4H Science

Journal of Youth Development
Bridging Research & Practice

Volume 7, No.4,
Winter 2012
Sponsored by: National Association of Extension 4-H Agents (NAE4HA)
ISSN 2325-4009 (Print)

ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
Winter 2012
Volume 7 Number 4
Editors Comments:
The Winter issue provides readers with an overview of several recent your development research projects,
innovative program findings and suggestions for evaluation strategies. We begin with the work of Pamela
Nippolt Larson, highlighting her study of a five-state pilot project to train adult STEM facilitators. Jang and
Dworkin share their investigation of parent satisfaction with out-of-school time programs. The topic of
Youth Voice is addressed by Bading, Boyd, Lawver, Ulmer and Boleman. Professionals working with
adolescent dietary behaviors will find two helpful articles that address this critical topic. Teen program
designs, capacity building and global education guidelines are also included in the Winter issue.
Manuscripts for the Fall and Winter 2013 issues are now being accepted in the following areas:
Feature Articles ~ informational, explanatory, or critical analysis and interpretation of major trends
in the field or comprehensive reviews. Include clear implications for youth development research,
practice and programming. 2,000-5,000 words
Program Articles ~ discuss programs and outcomes or describe promising programs and pilot
projects that have clear implications for youth development research, practice and programming.
1,500-4,000 words
Research and Evaluation Strategies ~ describe innovative methodologies and strategies in the
collection and analysis of quantitative or qualitative research and evaluation data.
1,500-4,500 words
Resource Reviews ~ present analyses of materials, such as books, curricula or videos.
300-800 words
Publication Committee
Patricia Dawson, Editor Committee Members: Kate Walker
Oregon State University Dale Blyth University of Minnesota
University of Minnesota
Publications Committee Rich Lerner
Chair: Lynne Borden Tufts University
University of Arizona
Suzanne LeMenestrel Christine McCauley
National 4-H Headquarters Hanh Coo Yu Ohannessian
Social Policy Research Associates University of Delaware
NAE4-HA Representatives:
Theresa Ferrari Michael Conn Alexandra Loukas
The Ohio State University Girl Scouts of the USA The University of Texas at Austin
Elijah Wilson Michelle Alberti Gambone Christina Theokas

University of Kentucky Youth Development Strategies, Inc. The Education Trust
Volume 7, Number 4
Winter 2012
Contents
Feature Articles
4-H Science: Evaluating Across Sites to Critically Examine Training of Adult
Facilitators
[Article 120704FA001] .Page 4
Larson Nippolt, Pamela
As 4-H Youth Development focuses on developing and delivering high quality STEM learning
experiences, the issues related to the preparation of the adults who facilitate learning with
youth are important to address. This paper outlines a five-state pilot project funded by the 3M
Foundation to test a model for training adult facilitators. The findings from this study raise
questions about how non-formal educational programs involve and mobilize adult facilitators to
work with youth in STEM-related learning when the emphasis is not only on engaging young
people, but also on deepening their thinking and learning about engineering phenomena, in this
case wind energy. Evidence from the process evaluation illustrates the extent to which three
train-the-trainer applications incorporated the original educational design, surfacing questions
about how to design high quality, yet practical, training applications within 4-H.
Mothers Satisfaction with Youth Out-of-School-Time Programs

[Article 120704FA002] Page 25
Jang, Juyoung; Dworkin, Jodi
The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors related to mothers satisfaction with
youth out-of-school-time (OST) programs. The relationship to demographic characteristics and
the effects of mothers perception of youth OST program opportunities on mothers satisfaction
with OST programs are discussed in this paper. Ordered logistic regression revealed the positive
effects of partners working hours, mothers education, and mothers perception on mother
satisfaction. Generalized ordered logit models further revealed that the effects of the variables
and the effects of child sex, income, and race differed by the level of mother satisfaction.
These findings have important implications for youth workers and policy makers.
Youth Voice: Developing Future Leaders [Article 120704FA003]..Page 37

Bading, Charla; Boyd, Barry L.; Lawver, David; Ulmer, Jon; Boleman, Chris
The purpose of this study was to examine youths perceptions regarding their involvement on
youth advisory boards in Cooperative Extension. A stratified, random sample of counties with
active youth advisory boards was selected to ensure representation from all Extension districts
in the state. A copy of the Involvement and Interaction Rating Scale was mailed to all
participants. The findings indicate that youth feel good about their level of participation on
their youth advisory board and that adult members of the board allow them to have an active
voice in the activities of the board.
1
Positive Youth Development: A Resiliency-Based Afterschool Program Case Study
[Article 120704FA004] ..Page 50
Brown, Lindsey; Hill, Eddie; Shellman, Amy; Gmez, Edwin
This study examined the impact of an afterschool program on resilience in youth at an
elementary school in Central NY. The goals of the program were to: (a) increase resiliency
among participants, and (b) reduce the occurrence of aggressive behaviors (i.e., bullying) in 5th
and 6th graders. Of the 79 students who completed the survey, 19 participants were able to be
matched with pre- and posttests. In the study, 13 as participants in the afterschool program,
and six as non-participants. Results of paired samples t-tests indicated that those who
participated in the afterschool program showed a significant increase (p= 0.05) in resiliency
scores. The program also had a positive impact on decreasing discipline-related referrals.
Parental Attachment and Eating Behaviors in Late Adolescent Females

