Principles of Geophysics (250G)

(G
(Gravity
it Prospecting)
P ti )
Compiled by
Prof. Dr. Abudeif A. Bakheit
Email : abakheit
abakheit57
57@yahoo.com
@yahoo.com

 Gravity Prospecting
Gravitational methods are based on the measurement at
the surface of small variations in gravitational field
field.
These variations are caused by lateral changes in the
distribution of mass in the earth's crust.

Gravity method of prospecting is considered as a direct

method for the search of metallic minerals and in
studying the structure of a given region.
It may be used as indirect method for the search of oil
and gas. In this case, structure favorable for the oil and
gas accumulations are detected.

 Principals of the Gravitational Field

The low of universal gravitation:

g

According to Newton,
Newton this law states that all
bodies are attracted to each other with a force
th t is
that i proportional
ti l to
t their
th i masses and d
inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.

The law may be written as follows:

F = -f . m1 . m2 / r2 (1)(1)

Where m1&m2 are the interacting
g point
p masses.
r is the distance between them.
f is the universal gravitational constant.

The constant f equals to the force of attraction

of two unit masses (m1= m2 =1 gr.) separated by one
centimeter apart.

IIn th
the CGS systemt off units
it ((centimeter-gram-
ti t
second), f is equal to 6.67x10-8.

The dimensions of f can be obtained , when

the force is expressed in dynes ( cm.gr/sec2),
mass in grams (gr.)
(gr ) and distance in centimeters
(cm).

Then:
f = F . r2/m1.m2 = cm. gr. cm2 / sec2. gr. gr
f = cm3 . ggr-1 . sec-2

 The Attraction acceleration

The attraction force of the earth acting on a

The
unit mass laying on its surface can be obtained
from formula (1).
(1)
Considering that m1 = 1 gr., m2 = M ( the
Considering
mass of the earth) and r = R ( the radius of
the earth).
earth) Then the equation (1) leads to :
F 1 = - f . M / R2 .. (2)

F1 is known as the attraction acceleration

 The centrifugal
g acceleration

The centrifugal force acts on the mass of the

earth as a consequence of its rotation around
its axis (Fig. 1).
This force is proportional to the radius of
rotation l
l and the square of the angular
velocity

It can be written as: P = l . 2 . m
When m = 1 gr. We obtain the centrifugal acceleration.
P = l . 2
The component of P along F1 will have the form:
P = l . 2 . cos ((3))
Where is the latitude of the area at which gravity
is measured

 Pole P1 = Zero ( cos 90 = 0)

P1 = l . 2 . cos

Equator P1=l . 2 ( cos 0=1)

Fig.(1):Variation of centrifugal and attraction forces.

 The
e Gravitational
G a tat o a acceleration
acce e at o

The Gravitational acceleration g is the sum

of attraction acceleration F1 and centrifugal
acceleration P1.

g = F1 + P1

g = -f . M /R2 + l . 2. cos ...(4)

In the CGS units system , the acceleration
developed by a mass of one gram through the
action
ti off a force
f off one dyne
d i taken
is t k as the
th
unit of gravitational acceleration and is called
gal ( in the honors of Galileo , who first
measured the force of gravity)

gal = dyne/gr = gr . cm/sec2 . gr = cm/sec2

 I gravity
In it prospecting
ti smaller
ll units
it mgal
l
which is equal to 0.001 gal is always used.

The gravitational acceleration on the earth

The earth'ss
surface varies between about 978 gals at the
equator and 983 gals at the poles.

 Th
The f t
factors reducing
d i th
the gravitational
it ti l
acceleration at equator are:

g force varies from zero at the p

Centrifugal poles
to about 3.4 gals at the equator. This
variation is the main cause of the normal
variation of the gravitational acceleration from
the equator to the poles.
poles
The flattening in the polar regions of the earth
also contribute to this variation.

 Gravitational potential and equipotential surfaces

Gravitational potential is a continuous function, the

derivatives of this function along the directions X, Y, and
Z are the projections of gravity in these directions.
directions
The ggravitational p potential W is the sum of the
potentials of attraction V and centrifugal force U.

