S.O.E.T.

VIKRAM UNIVERSITY

CONTENTS

S.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO

1 CERTIFICATE..............
2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..
3 CONTENTS 1
4 ABSTRACTS.. 2
5 INTRODECTION... 3
6 BASIC PRINCIPLE 4
7 COMPONENTS REQUIRED............ 5
8 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.. 6
9 COMPONENT DETAILS 7-28
10 APPLICATION AND MODIFICATION 29
11 CONCLUSION. 30
12 REFERENCE 31

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ABSTRACT

The Line follower robot is a mobile machine that can detect and follow the line
drawn on the floor. Generally, the path is predefined and can be either visible
like a black line on a white surface with a high contrasted color or it can be
invisible like a magnetic filed. Definitely, this kind of Robot should sense the
line with its Infrared Ray (IR) sensors that installed under the robot. After that,
the data is transmitted to the processor by specific transition buses. Hence, the
processor is going to decide the proper commends and then it sends them to the
driver and thus the path will be followed by the line follower robot. In this
Paper, we have illustrated the process of design, implementation and testing
TABAR, a small line follower robot designed for the line follower robots
competition.

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Introduction
Generally, the line follower robot is one of the self-operating mobile machines
that follows a line drawn on the floor. The path can be a visible black line on a
white surface (reverse). The basic operations of the line follower are as follows:

1.Capturing the line position with optical sensors mounted at the front end of
the robot. Most are using several numbers of photo-reflectors, and some leading
contestants using an image sensor for image processing. Therefore, the line
sensing process requires high resolution and high robustness.

2.Steering the robot to track the line with any steering mechanism. This is just a
servo operation; actually, any phase compensation will be required to stabilize
tracking motion by applying digital PID filter or any other servo algorithm.

3.Controlling the speed according to the lane condition. The speed is limited
during passing a curve due to the friction of the tire and the floor. Better
mechanisms, therefore, can improve the power of manoeuvre. The speed of the
robot, hence, can be increased. Consequently, the robot's performance can be
increased, too.

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BASIC PRINCIPLE

This circuit consists of L293D microcontroller, two IR sensors, motors and

motor driver IC. The line follower robot needs mechanical arrangement of the
chassis. Assume a two wheel robotic vehicle with a castor wheel. The two IR
sensors are mounted on the robot facing towards Earth.When robot is placed on
the fixed path, it follows the path by detecting the line. The robot direction of
motion depends on the two sensors outputs. When the two sensors are on the
line of path, robot moves forward. If the left sensor moves away from the line,
robot moves towards right. Similarly, if right sensor moves away from the path,
robot moves towards its left. Whenever robot moves away from its path it is
detected by the IR sensor. IR sensor consists of IR transmitter and IR receiver
on a board. When the vehicle is moving on a black line, IR rays are
continuously absorbed by the black surface and there is no reflected ray making
output high. Whenever, the robot moves out to the white surface, it starts
reflecting the IR rays and making the output low.

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COMPONENTS REQUIRED

S.NO COMPONENTS RANGE/TYPE QUANTITY

1 IC 7805 1

2 MICROCONTROLLER L239D 1

3 IC LM258 1

4 RESISTORS 220 ,1K , 470

5 ZERO PCB 1 1

6 BO MOTOR 60RPM 2

7 IR SENSOR 2

8 BATTERY 9V 1

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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IC 7805 voltage Regulator

Voltage regulator IC's are the ICs that are used to regulate voltage IC 7805 is a
5V Voltage Regulator that restricts the voltage output to 5V and draws 5V
regulated power supply. It comes with provision to add heatsink. The maximum
value for input to the voltage regulator is 35V.

It can provide a constant steady voltage flow of 5V for higher voltage input till
the threshold limit of 35V. If the voltage is near to 7.5V then it does not produce
any heat and hence no need for heatsink. If the voltage input is more, then
excess electricity is liberated as heat from 7805. It regulates a steady output of
5V if the input voltage is in rage of 7.2V to 35V. Hence to avoid power loss try
to maintain the input to 7.2V. In some circuitry voltage fluctuation is fatal (for
e.g. Microcontroller), for such situation to ensure constant voltage IC 7805
Voltage Regulator is used. For more information on specifications of 7805
Voltage Regulator please refer the data sheet here (IC 7805 Voltage Regulator
Data Sheet). IC 7805 is a series of 78XX voltage regulators. Its a standard,
from the name the last two digits 05 denotes the amount of voltage that it
regulates. Hence a 7805 would regulate 5v and 7806 would regulate 6V and so
on. The schematic given below shows how to use a 7805 IC, there are 3 pins in
IC 7805, pin 1 takes the input voltage and pin 3 produces the output voltage.
The GND of both input and out are given to pin 2.

