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Pressure Start-Up........................................................................................................................ 7
2
Boiler and Feedwater Pump Efficiency Optimization
Industry: Power
Product: DPharp Pressure Transmitter, EJAE and EJXA series
Introduction With oilburning and gasburning boiler efficiencies over 90%, power
plants are examining all associated processes and controls for efficiency
improvements. Between 1 and 3% of the gross work produced by a
The primary function of a utility boiler is to convert water into steam to
boiler is used to pump feedwater. One method of improving overall
be used by a steam turbine/ generator in producing electricity. The
efficiency is by controlling feedwater pump speed to save on pump
boiler consists of a furnace, where air and fuel are combined and
power.
burned to produce combustion gases, and a feedwater tube system,
the contents of which are heated by these gases. The tubes are
connected to the steam drum, where the generated water vapor is Application
drawn. In larger utility boilers, if superheated steam (low vapor
saturation) is to be generated, the steam through the drum is passed Feedwater Flow Control - In electrical power plants, demineralized
through superheated tubes, which are also exposed to combustion feedwater is pumped to the boiler tube header. The feedwater flow is
gases. Boiler drum pressures can reach 2800 psi with temperatures regulated by controlling the pump speed by using a process control
over 680F. Small to intermediate size boilers can reach drum pressures valve. The normal effect of pure water corrosionerosion (or cavitation)
between 800 and 900 psi at temperatures of only 520F if superheated that causes premature seat failure within the valve is amplified because
steam is desired. Small to intermediate size boilers are only being velocities of 10+ fps can be reached.
considered for this application note.
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The added cost of frequent valve replacement makes utilizing a Many competitors claim rezeroing their transmitter at static line
feedwater pump the preferred method of flow control. Controlling pressure minimizes these zero shifts but this task may not be practical
pressure by varying the pump speed saves on overall pump power under fluctuating pressure conditions. The DPharp transmitter can be
usage. bench calibrated and installed into a high static pressure line without
rezeroing. DPharp is unaffected by these pressure surges due to its
Pump Speed Control - Controlling pump speed is accomplished by superior overpressure protection. The transmitter performance specs
variablespeed electric drives or by closecoupling a steam turbine are guaranteed over two years.
to the pump. By definition, cogeneration power plants produce both
4 electricity and excess steam where turbine exhaust is used as a heat The power plants control system can use the high pressure
source. A steam turbine driven feedwater pump is most often applied differential measurement to automatically set the feedwater rate
because of the abundance of available steam. depending on the boiler load demand. At lower demand periods, less
steam is used to power the steam turbine driven pump and less
Boiler Optimization - With a boilers firing rate held constant, feedwater is consumed. Significant savings are realized through steam
feedwater pressure and flow affect boiler pressure. As electricity conservation and by lowered maintenance costs with the use of the
demands change, so do associated boiler loads. When more DPharp transmitter.
electricity needs to be generated, the boiler produces more steam,
therefore feedwater flow must be increased to the boiler. Significant (Also see Application Note on Boiler Drum Level Measurement
savings are realized if boiler drum pressure and feedwater discharge PAG505)
pressure are held to a constant differential. This can be accomplished
by accurately measuring this pressure differential and controlling the
pump speed and feedwater flowrate accordingly. In this example, boiler
drum pressures can vary between 800 and 900 psi depending upon the
load, (See Figure 2). The feedwater pump discharge pressures can vary
between 875 and 1000 psi depending upon boiler demand. Differential
pressure between the two points can be up to 200 psi, or even higher in
system upset conditions. This differential pressure must be accurately
measured, without regard to the 800 psi and above changing boiler
drum static pressure.
Yokogawa Solution
DPharps EJA110E and EJX110A V range capsule can measure
differential pressures up to 2000 psi with the same 0.055% and
0.040%, respectively, of span reference accuracy of lower range
capsules. In this common application example, ranging the EJA110E V
range transmitter 0 to 300 psi allows for the measurement of both
boiler pressure and feedwater pump discharge pressure. During pump
startup severe pressure spikes of 500+ psi can occur which can cause
shifts in zero.
Accurate Steam Measurement
Introduction of concern with this type of measurement are the orifice plates
susceptibility to wear introducing immediate inaccuracies, the
relatively high permanent pressure losses introduced into the system
Steam has often been described as the lifeblood of industry. It is
by the orifice plate and the small measuring range typically 3:1.
the medium by which heat from a boiler is converted into an easily
transportable form that can provide diverse services from office heating
The orifice flow meter is not suitable for low-flow measurement, and
to the mechanical energy that drives turbine generators. Steam is still
can develop zero drift and span drift when the temperature/pressure
one of the most popular methods of providing an energy source to a
conditions fluctuate beyond the design specifications. In order to
process and its associated operations.
measure larger turn downs with a orifice, the plates must be changed
periodically and the pressure transmitters re-calibrated and spanned.