V = f .m / r U = . 2 . l2
So W = f . m / r + . 2. l2 ...(5)
So, (5)

 Potential field properties
It can be easily shown that the function W satisfies
the following:
1. Its derivatives along certain directions are the
components t off gravitational
it ti l acceleration
l ti along
l th
these
directions.
2. The change of potential (dW) when a mass is moved
from p
point to another ((ds)) is equal
q to the work
expended in the movement.
3 F
3. For a point
i t located
l t d outside
t id attracting
tt ti masses , the
th sum
of the second vertical derivatives of the attraction
potential
t ti l along
l th axes off orthogonal
the th l coordinates
di t is i
zero.
1- Its derivatives along certain directions are the
components t off gravitational
it ti l acceleration
l ti along
l th
these
directions.

W/x = F1.cos (F1,x) + P1.cos (P1,x) = F1x+P1x

W/y = F1.cos (F1,y) + P1.cos (P1,y) = F1y+P1y

W/z = F1.cos (F1,z) + P1.Zero = F1z

Where F1x, F1y, F1z, P1x and P1y are projections of

the strength of the attraction and centrifugal forces
respectively
respectively.

 2- The change of potential (dW) when a mass is moved
from point to another (ds) is equal to the work expended
in the moment.
dW = F1 . dS
Where F1 is the field strength and
dS is the elementary movement of mass

If the
If th point
i t is
i moved d in
i a direction
di ti perpendicular
di l to t the
th
direction of the force F dW = 0. Such a surface is called
equipotential surface because of the constancy of
potential on it.

In the case of displacement of a point mass along the line

of action of the force F , then dW = F . ds

 3- For a point located outside attracting masses , the sum
of the second derivatives of the attraction potential
along the axes of orthogonal coordinates is zero
(Laplace`s theorem)
2v/x2 + 2v/y2 + 2v/z2 = zero

When the point being attracted lies inside the attracting

masses,, the Laplace
p equation
q leads to the equation
q
Poisson`s equation
2v/x
/ 2 + 2v/y
/ 2 + 2v/z
/ 2 = - 4 f
Where
is the mass density

If we are concerned with the gravitational potential,
W = f m / r + l2 . 2
The Laplace`s equation will be :
2W/x2 + 2W/y2 + 2W/z2 = 22
And Poisson
Poisson`ss equation will be:
2W/x2 +2W/y2+2W/z2 =-4 f +22

 Normal
o a Gravitational
G a tat o a Field
ed

The values of gravity depend on the latitudes.

When the earth is considered as an ideal
ellipsoid , then the gravitational field is known
as the normal field .

Clairaut`s theorem gave firstly the essential
correlation between the figure of the earth
and the distribution of gravity on it, given in
the form:

g = ge ( 1 + sin2 ` sin2 2 )

= 5/2 q- , ` = 1/8 2 +1/4

Where:
ge is the equatorial gravity
is the latitude of the locality.
= a-b/a is the flattening of the earth, a and b
are semimajor and semi minor axes of the earth.
q = 2 l / ge is the ratio of centrifugal force to
gravity at the equator.

If the earth is taken as triaxial ellipsoid a term
d
depending
di on llongitudes
it d isi added
dd d to
t the
th llastt equation
ti

g = ge[1+ sin2 `sin2 2 + ``cos2 cos2 (- o)]

The Clairaut theorem is employed to determine the

flattening of the earth from known values of gravity and
to calculate theoretical gravity values for points at known
latitudes.

The formula with numerical coefficients describing the
gravitational field, is called the standard gravity
formula.
formula
Only two formulae have found practical application,
Helmert`s and Cassins formulae.

 Th Helmert`s
The H l ` formula
f l for
f biaxial
bi i l ellipsoid
lli id is;
i
g = 978.03 (1 0.005302 sin2 0.000007 sin22 )
(1+0.005302

The Helmert`s formula for triaxial ellipsoid is:

g =978.052
978 052 [ 1+0.005285 i 2 0.0000007
1+0 005285 sin i 22
0 0000007 sin 2 +
0000 8 cos2 cos2(-
00.000018 cos ( 17)]
7 )]

The Cassins formula for biaxial ellipsoid is:

g =978.049
978 049 (1+0.0052884 i 2 0.0000059
(1+0 0052884 sin i 22 ))
0 0000059 sin

 Geoid
It is an equipotential surface that coincide with the level
of oceans and seas.
The direction of the force of gravity at any point on the
Geoid is normal to this surface.
surface

Fig.(3):The Geoid
The geoid appears as a convenient surface for
relating
l i allll measured
d values
l off gravity
i Fig.(3).
Fi (3)

I fact
In f t it is
i difficult
diffi lt to
t compare the
th values
l off
ggravity
y measured at different elevations;; but
when they are reduced to the geoid surface,
they appear to be at one level which enable us
to compare them

 Measurements of g
gravity
y acceleration

There are three methods for determining gravity:

-The p
pendulum method.
-The measurement of velocity of a freely falling body.
- The weighing method (by means of a spring balance).