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LM358

The LM358 series consists of two independent, high gain,internally frequency

compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate
from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from

split power supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is
independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage.

LM358 PIN CONFIGURATION

LM358 FEATURES
Application areas include transducer amplifiers, dc gain blocks and all the
conventional op amp circuits which now can be more easily implemented in
single power supply systems. For example, the LM358 series can be directly
operated from the standard +5V power supply voltage which is used in digital
systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics without
requiring an additional 15V power supply.
Internally frequency compensated for unity gain
Large dc voltage gain: 100 dB
Very low supply current drain (500 essentially independent of supply
voltage Wide bandwidth (unity gain): 1MHz (temperature compensated)

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Input common-mode voltage range includes ground

Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage
Low input offset voltage: 2mV
Wide power supply range: o Single supply: 3V to 32V o Dual supplies:
1.5V to 16V
Large output voltage swing: 0V to V 1.5V
SOP-8L packaging
Green Molding Compound (No Br, Sb)
Lead Free Finish/ RoHS Compliant (Note 1) Unique Characteristics
In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes
ground and the output voltage can also swing to ground, whilst operating
from only a single power supply voltage.
The unity gain crossing frequency is temperature compensated.
The input bias current is temperature compensated

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L393D PIN CONFURIGATION

Given below is the pin diagram of a L293D motor controller. There are two
Enable pins on l293d. Pin 1 and pin 9, for being able to drive the motor, the pin
1 and 9 need to be high. For driving the motor with left H-bridge you need to
enable pin 1 to high. And for right H-Bridge you need to make the pin 9 to high.
If anyone of the either pin1 or pin9 goes low then the motor in the
corresponding section will suspend working. Its like a switch.you can simply
connect the pin16 VCC (5v) to pin 1 and pin 9 to make them high. VCC is the
voltage that it needs for its own internal operation 5v; L293D will not use this
voltage for driving the motor. For driving the motors it has a separate provision
to provide motor supply VSS (V supply). L293d will use this to drive the
motor. It means if you want to operate a motor at 9V then you need to provide a
Supply of 9V across VSS Motor supply. The maximum voltage for VSS motor
supply is 36V. It can supply a max current of 600mA per channel. Since it can
drive motors Up to 36v hence you can drive pretty big motors with this l293d.

VCC pin 16 is the voltage for its own internal Operation. The maximum voltage
ranges from 5v and upto 36v.

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L293D Description

L293D is a typical Motor driver or Motor Driver IC which allows DC motor to

drive on either direction. L293D is a 16-pin IC which can control a set of two
DC motors simultaneously in any direction. It means that you can control two
DC motor with a single L293D IC. Dual H-bridge Motor Driver integrated
circuit (IC). Concept It works on the concept of H-bridge. H-bridge is a circuit
which allows the voltage to be flown in either direction. As you know voltage
need to change its direction for being able to rotate the motor in clockwise or
anticlockwise direction, Hence H-bridge IC are ideal for driving a DC motor. In
a single L293D chip there are two h-Bridge circuit inside the IC which can
rotate two dc motor independently. Due its size it is very much used in robotic
application for controlling DC motors.

TIP: Dont Exceed the Vmax Voltage of 36 volts or it will cause damage.

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VERIABLE RESISTENSE 10K

A variable resistor is a device that is used to change the resistance according to

our needs in an electronic circuit. It can be used as a three terminal as well as a
two terminal device. Mostly they are used as a three terminal device. Variable
resistors are mostly used for device calibration. Two terminals of the device are
connected to both the ends of the track. The third terminal is connected to a
wiper that decides the motion of the track. The motion of the wiper through the
track helps in increasing and decreasing the resistance. The track is usually
made of a mixture of ceramic and metal or can be made of carbon as well. As a
resistive material is needed, carbon film type variable resistors are mostly used.
They find applications in radio receiver circuits, audio amplifier circuits and TV
receivers. For applications of small resistances, the resistance track may just be
a coil of wire. The track can be in both the rotary as well as straight versions. In
a rotary track some of them may include a switch. The switch will have an
operating shaft which can be easily moved in the axial direction with one of its
ends moving from the body of variable resistor switch.