It is now a well-accepted fact that measuring energy consumption is an
important factor in the quest to improve energy efficiency. Efficient and
Vortex meters are known to be superior devices for steam flow
accurate metering is paramount to determining excess use, along with
measurement due to their inherent linear measurement, large turndown,
an accurate picture of where the steam is being used. A sound energy
low pressure drop and high accuracy. It is often thought that it is no
management policy can only have a positive effect on the bottom line
problem to install a line size meter to capture a wide range of flows but
profitability.
that is not always the case. This practice can lead to losing a lot of the
low end measurement. When sizing a vortex meter, it is common to have
The Challenges to reduce the line size using concentric reducers to increase the velocity
through the meter for optimum performance. Unfortunately, piping
Most boiler systems are scalable to the plants needs, meaning steam changes need to be made and this can increase costs.
generation can be ramped up or down depending on the need from the
facility. This can range from low flows during start up, to higher flows
during full operation and back down to low flows during downtimes of
Solution
maintenance. It is important however that accurate measurement of
To meet the customers needs, Yokogawa introduced the digitalYEWFLO
steam is essential in controlling boiler efficiency and safety. The more
Reduced Bore Type Vortex Flow meter featuring a cast stainless steel
accurate and reliable measurements that are made, the more informed
body and a concentric reducer and expander that enable stable flow
decisions can be taken that affect costs and product quality.
rate measurements in low-flow conditions. This expands the range of
measurements that can be performed, from the higher flow rates down
Traditionally the most common method of steam metering is the orifice
to the lower end of the flow span, which is normally difficult for Vortex 5
plare and differential pressure transmitter technique. General areas
Flow meters, and ensures stable and accurate flow rate output.
Face to face
is the same as
Standard unit.
Drop in without
piping changes
While formerly two to three different types of orifice plates had to be Integrated construction with reducers built into the flow meter body.
changed to adapt to fluctuations in the line flow rate, this is no longer The same face-to-face dimensions ease the task of installing other
necessary with the digital YEWFLO reduced bore type. This model sizes or types of digitalYEWFLO flow meters.
reduces installation cost and expands the range of applications No need for costly piping modifications such as reducers/expanders
available to end user. or short pipes to achieve the required straight pipe length.
Increases the space for installation of additional instrumentation
The flow meter is available with a single reduction or a double reduction
in bore size, while still keeping the same face to face dimension of a Yokogawa vortex flowmeters are also well suited to high temperature
standard full bore vortex. This makes installations on new projects applications, and the quality of flow management can be improved even
simplified with no need for additional reducers or piping, and it makes further through the use of anti-vibrating efficiency and self diagnostic
swapping already installed Vortex units simple, as there are no piping functions that rely on the digitalYEWFLOs SSP system.
changes required.
A multi-variable design is also available. With the multivariable option,
Reduced bore digitalYEWFLO vortex meters are flow tested with the a built-in integral temperature sensor allows the meter to make a true
reducers; this ensures the accuracy of the unit is not compromised by mass flow measurement of saturated steam by referring to steam tables
reductions in the line. Manual reductions in piping cannot guarantee embedded in the software. This eliminates the need for separate
this accuracy. pressure and temperature sensors and a flow computer.
Traditional Instrumentation
Process Process
piping piping
The response time of a pressure transmitter is key to safe and Time constant consists of the mechanical and electronic response time.
accurate process control. Yokogawas DPharp transmitter family Mechanical response time is the time it takes for the process pressure
features the fastest response time on the market today. Having a change to be transmitted by hydraulic force to the sensor. Electronic
faster response time allows for a tighter process control and increased response is the time from the sensor detecting the pressure change to
plant efficiency. Fast startup and response is crucial for protecting the transmitter electronics producing an output signal.
capital equipment, such as compressors, from abnormal or surge
conditions. By responding quickly to process changes, compressor Damping
flow can be regulated to keep it running at maximum efficiency.
Yokogawas performance has been evaluated and found suitable for Damping is a setting that allow the customer to increase the dead time
antisurge controls. Overall, Yokogawas fast startup and response of the transmitter. This is done to keep the transmitter from chattering.
time allows for reduced process variability, increased safety, and Chattering is when the output signal has small but rapid changes due
increased plant availability. to process variations. The damping removes this noise by extending the
response time.
