International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

A review on the synthesis and applications of green rust for environmental pollutant
remediation
--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number: JEST-D-16-01864R1

Full Title: A review on the synthesis and applications of green rust for environmental pollutant
remediation

Short Title: On the synthesis and applications of green rust

Article Type: Review

Keywords: green rust chemistry; Environmental remediation; nanohybrids; heavy metal

reduction; hydrocarbon dechlorination

Corresponding Author: Chaitanya Bhave

SIES Graduate School of Technology
Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra INDIA

Corresponding Author Secondary

Information:

Corresponding Author's Institution: SIES Graduate School of Technology

Corresponding Author's Secondary

Institution:

First Author: Chaitanya Bhave

First Author Secondary Information:

Order of Authors: Chaitanya Bhave

Sagar Shejwalkar

Order of Authors Secondary Information:

Funding Information:

Abstract: This paper discusses the various approaches to the synthesis of green rust. Green
rusts are synthesized by changing the average oxidation state of iron compounds so
that the ratio of ferric: ferrous ions is between 0.25-0.33. This can be achieved by
mixing ferrous and ferric hydroxides, oxidation of ferrous compounds or reduction of
ferric compounds. Characterization of the samples with analytical methods such as
Mossbauer spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction spectroscopy, scanning electron
microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy is
discussed. Green rusts have a layered double hydroxide structure, with an
interchangeable anion layer and a mixed ferrous-ferric cation layer. This structure can
adsorb ions by intercalation, or exchange anions with its environment. The cation layer
can oxidize, which gives a reducing nature to green rusts. These properties make them
excellent candidates for the reduction and immobilization of several inorganic
pollutants. Green rusts also have applications in dechlorination of organic compounds
and in the synthesis of nanohybrid materials. These environmental and nanochemistry
applications are also covered in this paper.

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Title Page

A review on the synthesis and applications of green rust for

environmental pollutant remediation

A review paper on the synthesis and applications of green rust

Chaitanya Bhavea*, Sagar Shejwalkara

a
SIES Graduate School of Technology, Nerul, India-400706
*corresponding author: Chaitanya Bhave
chaitanya.bhave@siesgst.ac.in
+91-9987544670
Blinded Manuscript Click here to view linked References

