SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITETURE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
BAGUIO CITY

Written Report on
BIOMATERIALS

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for

ECE 415: Material Science and Engineering
1st Semester A.Y. 2017 2018

Submitted to:

ENGR. IREENE VALENCIA

Submitted by:

AVILA, ALBON ANGELO

CABINTOS, YVANNE JOSHUA
MANALO, MARK JESSELE
SHRESTHA, DEEVANN
VELASCO, JOHN BIEN
GARCIA, REGINE JOY
TAMAYO, JAINA NIA
TAN, TRISHA ANNE MARIE

14 August 2017
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
INTRODUCTION 3
I. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE 3
A. METALLIC BIOMATERIALS 3
B. CERAMIC BIOMATERIALS 4
C. POLYMERIC BIOMATERIALS 5
D. COMPOSITE BIOMATERIALS 6
II. PROPERTIES 7
A. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 7
B. CHEMICAL PROPERTY 7
C. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 8
III. APPLICATIONS OF BIOMATERIALS 9
BIOSENSORS 9
MEDICAL IMPLANTS 9
CONTACT LENSES 10
ARTIFICIAL CARDIAC PACEMAKERS 10
DENTAL IMPLANTS 10
REFERENCES 11

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INTRODUCTION:

Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for
replacement of diseased or damaged body parts. These materials must not produce
toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause
adverse biological reactions). All of the above materialsmetals, ceramics, polymers,
composites, and semiconductorsmay be used as biomaterials. They are often used
and/or adapted for a medical application, and thus comprises whole or part of a living
structure or biomedical device which performs, augments, or replaces a natural
function. Such functions may be relatively passive, like being used for a heart valve, or
may be bioactive with a more interactive functionality such as hydroxy-
apatite coated hip implants. Biomaterials are also used every day in dental applications,
surgery, and drug delivery. For example, a construct with impregnated pharmaceutical
products can be placed into the body, which permits the prolonged release of a drug
over an extended period of time. A biomaterial may also be
an autograft, allograft or xenograft used as a transplant material.

As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is

called biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering. It has experienced steady and
strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money
into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements
of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.

Note that a biomaterial is different from a biological material, such as bone, that is
produced by a biological system. Additionally, care should be exercised in defining a
biomaterial as biocompatible, since it is application-specific. A biomaterial that is
biocompatible or suitable for one application may not be biocompatible in another.

I. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE:

A. METALLIC BIOMATERIALS
Metals are used as biomaterials due to their excellent electrical, thermal and
mechanical properties. Metals have some independent electrons which can
transfer an electric charge and thermal energy fastly. These mobile free electrons
act as the bonding force to hold the positive metal ions together. This strong
attraction has proved by the closely packed atomic arrangement resulting in high
specific gravity and high melting points of most metals. Since the metallic bond is
not essentially directional, the position of the metal ions can be altered without
destroying the crystal structure resulting in a plastically deformable solid.
Metallic biomaterials such as stainless steel, cobalt-based alloys, titanium and its
alloys etc. form either face-centered cubic, hexagonal close-packed or body-
centered cubic unit cells at body temperature with ideal crystal lattice structures
as shown in the table. The most of metal crystals, in contrast to these ideal atom
arrangements, contains lattice defects such as vacancies, dislocations, grain
boundaries etc. The presence of point, line and planary defects in metal internal
structure has a strong effect on mechanical, physical and chemical properties.

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 Nowadays, some metal implants have been replaced by ceramics and polymers
due to their excellent biocompatibility and biofunctionality. However, the
properties of high strength, toughness and durability are required for the metals.
On the other side, clinical application of the promising research in using bioactive
polymers and ceramics in regenerative medicine is still far away from practice.
The future trend seems to combine the mechanically superior metals and the
excellent biocompatibility and biofunctionality of ceramics and polymers to obtain
the most desirable clinical performance of the implants.