The rotary track resistor with has two applications. One is to change the
resistance. The switch mechanism is used for the electric contact and non-
contact by on/off operation of the switch. There are switch mechanism variable
resistors with annular cross-section which are used for the control of
equipments. Even more components are added onto this type of a variable

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resistor so as to make them compatible for complicated electronic circuits. A

high-voltage variable resistor such as a focus pack is an example. This device is
capable of producing a variable focus voltage as well as a screen voltage. It is
also connected to a variable resistance circuit and also a fixed resistance circuit
[bleeder resistor] to bring a change in the applied voltage. For this both the
fixed and variable resistor are connected in series.

A track made in a straight path is called a slider. As the position of a slider

cannot be seen or confirmed according to the adjustment of resistance, a
stopping mechanism is usually included to prevent the hazards caused due to
over rotation.

Variable Resistance Specification:-

Various parameters like size, type of track and also resistance is used to define a
variable resistance. Usually the spindle diameter of a variable resistor is 6mm.
If the variable resistor has a straight track it is defined in the component by the
short form LIN representing a linear track. If it is a rotary track it is represented
in short as LOG, as for a logarithmic track..
5K6 LIN 5.6 kilo ohm with a linear track.
2M LOG 2 Mega ohm with a logarithmic track.In a linear track variable
resistor, as the wiper is moved along the track the resistance varies constantly.
In such resistors, the specification may not be given on the type. In that case,
you will have to assume that it is linear.In a logarithmic track variable resistor,
the resistance does not increase/decrease constantly. As the wiper is moved
from one end, the resistance changes at a slower rate and when the wiper is
brought to the other end, the resistance changes at a fatser rate. This means that
when the wiper is at halfway along the track, the resistance is not half the value
of the total resistance. This is specifically applied for volume control as the
response of the human ear to sound is also logarithmic. That is, a slow change
in the beginning and a rapid change towards the end.

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IR LED

The IR LED (or infrared light-emitting diode) module sends out light with
longer wavelengths than visible light, similar to the light in your remote control.
It's invisible to the eye, but many digital cameras can see it! Try using it to
activate the light sensor or remote trigger.A electronic remote device mainly
consists of this IR transmitter and receiver. A remote control patterns a flash of
invisible light which is turned into an instruction and is received by the receiver
module. The IR signal is modulated during transmission.

Line Follower Robots

In line following robots, IR sensors detect the color of the surface underneath it
and send a signal to the microcontroller or the main circuit which then takes
decisions according to the algorithm set by the creator of the bot. Line followers
employ reflective or non-reflective indirect incidence. The IR is reflected back
to the module from the white surface around the black line. But IR radiation
is absorbed completely by black color. There is no reflection of the IR radiation
going back to the sensor module in black color

Common infrared LED that emits infrared rays has the same appearance with
visible light LED. Its appropriate operating voltage is around 1.4v and the
current is generally smaller than 20mA. Current limiting resistances are usually
connected in series in the infrared LED circuits to adjust the voltages, helping
the LEDs to be adapted to different operating voltages. When using infrared
rays to control correspondent unit, the controlling distance is in direct ratio with
the emitting power. In order to lengthen its controlling distance, infrared LED
should be operated under pulse state as the effective transmitting distance of the
pulsed light (modulated light) is in proportion with the wind-induced current of
the pulses. Thus, by increasing the peak value (Ip) of the pulses, the emitting
distance of the infrared LED can also be lengthened. One way to increase Ip is
to diminish the duty ratio of the pulse; that is to reduce the width of the pulse

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(T). The duty ratios of the working pulses for some color TVs infrared remote
controllers are around 1/3-1/4; and for some other electronic products, the duty
ratios of the infrared remote controllers can even be as small as 1/10. Through
reducing the duty ratio of the pulses, the emitting distance for small power
infrared LED can also be increased in a large extent. Ordinary infrared LEDs
can be divided into the following three types: small power one (1mW-10mW),
medium power LED (10mW-50mW) and large power LED (50mW-100mW
and above). The modulated light can be generated by adding pulse voltage with
specific frequency on the driving diode. The controller with infrared LED can
emit infrared rays to take control of correspondent unit, and at the controlled
unit end, there is also a receiving device to turn the infrared light into electricity,
such as infrared light receiving diode, photoelectric triode and so on. Emitting
and receiving matched infrared diode has also been applied in practical
use.There are two emitting-receiving modes for infrared LED and the controlled
unit, one is direct light emitting mode, and the other is reflecting light mode. In
the direct light emitting mode, the emitting diode and the receiving diode are
installed in the emitting end and the controlled unit end respectively, with a
certain distance between them. As to the reflecting light mode, the lighting
diode and the receiving diode are in parallel. Only when the infrared rays
emitted by the diode were reflected by something can the receiving diode get
the infrared rays, thereby stimulate the controlled unit to operate. Besides,
infrared emitting circuit with double diodes bears higher power and longer
functional distance.