A review on the synthesis and applications of green rust for

1
2 environmental pollutant remediation
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5 A review paper on the synthesis and applications of green rust
6
7
8 Abstract: This paper discusses the various approaches to the synthesis of green rust. Green rusts
9 are synthesized by changing the average oxidation state of iron compounds so that the ratio of
10 ferric: ferrous ions is between 0.25-0.33. This can be achieved by mixing ferrous and ferric
11 hydroxides, oxidation of ferrous compounds or reduction of ferric compounds. Characterization of
12
the samples with analytical methods such as Mossbauer spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction
13
14 spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and atomic force
15 microscopy is discussed. Green rusts have a layered double hydroxide structure, with an
16 interchangeable anion layer and a mixed ferrous-ferric cation layer. This structure can adsorb ions
17 by intercalation, or exchange anions with its environment. The cation layer can oxidize, which
18 gives a reducing nature to green rusts. These properties make them excellent candidates for the
19
reduction and immobilization of several inorganic pollutants. Green rusts also have applications in
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21 dechlorination of organic compounds and in the synthesis of nanohybrid materials. These
22 environmental and nanochemistry applications are also covered in this paper.
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24
Fig. 1 Table of contents graphic
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27 1. Introduction
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Green rusts are characterized by a variable oxidation ratio, with the Fe(III): Fe(II) ratio of 0.5-0.66
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30 in mineral green rust and 0.25-0.33 in laboratory synthesized green rust. These compounds consist
31 of alternating layers of cationic Fe(II)-Fe(III)-hydroxide and interchangeable anions, majorly OH-,
32 Cl- and SO42-. It has been found that sodium ions(Na+) are a necessary part of the green rust LDH
33 structure. The iron-hydroxide layer forms the base (cationic layer) while Na +, SO42- and H2O form
34 the overlying layer (anionic layer). Some of the iron ions in the cationic layer can be replaced by
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36 other cations such as Mg2+, Al3+ and Zn2+. This has been found to lend stability to the green rust
37 crystal structure.
38 They are formed naturally in hydromorphic soils under reducing conditions due to the slow
39 oxidation of iron. The naturally occurring mineral form of green rust is called fougerite. The
40 presence of these impurities lends stability to the crystalline structure of green rusts. Green rusts
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42 were first synthesized by Keller in 1948. These compounds are extremely unstable and oxidize in
43 the presence of air to form various oxides depending on the environment. However, this oxidation
44 is reversible and green rusts can be reformed by reduction of the oxide compounds.
45 All research was conducted at SIES Graduate School of Technology, Nerul (India) in 2016.
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48 2. Synthesis:
49 Green rusts have an oxidation state that lies between ferrous compounds (+2) and magnetite
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(+2.67). Thus, we have two major routes to green rust synthesis. If the precursor iron compound
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52 has an oxidation state lower than that of green rust, synthesis is performed by oxidation of the
53 precursor or by addition of ferric ions. If the precursor has a high oxidation state, the synthesis
54 proceeds by reduction of iron or addition of ferrous ions. This can be diagrammatically
55 represented as follows:
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 Fig. 2 Green rust synthesis summary
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2. a. Co-precipitation
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4 Co-precipitation method mixes stoichiometric quantities of ferrous and ferric salts to generate the
5 proper oxidation state of green rust. It is one of the most widely used methods for synthesis of
6 green rust. As the ratio of ferrous: ferric ions can be controlled by concentration of the precursor
7 salts, co-precipitation can produce green rusts with controlled ferrous: ferric ratios. A. H. Cuttler
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et al. and Antoine Gehin et al. have performed considerable work on this synthesis procedure.
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10 In co-precipitation synthesis, a mixture of ferrous and ferric salt solutions is stirred continuously
11 in an inert gas. The pH of the solution is raised to 7 using sodium hydroxide or potassium
12 hydroxide. The solution is then stirred under the inert atmosphere resulting in the formation of a