Applicable Models
Setting when Shipped
EJAE Series: All models
EJXA Series: All models except the EJX910A / EJX930A Damping is set to 2.0 seconds.
Response Time The EJAE and EJXA transmitters are designed to not allow the
damping to be set less than 0.5 sec unless the Quick Response feature
The industry definition for Response Time is the amount of time it is turned on. With the feature enabled, the damping can be set down
takes for the output signal to reach 63.2% of the actual pressure to 0. To achieve the 90 msec response time, the damping must be set
change from the time the input change occurs. The 63.2% figure is to 0. The damping may be set using DTM works in FieldMate.
derived from an equation used for modeling exponential decay rates
and represents the output change for the first time constant.
The response time of a pressure transmitter is key to safe and Brain Protocol
accurate process control. Yokogawas DPharp transmitter family
features the fastest response time on the market today. Having a The feature described in this FieldGuide are also available for EJAE
and EJXA transmitters with BRAIN Protocol communication. Please
refer to the Users Manual for details.
Sample Test Results
When there is insufficient air for combustion control, the fuel is not
completely consumed and gives off smoke. This is a sign of energy
loss and undesirable emissions. If left unchecked the buildup of
combustibles will lead to a safety hazard. On the other hand, if excess
air for combustion is supplied, the unused air is overheated and emitted
from the stack, causing a heat loss. This increases the emissions of
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NOx and SO2, which cause air pollution. In order to achieve complete
combustion there must be a balance or air-fuel ratio where the boiler is
operating as close to zero excess air as possible
To minimize heat loss since the more excess-air used, the more heat
required to warm it prior to combustion resulting is wasted heat
contained in the waste gas carried to the stack.
Optimizing fuel consumption by maintaining complete combustion.
Minimizing power consumption by ancillary devices (air blowers;
damper positioners).
Reduction of air pollution since a surplus of excess air at high
temperatures allows for the formation of SO2, SO3 and NOx from the
fuel impurities and air-nitrogen.
1. Boiler Control Solution Instruments and Solution for Automatic Boiler Control
2. Air Leak Detection in Sintering Furnaces to Enhance Efficiency and Product Quality
10
3. Measurement of O2 Concentration in Exhaust Gases from Pulverized Coal-fired Boilers
Oxygen Analyzers
Introduction
An accurate measurement of the carbon monoxide (CO) concentration
in the boiler flue gas can be used to achieve the goals of combustion
efficiency, pollutant emissions reduction, and safe operation. By
measuring the concentration of CO, power plants are able fine tune the
air to fuel ratio used on the burners to obtain the highest combustion
efficiency. Measuring the CO concentration allows the power plants Using CO to trim excess O2
to reduce the amount combustion air used while ensuring complete
combustion, reducing the production of the pollutant NOx. The The amount of excess air in the flue gas is determined by measuring the
concentration of CO in the flue gas is also the most sensitive indicator concentration of oxygen (O2). The ideal excess O2 level (the lowest
of unburned combustibles in the process and can indicate the possible that allows complete combustion) depends on several factors:
emergence of an unsafe situation. the fuel type, the burner type, humidity changes in the air, moisture 11
content changes in the fuel, varying boiler loads, fouling of the burner
Efficiency, Emissions, Safety system, and mechanical wear of combustion equipment. Since many
of these factors are continuously changing, the ideal amount of excess
Given complete mixing, a precise or stoichiometric amount of air is oxygen continuously changes as well. Measuring carbon monoxide
required to completely react with a given quantity of fuel to produce (CO) can help to determine the excess oxygen setpoint.
complete combustion. In real world applications, conditions are never
ideal so additional or excess air must be supplied to completely burn CO is the most sensitive indicator of incomplete combustion. As
the fuel. the amount of excess O2 is reduced, the emergence of CO will occur
before other combustibles appear (unburnt fuel). When the concentration
Too little excess air will result in a fuel rich situation producing a flue of CO reaches the desired setpoint (typically around 400 ppm), the
gas containing unburned combustibles (carbon monoxide, soot, smoke, excess O2 concentration is at the desired level and becomes the
coal). This situation results in a loss of efficiency because not all of new excess O2 setpoint. As the concentration of CO increases or
the potential energy of the coal is captured in the combustion process decreases, the excess O2 setpoint can be trimmed accordingly. CO
resulting in fuel wastes. Combustion processes that run fuel rich are trim control of excess O2 concentration assures minimal energy loss,
running dirty meaning an increase in pollutant emissions. Also, this is maximum efficiency, and reduced NOx emissions independent of boiler
not a safe situation as the unburnt fuel could possibly come into contact load, fuel type, humidity, moisture content of fuel and other variables
with an ignition source further down the process resulting in an that make excess O2 control difficult. The key to obtaining these
uncontrolled explosion. benefits is an accurate and reliable measurement of CO in low ppm
levels.