B. CERAMIC BIOMATERIALS
Ceramics are represented structurally ionic compounds such as sodium chloride.
Atoms in sodium chloride are ionized by electron transfer making an ionic

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 compound as a result of coulombic attractions. Negatively charged ions have
increased atomic radii because they gain an electron and positively charged
atoms have smaller radii because they lose an electron. The electronic attraction
of the counter ions in the crystal structure gives rise to its stability. The simple
and face-centered cubic structures of sodium and cesium chloride ions can be
given as an example (Figure 1), respectively.
Structure-property relations of ceramic materials are composed of metallic and
nonmetallic elements held together by ionic and/or covalent bonds. The
interatomic bonds in ceramics result in long-distance and three-dimensional
crystalline structures but glass materials do not exhibit long-distance order. The
electrons in ionic and covalent bonds are circumscribed between the constituent
ions/atoms of the metallic bonds; therefore ceramics show the nonconductive
property. The strong ionic and covalent bonds make ceramics hard and brittle,
because the planes of atoms/ions cannot move one through another. For this
reason, ceramics and glasses are sensitive to the presence of cracks or other
defects during plastic deformation. The ionic and/or covalent nature of ceramics
also influences their chemical behavior.

Figure 1: Unit cells and crystal structures of (a) sodium chloride (NaCl) and (b) cesium chloride (CsCl) crystals

C. POLYMERIC BIOMATERIALS
Polymers are large organic macromolecules consist of repeating units called
mers which are covalently bonded chains of atoms. These macromolecules
interact with one another by weak secondary bonds such as hydrogen and van
der Waals bonds to form entanglement structure. Polymers exhibit weak thermal
and electric properties because of the covalent interatomic bonding within the
molecules. The mechanical and thermal behavior of polymers is influenced by
several factors, including the composition of the backbone, chemical side groups,
chain structures and different molecular weight. Plastic deformation that occurs
when applied the mechanical forces cause the movement of macromolecule
chains to one another. Changes in polymer composition or structure increase
resistance to relative chain movement, so this resistance increases the strength
and decreases the plasticity of the material (Figure 2). Substitutions into the
backbone that increase its rigidity limit the chain movement. Large side groups
also make disentanglement more difficult. Growing macromolecule chain also
makes it less mobile and hinders its relative movement

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 Figure 2: Structure of (a) ethylene, (b) polyethylene, (c) styrene and (d) polystyrene.

.
The main advantages of the polymeric biomaterials compared to metal or
ceramic materials are ease of manufacturability to produce various shapes such
as membranes, films, fibres, gels, sheets, hydrogels, capsules, spheres, particles
and 3D-structures (scaffolds) and ease of secondary processability, reasonable
cost and availability with desired mechanical and physical properties. The
required properties of polymeric biomaterials are biocompatibility, sterilizability,
convenient mechanical and physical properties, and manufacturability. The main
types of polymers for biomedical applications derived from natural or synthetic
organic sources.
The main disadvantage of synthetic polymers is the general lack of
biocompatibility in the majority of cases, often associated with inflammatory
reactions. For this reason, the recent researches have focused on the usage
possibilities of natural origin polymers such as chitosan, carrageenan, alginate
etc.

D. COMPOSITE BIOMATERIALS
The composite material usually includes reserved distinct phases that are
separated on a scale larger than the atomic size. A synthetic composite material
also consisted of continuous polymeric matrix phase and a ceramic
reinforcement phase like natural biological materials such as bone, dentin,
cartilage, skin. The properties of this phase such as the elastic modulus are
significantly altered when compared with a homogeneous structured material.
Reinforced polymer matrices are fiberglass or natural materials such as bone.
Bone, wood, dentin, cartilage and skin tend to be natural biological composite
materials, beside these; natural foams include lung, cancellous bone, wood,
sponge etc. Natural composites have hierarchical structures particulate, porous
and fibrous structural features which are seen on different micro-scales.
The structural properties are main feature of composite materials. Composites
are different from homogeneous materials because of considerable control can
be exerted over the larger scale structure, and hence over the desired properties.
The properties of a composite material depend on the shape of the
reinforcements, the volume fraction of them and interaction level of the interfaces
of constituents. The categories of basic dispersed phase shape in a composite
material are (1) particle; (2) fiber; and (3) platelet or lamina as shown in Figure 3.
The dispersed phases may vary in size and shape within all category. For
example, particulate dispersed phases may be spherical, ellipsoidal, polyhedral
or irregular. If any phase consists of voids filled with air or liquid, the material is
known as a cellular solid. If the cells have polygonal shapes, the material is a

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 honeycomb form; if the cells have polyhedral shape, material has a foam form.
These particulate shapes are necessary to construct the biomaterial to
distinguish the above structural cells from biological cells which occur only in
living organisms. Moreover, produced composite structure has to include random
orientation and preferred orientation.