13 green rust precipitate.
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15 Cutler et al. (1990) used ferrous sulphate and ferric nitrate or ferric chloride as the ferrous and
16 ferric precursors respectively. Mossbauer spectra indicate the formation of well-ordered
17 crystalline structures characteristic of green rust.
18 Gehin et al. (2002) used ferric sulphate as the ferric precursor salt. They have demonstrated
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20 that GR was the only solid product formed during the reaction using Mossbauer spectroscopy and
21 X-ray spectroscopy to confirm.
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2. b. Oxidation of ferrous salts
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25 This synthesis proceeds by the controlled oxidation of a ferrous salt. The salt solution is mixed
26 with sodium hydroxide leading to ferrous hydroxide precipitation. Then the solution is stirred in
27 air inside a beaker to oxidize the ferrous hydroxide. Once the white ferrous hydroxide turns
28 greenish blue, the beaker is covered to stop oxidation. The partial oxidation of the ferrous ions to
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ferric results in the formation of a green rust. J. M. R. Genin et al. have performed significant
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31 work on this process. Melanterite (FeSO4.7H2O) can be used as the ferrous salt to produce a
32 sulphate green rust (GR2(SO42-)). Alternatively, FeCl2.4H2O can be used as the precursor salt
33 (Genin et al. 1996).
34 This process occurs according to the following reaction (Genin et al. 1996):
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36 6 FeC12 + 10 NaOH 5 Fe(OH)2 + Fe++ + l0 Na+ + 12 Cl-
37 5 Fe(OH)2 + Fe++ + SO4- - + () O2 + (n + 1) H2O + [Fe(II)4Fe(III)2 (OH)12]++ [SO4. nH2O]--
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40 Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) can then be added to the ferrous hydroxide to incorporate sulphate
41 ions into the green rust structure. The aerial oxidation of ferrous chloride derived ferrous
42 hydroxide without addition of sodium sulphate results in the formation of chloride green rust
43 (GR(Cl-)). (Koch et al. 1997)
44
It is not necessary, however, to perform the oxidation using oxygen. The oxidation of ferrous
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46 ions to synthesize green rusts has been performed using sodium nitrite (Hansen et al. 1994) and
47 sodium nitrate (Sougrati et al. 2014).
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2. c. Remineralization of ferric oxides
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51 Remineralization synthesis of green rust is a process similar to co-precipitation, in that both mix
52 ferrous and ferric hydroxides to precipitate a green rust. It is not necessary, however, for the ferric
53 hydroxide to be synthesized in situ. Ferric oxides such as Ferrihydrite ((Fe3+)2O30.5H2O),
54 Goethite (-FeOOH) and haematite (-Fe2O3) have been converted to green rusts (Hansen et al.
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1989, Usman et al. 2012).
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57 FeSO4.7H2O is added to the ferric oxide at a concentration of 47.6 mM. 1 M NaOH is then
58 added so that the ratio of (OH-): Fe3+ becomes 3. This results in the immediate formation of a
59 green bluish colored suspension (Usman et al. 2012).
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 1 2. d. Reduction of iron oxide nanoparticles
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Jones et al. (2015) have synthesized a novel sulphide green rust. This synthesis uses iron oxide
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4 nanoparticles suspended in an organic solvent as the iron precursor material. These nanoparticles
5 are then treated with creastamine. This results in the reduction of iron and the formation of green
6 aqueous solution of sulphide green rust nanoparticles. These nanoparticles retain some of the
7 previous iron oxide content, existing as a hybrid of sulphide green rust and iron oxide material.
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10 2. e. Electrochemistry
11 Moreno et al. (2007) synthesized green rust by the electrolytic oxidation of an iron anode. The
12 presence of chloride anions in the electrolyte was found to be essential to the formation of green
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14 rust containing divalent anions. Addition of divalent anions such as sulphate and carbonate to the
15 chloride (KCl or NaCl) electrolyte results in the formation of sulphate and carbonate rust. This
16 method also resulted in the synthesis of phosphate green rust.
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19 2. f. Bacterial reduction
20 Etique et al. (2015) have synthesized a green rust by the reduction of magnetite (Fe 3O4) using
21 Shewanella Putrefaciens. During incubation, the bacteria convert magnetite into green rust and
22 siderite (Fe(II)CO3) using dihydrogen (H2) as the electron donor. -FeOOH was found to reduce