Too much excess air results in an air rich situation, resulting in
complete combustion and safety, but also produces undesirable
effects. Efficiency is lost in an air rich process because the increased
flue gas flow results in heat loss. More fuel is required to generate the
same amount of heat, so fuel is wasted in this low boiler fuel-to-steam
efficiency situation. Since air is comprised of over 78% nitrogen,
increasing the air used for combustion significantly increases the
concentration of nitrogen. Nitrogen exposed to temperatures above
1600C (2912F) may result in the formation of thermal NOx (NO,
NO2). These substances are major contributors to the formation of
acid rain and their release into the atmosphere is heavily regulated by
environmental agencies.
Summary
Infrared Analyzer
Coal fired power plants can achieve the highest efficiency, lowest emis-
These measuring technologies are prone to the following problems: sion levels, and ensure safety by using CO concentration measurements
to fine tune their excess O2 setpoint. These benefits are achievable
The catalytic sensors require sample extraction (not insitu) installations. only if the CO measurement is accurate and reliable. Using TDLS, the
These sample extraction systems are prone to plugging and fouling TruePeak Analyzer from Yokogawa can provide that accurate, reliable
with fly ash in coal fired applications. They require frequent preventative CO measurement in coal fired power plants.
maintenance and the filters they require cause slow response times.
The catalytic sensors are discreet or point measurements. They do
Product Recommendations
not provide a path or average measurement across the firebox. They
are subject to stratification errors, may not detect isolated areas of
The TruePeak Analyzer -
CO breakthrough, and require multiple points of installation to
Model TDLS200
provide adequate coverage.
Boiler Life-Cycle Considerations Where and what should be monitored?
For the Pure Water applications, the primary measurement we encounter
Whether a boiler should be repaired or replaced is largely dependent on is conductivity but we have offered pH/ORP, and Dissolved Oxygen
age and condition. Proper monitoring of water quality (pH, Cond, DO), configurations as well for over 15 years with great success.
chemical addition control (ORP), and real time corrosion control (ECP).
Regular maintenance is important to prolonging the life of a boiler.
However continuous of monitoring of water quality allows for predictive
maintenance and prevention of shutdown.
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To defray energy costs, many industrial plants have their own boilers to The most common methodologies used for boiler blowdown control
generate steam to produce a portion of their energy needs. In addition, include: (1) continuous, (2) manual and (3) automatic.
the steam may also be used directly in plant processes or indirectly via
heat exchangers or steam jacketed vessels. Continuous blowdown utilizes a calibrated valve and a blowdown tap
near the boiler water surface. As the name implies, it continuously takes
The Problem for this application is that the raw water used to feed the water from the top of the boiler at a predetermined rate to reduce the
boilers, contains varying levels of impurities that must be removed to level of dissolved solids. The rate is usually set slightly greater than
protect the boiler and associated equipment. necessary to be on the safe side.
Pretreatment processes such as reverse osmosis, ion exchange, filtra- Manual blowdown is accomplished at most plants by taking boiler water
tion, softening and demineralization may be used to reduce the level of samples once a shift and adjusting the blowdown accordingly. This grab
impurities, but even the best pretreatment processes will not remove sample approach means that operators cannot immediately respond
them all and there will be a continuous carryover of some dissolved to changes in feedwater conditions or variations in steam demand and
mineral impurities into the boiler. scaling conditions can occur and go undetected until the next sample
check.
Boiler feed water usually contains one limiting component such as
chloride, sulfate, carbonate, or silica. Even if the component is not Automatic blowdown control is achieved by constantly monitoring the
conductive, for example silica, its concentration is usually proportional conductivity value of the boiler water and adjusting the blowdown rate
to a component that can be measured by conductivity; therefore, and duration based on a specific conductivity set point. This provides
conductivity is a Tech Note: TNA1409 Date: August 20, 2014 viable control of the water chemistry regardless of the boiler load conditions.
measurement for monitoring the overall total dissolved solids present in Actual operation data verifies that automatic control can maintain boiler
the boiler. A rise in conductivity indicates a rise in the contamination of water conductivity consistently within 5% of the set point. Manual
the boiler water. So, measuring conductivity of the feed water is important blowdown control cannot maintain this level of control more than 20%
to this application. of the time. Again, measuring conductivity is essential for controlling
this application.
Want more detailed information?
Application Notes
Technical Information
15
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