Figure 3: Morphology of basic composite inclusions: (a) particle, (b) fiber, (c) platelet.

II. PROPERTIES

A. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The physical properties of the biomaterial are fundamental for the response of
cell adhesion. When cells adhere to the biomaterial surface physical chemical
reactions between cell and biomaterial occur, such reactions being inuenced by
factors such as cell behavior, biomaterial surface properties, and environmental
factors. The biomaterial surface properties include wettability, ller, roughness,
softness, and chemical composition.
Wettability (hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity) is one of the parameters
affecting the biological response of the biomaterial and describes the
balance between the solid surface intermolecular interactions with a liquid.
Among the affected properties are protein adsorption, platelet
adhesion/activation, blood coagulation, and cellular and bacterial
adhesion. Hydrophobic surfaces are, generally, considered as more
protein-adsorbent than hydrophilic surfaces due to the hydrophobic
interactions occurring at the surface in contrast with the solvation forces
which are water repellent relative to the water linked to the hydrophilic
surface.
The roughness of the biomaterial also plays an important role in the
adhesion and cellular behavior and exerts direct inuence both in vitro and
in vivo. Smooth surface and rough surface have different contact areas
with molecules and cells and this difference in contact inuences the kind
of biological units links and therefore, conformation and function. In most
of the cases cells prefer rough surface to smooth ones, due to the fact that
rough surfaces favor proliferation.

B. CHEMICAL PROPERTY
The physical properties, composition, and chemical properties also inuence the
kind of cell bond and determine the biomaterial chemical stability and reactivity.
The corporeal ambience is harsh and may cause corrosion of biomaterials. On

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 account of this fact, the biomaterials chemical stability becomes a relevant factor
as regards biocompatibility.
Corrosion products may cause adverse reactions to the implant
neighborhood. Body uids are in balance with specic ions under normal
physiological conditions. When a biomaterial is implanted the
concentration of these ions increases signicantly around it and may
cause swelling and pain, besides the fact that the corrosion wastes may
migrate to other parts of the body and cause undesirable reactions, both
for the tissues and the implant. Corrosion of biomaterials alters not only
chemical stability, but also affects the mechanical integrity, with possible
premature failure of the material. As with corrosion, the corporeal
ambience may cause and/or accelerate the biomaterial degradation.
Degradation can also be inuenced by sterilization processes to which
materials are submitted. When the biomaterial is degraded, modications
occur at the material structure and, consequently, modications in its
properties.

C. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Advances in engineering and medicine require the development of ever more
specialized properties for biomaterials. For a biomaterial utilized for a specic
10 2 Biomaterials: Characteristics and Properties
mechanical application, some of the requirements studied are Youngs modulus,
ductility, tensile strength, yield strength, compression strength and fatigue, and
wear debris. These properties are evaluated on account of the fact that the
human body has different properties for each tissue. For example, elasticity
varies from very soft as is the case of brain tissues (*0.11 kPa) up to extremely
hard or stiff (30 kPa and above), which is the case for the completely mineralized
bone.
Biomaterials having Youngs modulus close to that of the bone are
recommended since they assure uniform tensile distribution and avoid
stress shielding after implant placement.
High values for yield and compression strength properties avoid
fractures and improve functional stability.
Ductility is important for modeling the biomaterial formation and for dental
biomaterials. The ductility minimum value is 8%.
Hardness and tenacity also evaluate the biomaterial response. The
increase in hardness reduces the wear incidence. And increase in tenacity
renders fracture more difcult.

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III. APPLICATIONS OF BIOMATERIALS:

BIOSENSORS (POLYMERIC BIOMATERIAL)

Biosensors can be classified as structures or devices
that specifically monitor the presence or
concentration of a desired biological component.
Examples of such biosensors include devices that
detect the concentration of glucose in the blood and
microfabricated arrays of nano-detectors capable of
rapidly analyzing complex solutions for the presence
of many analytes such as toxins and drug
metabolites. An essential component of a molecular
sensor is the reagent layer(s). Creation of these
layers requires the immobilization of recognition Figure 4: Implanted biosensor that tracks vital
signs
elements for the detection method. In the case of
biosensors, these recognition elements are typically biomolecules such as enzymes,
antibodies, and whole cells. These reagent layers are usually constructed from various
polymers which can be easily deposited, and whose properties can be tailored
according to hydrophilicity, hydrophobicity and mechanical requirements, while still
allowing the covalent attachment of biorecognition ligands or the incorporation of whole
cells.