1-The Pendulum method:
Th pendulum
The d l method
th d is
i the
th first
fi t used d method
th d
for the measurement of gravity (Fig.4).

Fig.(4): The pendulum

The methods of gravity determination by using
the pendulum can be classified into:

The absolute method, in which determinations

off gravity
i at any point
i f
from measured
oscillation periods and pendulum length is
done (irrespective of the place of
measurement).
The used equation is (T = l / g )

The relative method, in which the increment
off gravity
i f
from the initial
i ii point
i to the
observation
obse vat o popointt iss dete
determined
ed from
o tthee
increment of the oscillation period of the
pendulum

The used equation is (g/go= 2T/To )

2- Determination of gravity by measuring the
velocity of freely falling bodies:
This method enables gravity g to be determined by
the formula:

S = g . T2 / 2
Where
S is the path traversed by the freely falling body

T is
i the
h time
i taken
k byb the
h falling
f lli body
b d

3- Gravity determination by weighing:
This method is based on compensating the force F1= mg
by a mass raised in the field of force by the elastic
strength of a wire string or pressure of an elastic gas.

Consider a mass m is suspended from an elastic

spring having an initial length llo and loaded length
l. Then , according to Hooke`s law,
mg = ( l lo )

Where is the stretching of the spring.

spring

From the last relation we find that the increment of
length is proportional to the change of gravity, then:
m g = l
g
g = / m l
g = K l
Where K is the spring constant
This method is always relative, i.e. all instruments
for measuring gravity by weighing (gravimeters)
enable the variations of gravity to be measured with
respect to some initial value.

 Reduction of Gravity Data
The gravity values cannot be compared in the form in
which theyy are obtained.
The corrections of obtained gravity data enable it to be
reduced to a certain standard surface (sea level) for
comparison.

-The observed values of gravity depend on:

The location of the station on the earth's surface,
i.e. its coordinates and elevation.
The density distribution within the earth.
The topography of the surrounding localities

To obtain the p part of the observed ggravity
y
values relating to the density variations that
interest us,
us we divide its values into;
- A ppart that varies regularly
g y reflecting
g the
figure of the ideal earth,
- And into anomalies that reflect the internal
structure of the upper
pp p part of the earth.

The actual value of gravity is observed on the surface
of the earth at point (A), the standard value is given for
point (B) on the surface of the Geoid (Fig. 5).

Fig.(5):Diagram of surfaces in gravity reductions

In order to obtain the gravity it is necessary
to reduce the observed value to the surface of
the geoid.
g
The gravity anomaly is obtained by
subtracting the standard value for the ideal
earth from the actual g
gravity
y value observed
at the station
g = gob gth

1- Drift correction:
All gravity instruments have certain amount
off drift
d ift or time
ti variation
i ti due
d to
t that
th t the
th spring
i
and the associated mountings are not perfectly
stable.
Th
These may cause changes
h i meter
in t reading
di
which are larger than those due to the small
gravity differences being measured.
The field work
The ork must
m st be conducted
cond cted in a way
a
that this drift can be determined and
corresponding corrections made.

Drift curves are obtained by y repeated
p
occupation of a single field station at intervals
during the day (see Fig. 6).

Fig.( 6 ):Gravimeter drift curve

2 Earth Tidal Correction:
2-
The changes
g in g
gravity
y caused by
y movement of
the sun and moon have amplitudes as large as
0 3 mgal.
0.3 mgal They depend on latitude and time.
time
The changesg in ggravity
y can be calculated
theoretically for any time and place.
It is not practice to obtain the correction
y , this is because the variation is smooth
directly
and relatively slow., So it is easily taken out in
the instrument drift correction.
correction

3 Elevation
3- El ti Correction:
C ti
Correction to gravity values which must
Correction
be made due to the differences in elevations
t k care off two
take t effects:
ff t
A- The free air effect
B- The Bouguer
g effect

A- Free air correction:
Th vertical
The ti l decrease
d off gravity
it with
ith increase
i off
elevation is taken care of by the free-air correction. The
value
l off free-air
f i correction
ti d f can be
dgf b calculated
l l t d
(Fig. 7) : dgF= - 2 g / R H .(42)