23
to hydroxysulfate green rust when reduced by Shewanella Putrefaciens if sulphate was added to
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25 the growth medium (Zegeye et al. 2005).
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27 3. Characterization
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29 Green rusts can be identified using Mossbauer spectroscopy and X-Ray diffraction (XRD). Other
30 techniques such as Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy
31 (TEM) and Atomic-force Microscopy (AFM) are used to study the Topological and
32 Morphological characteristics of green rust.
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 3. a. Mossbauer
1 Mossbauer spectroscopy can detect changes in oxidation state, ligands and magnetic environment
2 of the sample. Mossbauer can be used to detect the presence of green rust in a sample. It is used to
3
study the ratio of ferric to ferrous ions in green rust. A ratio of 0.25-0.33 usually indicates
4
5 unoxidized, fresh green rust. As the green rust oxidizes over time, this ratio increases till it finally
6 becomes 1.0, indicating complete oxidation of the green rust.
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10 3. b. X-Ray Diffraction
11 X-ray diffraction (XRD) yields the cell parameters and oxidation state of the sample material. The
12 peaks observed by XRD are used to identify green rust and the oxidation state of the same. The
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14 oxidation state data from XRD is the same as that from Mossbauer spectroscopy, and is used to
15 cross-check the Mossbauer results. XRD is used to calculate cell parameters, which provide vital
16 information about the green rust, such as the anion and presence of sodium or potassium ions in
17 the cationic layer.
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20 3. c. Scanning Electron Microscopy
21 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is used to study the size, shape and morphology of the green
22 rust crystals. Green rust occurs as hexagonal platelets with a diameter of a few nanometers to 2
23 micrometers. The particle size and morphology of a material plays a very important role in the
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25 kinetics of its reactions. The high reactivity of green rusts is attributed, in part, to their small
26 particle size.
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4. d. Transmission Electron Microscopy
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30 Transmission electron microscopy is used to study the morphology and thickness of green rust
31 crystals. As in the case of scanning electron microscopy, the shape of green rust crystals provides
32 key information regarding its reactivity and adsorption properties.
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35 4. e. Atomic-force Microscopy
36 Atomic-force microscopy (AFM) is a technique used to study the surface topography of the
37 sample. Surface properties of a material affect its reactivity. The comparatively lower reactivity of
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green rust with biochemical origins as compared to chemically synthesized green rust may be
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40 attributed to the presence of bacterial biopolymers in biochemical green rust (Zegeye et al. 2014).
41 Biochemical green rust has also been demonstrated to have a lower surface to volume ratio than
42 chemical green rust.
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 5. Applications of green rust
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5. a. Heavy metal reduction and immobilization
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4 Green rusts have been shown to reduce chromium (VI). These reductions result in the formation
5 of low mobility compounds of the heavy metals that do not disperse easily into the environment.
6 In addition, there is evidence that green rusts act as substrates for reduction of hexavalent
7 chromium by supernatant Fe(II) ions. Green rust is most effective at immobilizing hexavalent
8
chromium when it is in excess in comparison to the Cr(VI) concentration. When the Cr(VI) is in
9
10 excess, however, a poorly crystalline but stable Cr(III)-Fe(III) compound forms. (L.L. Skovbjerg
11 et al. 2006).
12 Green rusts are also effective at reducing and immobilizing selenates (SeO24-) (S. C. B. Myneni et
13 al. 1997), uranium (VI) (OLoughlin et al. 2003) and copper (II), Ag(I), Au(III) and Hg(II).
14
15 However, reduction of Hg(II) to Hg(0) actually increases the mobility of Hg, due to its high vapor
16 pressure. Thus, green rusts should not be used for pollutant remediation in systems with Hg ions
17 in solution. (OLoughlin et al. 2003). They also adsorb Arsenic reducing its toxicity in the
18 environment (Randall et al. 2001).
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21 5. b. Nitrate reduction
22 Green rusts can reduce nitrates to ammonium (Hansen et al. 1998). Etique et al. (2014) have
23 suggested that green rust can be used in passive water denitrification. The presence of phosphates