[Article 120704FA005] .Page 63
Rush, Amber-Leigh; March, Alice L.
Females demonstrating unhealthy eating behaviors in early adolescence may continue to exhibit
them in later years, yet there is little empirical research including late adolescents. Attachment
theories suggest that adolescents with eating disorders demonstrate insecure attachments to
parents. This non-experimental descriptive study in 249 late adolescent females examined the
relationship between eating behaviors and parental attachment, and explored the relationship
between selected demographic variables and parental attachment. Participants responded to
an electronically collected survey of demographic variables, self-reported eating behaviors, and
completed the Parent Attachment Questionnaire. Participants reporting healthy eating
behaviors had higher scores on two of the three maternal scales, indicating a greater level of
attachment. Significantly higher scores were found for two maternal and two paternal
attachment scales for selected sociodemographic variables. Quantifying parental attachment in
late adolescent females enhances understanding of eating disorders in this population and may
help to identify issues important to address in therapy.
Building the Capacity of 4-H/Youth Development in Iraq [Article 120704FA006]Page 74

Ingram, Patreese D.; Bender, Georgene; Kreifels, Matt; Balschweid, Mark
A team of 4-H/Extension educators were invited to Erbil, Iraq to conduct a week-long
intensive training to assist Iraqi youth workers in preparing effective programming as they
build their 4-H program. The workshop incorporated the 4-H Essential Elements for Program
Success and a Curriculum and Lesson Development Training module. Three-quarters of
participants said they were leaving the training with a set of curriculum developed by
themselves or others during the workshop. Most (88%) indicated they had tentative plans for
implementing the lessons they developed during the training. This project created a solid
foundation upon which Iraqi youth workers can build.
Program Articles
A Goal Setting Intervention Positively Impacts Adolescents Dietary Behaviors and
Physical Activity Self-Efficacy [Article 120704PA001].Page 92
Shilts, Mical Kay; Townsend, Marilyn S.
The efficacy of a youth development intervention on improving eating and physical activity(PA)
self-efficacy, goal attainment scaling, goal effort, and behaviors was examined in a repeated
measures, quasi-experimental field trial. Ethnically diverse students (n=64) from a low-income
middle school participated in the 10-session intervention driven by the Social Cognitive Theory
with a Goal Setting Theory emphasis. Participants, 13-14 years old, made significant changes
2
in dietary behaviors (P=0.03) and PA self-efficacy (P=0.02) after receiving the intervention.
Self-efficacy did not mediate dietary behavior change but did mediate the small changes made
in PA. Goal effort was not a mediator of behavior change. After the intervention, more
participants rated themselves as making one lasting improvement in eating (P<0.001) and PA
(P<0.05) choices and/or were planning on making more. This study adds to a small body of
research with youth supporting use of goal setting interventions for diet and PA change in low-
income communities.
Teen Ambassador Leadership Kit (TALK) [Article 120704PA002] ..Page 109

Gillespie, Donna R.
Teen Ambassador Leadership Kit, (TALK), is an annual weekend retreat designed for teens
interested in promoting and marketing 4-H in their communities. TALK organizers felt teens
would benefit from an intensive weekend retreat focused on communication. TALK produces a
network of educated and excited 4-H teens that are available to help with 4-H promotion and
marketing. Participants arrive on Friday evening for team building activities, on Saturday they
participate in one of the workshops offered and on Sunday morning each workshop group has
the opportunity to share their completed projects and what they learned. At the conclusion of
the retreat, teens are designated "County 4-H Ambassadors" and certificates of completion,
professional business cards and polo shirts are presented. The TALK teen participants return
home to share what they learned with their local county 4-H staff and help promote and market
4-H in their communities.
Explore the World with a Global Education Curriculum [Article 120704PA003]..Page 116
Tritz, Julie; Cowger, Tina; Bennett, MaryBeth; Fleisher, Richard; Hovatter, Doug; McCormack,
Christina; Scott, Denis; Wilcox, Veronica
Recognizing and celebrating the diversity that exists in our communities has become a central
goal of land-grant institutions and cooperative extension programs. This is coupled with the
expectation that youth be equipped for a global workforce where they appreciate different
world cultures, be able to evaluate global issues and challenges and understand the inter-
connectedness of global systems. Given these points, a Global Education Curriculum developed
by the WVU Extension Global Education & Engagement Team is presented as a tool to instill a
deeper understanding of and appreciation for cultures, people and global issues by youth and
the adults who support them.
Resource Review
Defining Effective Programs: How to Navigate Through the Diverse Definitions
[Article 120704RR001] Page 123
Brandt, Brian
There are many organizations that use shared terms to describe effective programs but dont
agree on the definition of these terms. Terms such as evidence based, research-based, proven
practices, and promising practices have multiple definitions amongst practitioners. Exploring the
different definitions of these shared terms, by yourself or with your peers, is one way to
discover how programs are defined by others. This article and links will lead you through a
process to understand the variety of youth development definitions used by practitioners and
challenge you to create common definitions that will lead to better discussions with others
regarding the effectiveness of programs.
3
4-H Science: Evaluating Across Sites to Critically
Examine Training of Adult Facilitators
Pamela Larson Nippolt