MEDICAL IMPLANTS (METALLIC BIOMATERIAL)

As advances have been made in the medical
sciences, the average life expectancy has
increased. More organs, joints, and other critical
body parts will wear out and must be replaced if
people are to maintain a good quality of life.
Biomaterials now play a major role in replacing or
improving the function of every major body
system. Some common implants include
orthopedic devices such as total knee and hip
joint replacements, spinal implants, and bone
Figure 5: Researchers create radiopaque
fixators; cardiac implants such as artificial heart polyethylene for the visualisation of medical
valves and pacemakers; soft tissue implants implants
such as breast implants and injectable collagen
for soft tissue augmentation; and dental implants to replace teeth/root systems and
bony tissue in the oral cavity. The number of implants in use in this country (e.g.,
811,000 artificial hips in 1988 and 170,000 artificial heart valves in 1994) indicates their
importance to health care and the economic impact of the biomaterials industry. Design,
material selection, and biocompatibility remain the three critical issues for todays
biomedical implants and devices. Furthermore, new research into the synthesis and
modification of degradable polymers has been crucial for the area of tissue
engineering, in which tissue cells and biodegradable materials can be combined to
create natural, living tissue replacements.

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CONTACT LENSES (POLYMERIC BIOMATERIALS)
A contact lens, or simply contact, is a thin lens placed
directly on the surface of the eye. Contact lenses are
considered medical devices and can be worn to correct
vision, or for cosmetic or therapeutic reasons.
Figure 6: A pair of contact lenses,
positioned with the concave side facing
upward

ARTIFICIAL CARDIAC PACEMAKERS (METALLIC AND POLYMERIC

BIOMATERIALS)
A pacemaker (or artificial pacemaker, so as not to be
confused with the heart's natural pacemaker) is a
medical device which uses electrical impulses,
delivered by electrodes contracting the heart muscles,
to regulate the beating of the heart.
The primary purpose of a pacemaker is to maintain an
adequate heart rate, either because the heart's natural
pacemaker is not fast enough, or because there is a
block in the heart's electrical conduction system.
Modern pacemakers are externally programmable and Figure 7: Pacemaker
allow a cardiologist to select the optimum pacing modes
for individual patients. Some combine a pacemaker and defibrillator in a single
implantable device. Others have multiple electrodes stimulating differing positions within
the heart to improve synchronisation of the lower chambers (ventricles) of the heart.

DENTAL IMPLANT (ALL CLASSIFICATIONS OF BIOMATERIALS)

A dental implant (also known as an endosseous implant or fixture)
is a surgical component that interfaces with the bone of the jaw or
skull to support a dental prosthesis such as a crown, bridge,
denture, facial prosthesis or to act as an orthodontic anchor. The
basis for modern dental implants is a biologic process called
osseointegration, in which materials such as titanium form an
intimate bond to bone. The implant fixture is first placed so that it
is likely to osseointegrate, then a dental prosthetic is added. A
variable amount of healing time is required for osseointegration
before either the dental prosthetic (a tooth, bridge or denture) is
attached to the implant or an abutment is placed which will hold a
dental prosthetic.
Figure 8: Dental implant

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References:
Biomaterials. http://www.ele.uri.edu/courses/bme462/handouts/TissueBiomaterials_Ch1
.pdf. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
Dos Santos, V.; Brandalise. R.N.; Savaris, M. (2017). Chapter 2: Biomaterials
Characteristics and Properties. Engineering of Biomaterials. Springer. pp. 8-11.
Retrieved 12 August 2017.
NM Farandos; AK Yetisen; MJ Monteiro; CR Lowe; SH Yun (2014). "Contact Lens
Sensors in Ocular Diagnostics". Advanced Healthcare Materials. Retrieved 12
August 2017.
Schmalz, G.; Arenholdt-Bindslev, D. (2008). "Chapter 1: Basic Aspects. Biocompatibility
of Dental Materials. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 1-12. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
Texas Materials Institute. (2017). Biomaterials. http://tmi.utexas.edu/biomaterials/.
Retrieved 12 August 2017.
Yoruc A. B. H. & Sener B. C. Chapter 3: Biomaterials. Turkey: INTECH.
https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs-wm/37344.pdf. Retrieved 13 August 2017.

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