24 in the solution chemically stabilizes the green rust, hindering effective nitrate reduction. While the
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26 reduction of nitrates using green rust is desired, formation of ammonium ions is problematic. To
27 solve these problems, a phosphate adsorbing system before green rust reduction and an
28 ammonium adsorption system post reduction has been suggested for effective denitrification of
29 water (Etique et al. 2014).
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32 5. c. Organic pollutants
33 Sulphide green rusts have been found to be highly effective at the degradation of an Orange II, a
34 potentially mutagenic azo dye. The maximum remediation capacity was found to be 150 mmol of
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azo dye per gram of green rust (Christopher J Jones et al. 2015).
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37 Green rust has been shown to dechlorinate chlorinated methanes and ethenes. This reaction occurs
38 4-7 times faster in the presence of copper(II). Addition of copper ions also results in complete
39 dechlorination of CCl4, as opposed to formation of chloroform (CCl3) when Cu(II) was not used.
40 This reaction is suggested to proceed via the formation of zero valent metal nanoparticles (R. A.
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Maithreepala et al. 2005).
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44 5. d. Metal/exGR-Fe(III) nanohybrids
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Individual green rust particles can be used as microreactors for the reduction of silver and gold,
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47 leading to the formation of nanoparticles that are firmly attached to the exGR particles. The
48 nanoparticles can be easily separated from the exGR particles by acidic or reducing treatments.
49 These nanohybrids are biocompatible and functionalizable, and are expected to have a wide range
50 of potential applications (Sondra Ayadi et al. 2013). As discussed in the previous section, the
51 formation of zero valent metal nanoparticles greatly enhances organic pollutant remediation.
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54 6. Conclusion
55 Green rusts have been shown to be effective at the remediation of a variety of heavy metal and
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organic pollutants. The biocompatible nature of iron oxides and the high reactivity and ease of
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58 synthesis of green rusts makes them very attractive for environmental remediation. Their new
59 found applications in nanochemistry and catalysis indicates new areas for research in the field.
60 Despite this, however, use of green rusts for environmental remediation remains difficult due to
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 the instability of green rusts in oxygenated environments. Further research is required in the field
1 of green rust stabilization in order to make use of green rusts a practical solution to remediating
2 pollutants. Alternatively, in-situ methods for green rust synthesis in polluted environments may be
3 utilized.
4
5
6 References
7
8
9 Ahmed, I., Benning, L., Kakonyi, G., Sumoondur, A., Terrill, N. and Shaw, S. (2010). Formation of
10 Green Rust Sulfate: A Combined in Situ Time-Resolved X-ray Scattering and Electrochemical
11 Study. Langmuir, 26(9), pp.6593-6603.
12
13 Ayadi, S., Perca, C. and Legrand, L. (2013). New one-pot synthesis of Au and Ag nanoparticles using
14 green rust reactive particle as a micro-reactor. Nanoscale Research Letters, 8(1), p.95.
15
16 Christiansen, B., Balic-Zunic, T., Petit, P., Frandsen, C., Mrup, S., Geckeis, H., Katerinopoulou, A. and
17 Stipp, S. (2009). Composition and structure of an iron-bearing, layered double hydroxide (LDH) Green
18 rust sodium sulphate. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 73(12), pp.3579-3592.
19
20 Cuttler, A. (1990). A Mssbauer Study of Green Rust Precipitates: I. Preparations from Sulphate
21 Solutions. Clay Minerals, 25(3), pp.289-301.
22
23 Etique, M., Zegeye, A., Grgoire, B., Carteret, C. and Ruby, C. (2014). Nitrate reduction by mixed
24 iron(II-III) hydroxycarbonate green rust in the presence of phosphate anions: The key parameters
25 influencing the ammonium selectivity. Water Research, 62, pp.29-39.
26
27 Etique, M., Jorand, F. and Ruby, C. (2015). Magnetite as a precursor for green rust through the
28 hydrogenotrophic activity of the iron-reducing bacteriaShewanella putrefaciens. Geobiology, 14(3),
29 pp.237-254.
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31 Ghin, A., Ruby, C., Abdelmoula, M., Benali, O., Ghanbaja, J., Refait, P. and Gnin, J. (2002). Synthesis
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34 Gnin, J., Olowe, A., Refait, P. and Simon, L. (1996). On the stoichiometry and pourbaix diagram of
35 Fe(II)-Fe(III) hydroxy-sulphate or sulphate-containing green rust 2: An electrochemical and Mssbauer