Infrared LED chips with different wavelengths can be applied in extensive

devices, for example:

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1. Infrared LED chip with wavelength of 940nm: suitable to be used in remote

controller, such as remote controllers for household appliances.

2. 808nm: suitable to be used in medical treatment appliances, space optical

communication, infrared illumination and the pumping sources of the solid-state
lasers.

3. 830nm: suitable to be used in the automated card reader system in freeway.

4. 840nm: suitable to be used in colored zoom infrared waterproof video

camera.

5. 850nm: suitable to be used in video cameras that are applied in digital

photography, monitoring system, door phone, theftproof alarm and so on.

6. 870nm: suitable to be used in video cameras in marketplace and crossroad.

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Photo-diode:

Here Photo diode is used to capture reflected light of IR LED.

A semiconductor diode that, when exposed to light, generates a potential

difference or changes its electrical resistance. A Photo diode is a reverse biased
silicon or germanium pn junction in which reverse current increases when the
junction is exposed to light. When no light is incident on the pn junction of
photo diode, the reverse current is extremely small. This is called DARK
CURRENT. When light is incident on the pn junction of the photo diode there
is a transfer of energy from the incident light (photons) to the atoms in the
junction .this will create more free electrons (and more holes) these additional
free electrons will increase the reverse current.This electrical energy can be
recorded as voltage drop fluctuations by using a series resistor in the outer
circuit and taking voltage readings across it.

LEDs detect a narrow band of wavelengths, which is why I call them

spectrally selective photodiodes. A silicon photodiode has a very broad
spectral response, about 400nm (violet) to 1,000nm (invisible near-IR),
and requires an expensive filter for detecting a specific wavelength.
The sensitivity of most LEDs is very stable over time. So are silicon
photodiodes but filters have limited life.

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LEDs can both emit and detect light. This means an optical data link can
be established with only a single LED at each end, since separate
transmitting and receiving LEDs arent needed.
LEDs are even more inexpensive and widely available than photodiodes.
The typical human eye responds to light with wavelengths from around
400nm (violet) to about 700nm (red). LEDs detect a much narrower band
of light, having a peak sensitivity at a wavelength slightly shorter than the
peak wavelength they emit. For example, an LED with a peak emission in
the red at 660nm responds best to orange light at 610nm.
The spectral width of light emitted by typical blue, green, and red LEDs
ranges from about 10nm25nm. Near-IR LEDs have a spectral width of
100nm or more. The sensitivity of most LEDs Ive tested provides ample
overlap to detect light from an identical LED.

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Light Emitting Diode (LED)

The Light Emitting Diode or LED as it is more commonly called, is

basically just a specialised type of diode as they have very similar electrical
characteristics to a PN junction diode. This means that an LED will pass current
in its forward direction but block the flow of current in the reverse direction.
Light emitting diodes are made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped
semiconductor material and depending on the semiconductor material used and
the amount of doping, when forward biased an LED will emit a coloured light at
a particular spectral wavelength. When the diode is forward biased, electrons
from the semiconductors conduction band recombine with holes from the
valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons which emit a
monochromatic (single colour) of light. Because of this thin layer a reasonable
number of these photons can leave the junction and radiate away producing a
coloured light output.

LED Construction

Then we can say that when operated in a forward biased direction Light
Emitting Diodes are semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into
light energy.

The construction of a Light Emitting Diode is very different from that of a

normal signal diode. The PN junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent,

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hard plastic epoxy resin hemispherical shaped shell or body which protects the
LED from both vibration and shock.

Surprisingly, an LED junction does not actually emit that much light so the
epoxy resin body is constructed in such a way that the photons of light emitted
by the junction are reflected away from the surrounding substrate base to which
the diode is attached and are focused upwards through the domed top of the
LED, which itself acts like a lens concentrating the amount of light. This is why
the emitted light appears to be brightest at the top of the LED.

