Chapter 1: Fundamental Principles

Goal of Chapter 1:
Know definition of basic aerodynamic quantities (Book 1.4)
Know how to obtain aerodynamic forces and moments (Book 1.5)
Know the concept of lift, drag, and moment coefficients (Book 1.5)
Know how to find center of pressure (Book 1.6)
Know what dimensional analysis is and flow similarity (Book 1.7-1.8)
Know the concept of fluid statics (Book 1.9)
Know the types of fluid flows (Book 1.10)
Know the concept of boundary layer (Book 1.11)

Fundamental Aerodynamic Variables (Book 1.4)

Pressure
Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface

Density
Density is the mass per unit volume
 Fluid element - Infinite small element of mass

Flow velocity
The velocity of a flowing gas at any fixed point B in space is the velocity
of an infinitesimally small fluid element as it sweeps through B

Streamline
The fixed path of a moving fluid element when the flow is steady.

Shear Stress
In summary:

: Freestream velocity (flow velocity far ahead of the body.)

Lift, Drag, Normal force, and Axial force

The total normal and axial forces per unit span
The moment about the leading edge per unit span

In summary:
The sources of the aerodynamic lift, drag, and moments on a body are the
pressure and shear stress distributions integrated over the body
 Dimensionless force and moment coefficients

3-D body

2-D body
Normal force coefficient

Axial force coefficient

Moment coefficient

Lift coefficient

Drag coefficient
Example: Consider the supersonic flow over a 5 half-angle wedge at zero angle of attack. The
freestream speed ahead of the wedge is 680.4 m/s, and the freestream pressure and density
are 1.01 105 /2 and 1.23 /3 , respectively. The pressures on the upper and lower
surfaces of the wedge are constant with distance s and equal to each other, namely, = =
1.31 105 /2 . The pressure exerted on the base of the wedge is equal to . The sear
stress varies over both the upper and lower surfaces as = 431 0.2 . The chord length, c, of
the wedge is 2 m. Calculate the drag coefficient for the wedge.

 Center of Pressure

Question:
If the aerodynamic force on a body is specified in terms of a resultant single
force R, where on the body should this resultant be placed?

Key:

Center of pressure:

Note 1: If moments were taken about the center of pressure,

Note 2: If the angle of attack of the body is small,

Note 3: The center of pressure is not always a convenient concept in
aerodynamics. The resultant force can be place at any point on the body, as
long as the value of the moment about that point is also given.

e.g.

The quantitative relation between these cases is:

Example: In low-speed, incompressible flow, the following experimental data are obtained for
an NACA 4412 airfoil section at an angle of attack of 4: = 0.85, and ,/4 = -0.09. Calculate
the location of the center of pressure.
Example: Consider the airfoil chord length is 15.4 ft. At cruising velocity (188 mi/h) at sea level,

the moments per unit span at this airfoil location are /4 = 1071 / and =
3213.9 /. Calculate the lift per unit span and the location of the center of pressure on
the airfoil.
 Dimensional Analysis
Question: = ( , , , , ), can we reduce the number of independent
variables?

Buckingpham pi theorem a key theorem in dimensional analysis

Let equal the number of fundamental dimensions required to describe the
physical variables. If there is a physically meaningful equation involving a certain
number of physical variables, then the original equation can be rewritten in
terms of a set of = dimensionless parameters 1 , 2 , to constructed
from the original variables.
According to Buckingham pi Theorem, R can be reduced to a function of
, , ,

Proof:

Physical variables and their dimensions:

In conclusion:
Since the lift and drag are components of the resultant force, then,

If the angle of attack, , vary, then

 Flow Similarity
Question:
If there are two different flow fields over two different bodies, when are these
two flow dynamically similar?
Answer:

Similarity parameters - and

Generally speaking, flows over geometrically similar bodies at the same
Mach and Reynolds number are dynamically similar
The lift, drag, and moment coefficients will be identical for the
bodies

Why flow similarity is important?

Example: Consider a Boeing 747 airliner cruising at a velocity of 550 mi/h at a standard altitude
of 38,000 ft, where the freestream pressure and temperature are 432.6 lb/ft 2 and 390R,
respectively. A one-fiftieth scale model of the 747 is tested in a wind tunnel where the
temperature is 430R. Calculate the required velocity and pressure of the airstream in the wind
tunnel such that the lift and drag coefficients measured for the wind-tunnel model are the same
as for free flight. Assume that both and are proportianl to 1/2 .
 Reading Assignment: Design Box (P46-P51)
- The importance of and

Schematic of lift and drag coefficients versus angle of attack

During the level flight

When lift equals weight ( = ):

Stalling velocity of a given airplane is determined by ,

When thrust equals drag ( = )

Maximum velocity of a given airplane at maximum thrust is

determind by ,

Lift-to-drag ratio
Example: The airplane is cruising at a velocity of 492 mph at an altitude of 33,000 ft, where the
ambient air density is 7.965610-4 slug/ft3. The weight and wing planform areas of the airplane
are 15,000 ld and 342.6 ft2, respectively. The drag coefficient at cruise is 0.015, calculate the lift
coefficient and the lift-to-drag ratio at cruise.

Example: The same airplane has a stalling speed at sea level of 100 mph at the maximum take-
off weight of 15,900 lb. The ambient air density at standard sea level is 0.002377 slug/ft3.
Calculate the value of the maximum lift coefficient for the airplane.
 Fluid Statics: Buoyancy Force
Question: In aerodynamics, we concern the resulting forces and moments on a
body due to the fluids in motion. But what if there is no fluid motion?
---- Fluid statics
Consider a stagnant fluid above the x-z plane

Hydrostatic equation: (relates change in pressure to the change in

vertical height)

A solid body immersed in a fluid will experience a force even if there is

no relative motion between the body and the fluid
---- Buoyancy force
 Types of flow