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38 Gnin, J., Refait, P., Simon, L. and Drissi, S. (1998). Preparation and Eh--pH diagrams of Fe(II)--Fe(III)
39 green rust compounds; hyperfine interaction characteristics and stoichiometry of hydroxy-chloride, -
40 sulphate and -carbonate. Hyperfine Interactions, 111(1/4), pp.313-318.
41
42 Hansen, H. (1989). Composition, Stabilization, and Light Absorption of Fe(II)Fe(III) Hydroxy-Carbonate
43 (Green Rust). Clay Minerals, 24(4), pp.663-669.
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45 Hansen, H. and Koch, C. (1998). Reduction of nitrate to ammonium by sulphate green rust: activation
46 energy and reaction mechanism. Clay Minerals, 33(1), pp.87-101.
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48 Hansen, H., Borggaard, O. and Srensen, J. (1994). Evaluation of the free energy of formation of Fe(II)-
49 Fe(III) hydroxide-sulphate (green rust) and its reduction of nitrite. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,
50 58(12), pp.2599-2608.
51
52 Johnson, C., Murayama, M., Ksel, K. and Hochella, M. (2015). Polycrystallinity of green rust minerals
53 and their synthetic analogs: Implications for particle formation and reactivity in complex
54 systems. American Mineralogist, 100(10), pp.2091-2105.
55
56 Jones, C., Chattopadhyay, S., Gonzalez-Pech, N., Avendano, C., Hwang, N., Lee, S., Cho, M.,
57 Ozarowski, A., Prakash, A., Mayo, J., Yavuz, C. and Colvin, V. (2015). A Novel, Reactive Green Iron
58 Sulfide (Sulfide Green Rust) Formed on Iron Oxide Nanocrystals. Chemistry of Materials, 27(3), pp.700-
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 Johnson, T. and Bullen, T. (2003). Selenium isotope fractionation during reduction by Fe(II)-Fe(III)
1 hydroxide-sulfate (green rust). Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 67(3), pp.413-419.
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3 Maithreepala, R. and Doong, R. (2005). Enhanced Dechlorination of Chlorinated Methanes and Ethenes
4 by Chloride Green Rust in the Presence of Copper(II). Environmental Science & Technology, 39(11),
5 pp.4082-4090.
6
7 Miot, J., Li, J., Benzerara, K., Sougrati, M., Ona-Nguema, G., Bernard, S., Jumas, J. and Guyot, F.
8 (2014). Formation of single domain magnetite by green rust oxidation promoted by microbial anaerobic
9 nitrate-dependent iron oxidation. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 139, pp.327-343.
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11 Moreno, H., Cocke, D., Gomes, J., Morkovsky, P., Parga, J., Peterson, E. and Garcia, C. (2007).
12 Electrochemical Generation of Green Rust using Electrocoagulation. ECS Transactions.
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14 Myneni, S. (1997). Abiotic Selenium Redox Transformations in the Presence of Fe(II,III)
15 Oxides. Science, 278(5340), pp.1106-1109.
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17 OLoughlin, E., Kelly, S., Kemner, K., Csencsits, R. and Cook, R. (2003). Reduction of AgI, AuIII, CuII,
18 and HgII by FeII/FeIII hydroxysulfate green rust. Chemosphere, 53(5), pp.437-446.
19
20 O'Loughlin, E., Kelly, S., Cook, R., Csencsits, R. and Kemner, K. (2003). Reduction of Uranium(VI) by
21 Mixed Iron(II)/Iron(III) Hydroxide (Green Rust): Formation of UO2Nanoparticles. Environmental
22 Science & Technology, 37(4), pp.721-727.
23
24 Randall, S., Sherman, D. and Ragnarsdottir, K. (2001). Sorption of As(V) on green rust
25 (Fe4(II)Fe2(III)(OH)12SO4 3H2O) and lepidocrocite (-FeOOH): Surface complexes from EXAFS
26 spectroscopy. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 65(7), pp.1015-1023.
27
28 Ruby, C. (2015). Editorial (Thematic issue): Green Rust and Related Iron Containing Compounds:
29 Structure, Redox Properties and Environmental Applications: Part I. Current Inorganic Chemistry, 5(3),
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32 Ruby, C. (2016). Editorial: Green Rust and Related Iron Containing Compounds: Structure, Redox
33 Properties and Environmental Applications (Part II). Current Inorganic Chemistry, 6(2), pp.67-67.
34
35 Skovbjerg, L., Stipp, S., Utsunomiya, S. and Ewing, R. (2006). The mechanisms of reduction of
36 hexavalent chromium by green rust sodium sulphate: Formation of Cr-goethite. Geochimica et
37 Cosmochimica Acta, 70(14), pp.3582-3592.
38
39 Usman, M., Hanna, K., Abdelmoula, M., Zegeye, A., Faure, P. and Ruby, C. (2012). Formation of green
40 rust via mineralogical transformation of ferric oxides (ferrihydrite, goethite and hematite). Applied Clay
41
Science, 64, pp.38-43.
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43 Zegeye, A., Ona-Nguema, G., Carteret, C., Huguet, L., Abdelmoula, M. and Jorand, F. (2005). Formation
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of Hydroxysulphate Green Rust 2 as a Single Iron(II-III) Mineral in Microbial Culture. Geomicrobiology
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Journal, 22(7-8), pp.389-399.
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Table of contents graphic Click here to download Figure Fig1.jpg
Green rust synthesis summary Click here to download Figure Fig2.jpg