Fig. (7 ):Free-air effect

If we take;
-The mean radius of the earth R=6.367 x
108cm, gravity at sea level and at latitude 45
g = 980.629 gals, and the elevation H = 1 cm ,

dgF = - 2 x 980.629/6.367x108 =
0 3086 10-55 gal/cm
-0.3086x10 l/ =
- 0.3086 mgal / m = - 0.09406 mgal / ft

The corrections
i can be made to any arbitrary
i
reference or datum level, or it may be made to
sea level.
Si
Since a station
i at a relatively
l i l higher
hi h elevation
l i
has a lower gravity (because it is farther from
the center of the earth), the correction must be
added to it.
While the corrections must be subtracted
from stations at lower elevations than the
reference level (Fig. 7).

B- Bouguer Correction:
The Bouguer correction take care to the attraction of
the material between a reference elevation and that of
the individual station.

Considering the material as an infinite horizontal

slab, the gravity attraction for a point on the surface
of a slab of thickness h and density (Fig. 8) is:
d B=2 f h
dg
Which for f = 6.6732 x 10-8 gives:
dgB = 0.04193 x mgal/ m
= 0.01278 x mgal/ ft

In a station B higher than the reference elevation A
, its gravity value is increased because of the attraction
of the slab of material between it and the reference level
and the correction is subtracted (Fig.
(Fig 8).
8)
If the station is lower than the reference elevation , its
gravity value is decreased because of the lake of
attraction of the absent material between it and the
reference level and the correction is added.

Fig.(8):The Bouguer
gravity effect

4-Topographic (terrain) correction:
T hi correction
Topographic ti always
l reduce
d th observed
the b d
gravity value irrespective of whether there is a rise or a
d
depression
i near the
th gravity
it station.
t ti
The ppresence of extra mass CDE lyingy g higher
g than the
observation point will give rise to an additional force
directed towards the mass. The vertical componentp CK
of this force will reduce the value of g (Fig. 9).

Fig.(9): Gravity effect

of relief

The lake of mass in the region ABC will also bring
down the value of g with respect to the value that
would be obtained if the entire region below the point
of observation were filled
In practice topographic corrections are calculated
from zone charts, nomograms and terrain correction
tables that enable us to fined the correction from
tables,
topographic maps for any point at which gravity is
measured.
measured

 Interpretation of Gravity Data

The interpretation of gravity data involves qualitative

and
d quantitative
tit ti interpretation.
i t t ti
1-Qualitative Interpretation of Gravity Data:
The result of gravity surveys (after the corrections) is
the Bouguer gravity anomaly map.

The objective
j of ggravityy interpretation
p is to translate
gravity data to geological terms, to give the features of the
subsurface structures.
structures
From the various characteristics of the map, the
amplitude, shape and the sharpness of the anomalies.

The location and form of the structure which
produce the gravity disturbance can be deduced.
The magnitude of a gravity anomaly is
important because the size of an anomaly is
proportional to the size of the structure and the
d it contrast.
density t t
The direction of elongation of iso anomaly
contours of gravity suggests the direction of the
l
length
th off theth structure
t t causing
i th
them.
Concentrated masses produce approximately
circular anomaly patterns.

2-Quantitative Interpretation of Gravity Data
IIt is
i the
h interpretation
i i off gravity
i data
d to yield
i ld
the numerical characteristics of the body being
studied (depth and dimensions).
Th quantitative
The i i interpretation
i i off gravity
i data
d
involves:
A - Anomaly separation and filtration.
B- Calculation of gravity effects of different
causative bodies.
bodies

 REFERENCES
-Nettleton, L.L., (1976): Gravity and Magnetic in oil
prospecting. McGraw Hill Book Co., New York: 464P
-Sazhina,
Sazhina N.
N and Grushinsky
Grushinsky, NN. (1971): Gravity
Prospecting. Mir Publishers, Moscow, 491 P.
-Dobrin and Savit (1986): Introduction to geophysical
prospecting 4th Ed. ,Mc Graw Hill book company,
New York, 867p.
-Telford,
Telford WW. M
M., Gildart
Gildart, L.
L P.,
P Sheriff,
Sheriff R.
R E.,
E and Keys,
Keys
D. A. (1990): Applied Geophysics , Cambridge
University Press,
Press 770 P.
P