequency response chap. obtain oy = 729 < 100 Since wo is not in the frequency range assumed, the solution is not correct and must be disearded. On the other hand, if both solutions fall within the range of interest, then either two solutions exist or the approximations are not accurate enough for the solution of the problem, ‘The latter situation occurs most ‘often if the solutions obtained are close to break frequencies. However, this problem is quite rare; the method works well for almost all problems, ‘An additional difficulty arises if the transfer function eontains com- plex poles or zeros. In Seo, 5.3 it was concluded that, for values of the damping ratio ¢ in the range 0.5 100