However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical shaped dome for their
epoxy shell. Some indication LEDs have a rectangular or cylindrical shaped
construction that has a flat surface on top or their body is shaped into a bar or
arrow. Generally, all LEDs are manufactured with two legs protruding from the
bottom of the body.

Also, nearly all modern light emitting diodes have their cathode, ( ) terminal
identified by either a notch or flat spot on the body or by the cathode lead being
shorter than the other as the anode ( + ) lead is longer than the cathode (k).

Unlike normal incandescent lamps and bulbs which generate large amounts of
heat when illuminated, the light emitting diode produces a cold generation of
light which leads to high efficiencies than the normal light bulb because most
of the generated energy radiates away within the visible spectrum. Because
LEDs are solid-state devices, they can be extremely small and durable and
provide much longer lamp life than normal light sources.

Light Emitting Diode Colours

So how does a light emitting diode get its colour. Unlike normal signal diodes
which are made for detection or power rectification, and which are made from

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either Germanium or Silicon semiconductor materials, Light Emitting Diodes

are made from exotic semiconductor compounds such as Gallium Arsenide
(GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP),
Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed together at
different ratios to produce a distinct wavelength of colour. Different LED
compounds emit light in specific regions of the visible light spectrum and
therefore produce different intensity levels. The exact choice of the
semiconductor material used will determine the overall wavelength of the
photon light emissions and therefore the resulting colour of the light
emitted.Thus, the actual colour of a light emitting diode is determined by the
wavelength of the light emitted, which in turn is determined by the actual
semiconductor compound used in forming the PN junction during manufacture.
Therefore the colour of the light emitted by an LED is NOT determined by the
colouring of the LEDs plastic body although these are slightly coloured to both
enhance the light output and to indicate its colour when its not being illuminated
by an electrical supply.Light emitting diodes are available in a wide range of
colours with the most common being RED, AMBER, and GREEN and are thus
widely used as visual indicators and as moving light displays.Recently
developed blue and white coloured LEDs are also available but these tend to be
much more expensive than the normal standard colours due to the production
costs of mixing together two or more complementary colours at an exact ratio
within the semiconductor compound and also by injecting nitrogen atoms into
the crystal structure during the doping process. From the table above we can see
that the main P-type dopant used in the manufacture of Light Emitting Diodes
is Gallium (Ga, atomic number 31) and that the main N-type dopant used is
Arsenic (As, atomic number 33) giving the resulting compound of Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs) crystalline structure.The problem with using Gallium Arsenide
on its own as the semiconductor compound is that it radiates large amounts of
low brightness infra-red radiation (850nm-940nm approx.) from its junction
when a forward current is flowing through it. The amount of infra-red light it

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produces is okay for television remote controls but not very useful if we want to
use the LED as an indicating light. But by adding Phosphorus (P, atomic
number 15), as a third dopant the overall wavelength of the emitted radiation is
reduced to below 680nm giving visible red light to the human eye. Further
refinements in the doping process of the PN junction have resulted in a range of
colours spanning the spectrum of visible light as we have seen above as well as
infra-red and ultra-violet wavelengths. By mixing together a variety of
semiconductor, metal and gas compounds the following list of LEDs can be
produced.

Types of Light Emitting Diode

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) infra-red

Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) red to infra-red, orange
Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) high-brightness
red, orange-red, orange, and yellow
Gallium Phosphide (GaP) red, yellow and green
Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) green
Gallium Nitride (GaN) green, emerald green
Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
Silicon Carbide (SiC) blue as a substrate
Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) blue
Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) ultraviolet

Like conventional PN junction diodes, light emitting diodes are current-

dependent devices with its forward voltage drop VF, depending on the
semiconductor compound (its light colour) and on the forward biased LED
current. Most common LEDs require a forward operating voltage of between
approximately 1.2 to 3.6 volts with a forward current rating of about 10 to 30
mA, with 12 to 20 mA being the most common range.

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Both the forward operating voltage and forward current vary depending on the
semiconductor material used but the point where conduction begins and light is
produced is about 1.2V for a standard red LED to about 3.6V for a blue LED.

The exact voltage drop will of course depend on the manufacturer because of
the different dopant materials and wavelengths used. The voltage drop across
the LED at a particular current value, for example 20mA, will also depend on
the initial conduction VF point. As an LED is effectively a diode, its forward
current to voltage characteristics curves can be plotted for each diode colour as
shown below.

Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics.

Before a light emitting diode can emit any form of light it needs a current to
flow through it, as it is a current dependant device with their light output
intensity being directly proportional to the forward current flowing through the
LED. As the LED is to be connected in a forward bias condition across a power
supply it should be current limited using a series resistor to protect it from
excessive current flow. Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power
supply as it will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will

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pass through and burn it out. From the table above we can see that each LED
has its own forward voltage drop across the PN junction and this parameter
which is determined by the semiconductor material used, is the forward voltage
drop for a specified amount of forward conduction current, typically for a
forward current of 20Ma. In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage
DC supply, with a series resistor, RS used to limit the forward current to a safe
value from say 5mA for a simple LED indicator to 30mA or more where a high
brightness light output is needed.

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BO MOTOR 60RPM

DC motor (BO) Battery Operation. Dc motor converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy. Why DC gear motor used in robot Motor control circuit.
DC MOTOR concept is where gears reduce the speed of the vehicle but
increase its torque is known as gear reduction. In DC motor is assembled with
multiple gear setup. Speed of motor is counted in terms of rotations of the soft
per minute is called RPM. RPM means Revolution Per Minute. The setup
assemble helps to increasing the torque and reduce the motor speed. All micro-
controller based Robots this type of DC motor can be used.

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RESISTORS

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that

implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits,
resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide
voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other
uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as
heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as
test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change
slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be
used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or
as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic
circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as
discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms.
Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.The electrical function
of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal
value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the
component.

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Battery 9 Volt

The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, in its most common form was
introduced for the early transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with
rounded edges and a polarized snap connector at the top. This type is commonly
used in walkie-talkies, clocks and smoke detectors.

The nine-volt battery format is commonly available in primary carbon-zinc and

alkaline chemistry, in primary lithium iron disulfide, and in rechargeable form
in nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion. Mercury-oxide
batteries of this format, once common, have not been manufactured in many
years due to their mercury content Lithium 9-volt batteries are consumer-
replaceable, disposable high energy density batteries. In PP3 size they are
typically rated at 0.8-1.2Ah ,about twice the capacity of alkaline batteries.
Manufacturers claim "High energy density, up to 5x more than
alkaline" Lithium PP3 batteries have a long shelf life of up to 10 years.
Common applications for lithium 9-volt batteries are smoke and carbon
monoxide (CO) alarms, and electronic parking meters.

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PCB BOARD
A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically
connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other
features etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.
Components (e.g. capacitors, resistors or active devices) are
generally soldered on the PCB. Advanced PCBs may contain components
embedded in the substrate. PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double
sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer (outer and inner layers). Conductors on
different layers are connected with vias. Multi-layer PCBs allow for much
higher component density.FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate.
A basic building block of the PCB is an FR-4 panel with a thin layer of copper
foil laminated to one or both sides. In multi-layer boards multiple layers of
material are laminated together. Printed circuit boards are used in all but the
simplest electronic products. Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-
to-point construction. PCBs require the additional design effort to lay out the
circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Manufacturing
circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods as
components are mounted and wired with one single part. A minimal PCB with a
single component used for easier prototyping is called a breakout board.
Excluding exotic products using special materials or processes all printed circuit
boards manufactured today can be built using the following four materials:

1. Laminates
2. Copper-clad laminates
3. Resin impregnated B-stage cloth (Pre-preg)
4. Copper foil

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APPLICATION AND MODIFATION:

Industrial Applications: These robots can be used as automated equipment
carriers in industries replacing traditional conveyer belts.
Automobile applications: These robots can also be used as automatic
cars running on roads with embedded magnets.
Domestic applications: These can also be used at homes for domestic
purposes like floor cleaning etc.
Guidance applications: These can be used in public places like shopping
malls, museums etc to provide path guidance.

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CONCLUSION
The cost of health care majorly depends upon the expensive machinery, land
and building and round the clock staff to maintain and use that machinery. In a
country like India where the population is humongous and resources are scarce.
It becomes really difficult to set up such a capital extensive project at each and
every location with availability of skilled staff. So what this system provides is
an alternate to the existing system by replacing skilled labor with robotic
machinery, which in turn can handle more patients in less time with better
accuracy and a lower per capita cost.

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REFERENCES
www.google.com

www.wikipedia.com

www.youtobe.com

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