Center for Youth Development
University of Minnesota Extension
Minneapolis, MN
nippolt@umn.edu
4
Volume 7, Number 4, Winter 2012 Article 120704FA001
4-H Science: Evaluating Across Sites to Critically

Examine Training of Adult Facilitators
Pamela Larson Nippolt

Abstract: As 4-H Youth Development focuses on developing and

delivering high quality STEM learning experiences, the issues related
to the preparation of the adults who facilitate learning with youth
are important to address. This paper outlines a five-state pilot
project funded by the 3M Foundation to test a model for training
adult facilitators. The findings from this study raise questions about
how non-formal educational programs involve and mobilize adult
facilitators to work with youth in STEM-related learning when the
emphasis is not only on engaging young people, but also on
deepening their thinking and learning about engineering
phenomena, in this case wind energy. Evidence from the process
evaluation illustrates the extent to which three train-the-trainer
applications incorporated the original educational design, surfacing
questions about how to design high quality, yet practical, training
applications within 4-H.
Introduction
As evidence mounts about the potential power of out-of-school educational experiences to
increase young peoples engagement and competence with science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics (STEM) content (Bell, 2009), it is becoming critical to understand effective
training approaches for preparing the adults who work with youth in these settings. This paper
examines the application of a train-the-trainer approach for preparing volunteer adult
facilitators to work with youth in 4-H program settings with design challenges to understand
wind energy. The project is used as an example of a larger issue facing youth development as
a field, and to make the case for the importance of critically examining how adults are prepared
to work with youth in the STEM or 4-H Science arena.
The call to involve one million new young people in 4-H science programs is driven, in part, by
trends seen in both the engineering and life science fields related to declining workforces, and
5
the need to replace and increase the current workforce with younger workers. Nationally, the
U.S. is investing to build the skills and interests of young people for those fields with an array of
strategies, some of which are delivered beyond the traditional classroom in order to reach youth
audiences who are not drawn to engineering or science in school. In addition, non-formal
education reaches young people who have a high interest in a field and who seek a variety of
learning experiences in a particular domain, both in school and outside of school.
Non-formal education is defined as any organized educational activity outside the established
formal system - whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader
activity - that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives
(Coombs, Prosser, & Ahmed, 1973). The key term in this definition is intended, which
distinguishes non-formal from informal education, (defined as everyday learning that happens
across experiences), by the intentionality of its learning objectives. However, there are neither
widely accepted nor clear distinctions between the characteristics of formal, non-formal, and
informal education. Most noteworthy is the notion that non-formal education inhabits the
middle of a conceptual continuum with a matriculating, standardized system of formal
education on one end, and the lifelong learning from everyday experience that characterizes
informal education at the other end.
This study tested the use of inquiry-based learning methods in 4-H clubs and programming
based on the curriculum Power of the wind (Sebestik, 2008) a national 4-H curriculum released
in 2008 and designed for youth ages 1113 years. The curriculum is designed for application in
a variety or blend of formal, non-formal, or informal settings. Learning objectives for the
curriculum include increasing knowledge about wind energy concepts and increasing
understanding of the engineering principles related to wind energy power (Sebestik, 2008).
Minnesota 4-H Youth Development extension educators trained adult lead trainers in learning
methods based on inquiry-based process skills related to questioning and investigating. Lead
trainers applied the training to their respective states programmatic needs and, in turn, trained
adult facilitators in their states to work with youth.
The replication of training models through train-the-trainer approaches can be a challenging

goal when applied in community-based youth programs that tend to be highly heterogeneous.
The train-the-trainer approach, however, has a magnifier effect through training more adult
facilitators who are prepared to involve more youth in the project. For these reasons, the
model was designed to be applied within each state by the lead trainers with adjustments to fit
the training and program to the organization and its sites. The training of adult facilitators was
a common thread across the sites, as was the use of the written curriculum. This evaluation
study examined the extent to which the trainings provided by lead trainers incorporated the
inquiry-based learning methods by comparing three variations of trainings based on similar
content and methods.
Study Questions
What similarities and differences occur across sites in the trainings of adult facilitators of non-
formal education engineering programs?
1. How do lead trainers apply the original training model designed for the pilot?
2. How were inquiry and challenge design methods, as defined and integrated into the
lead trainer training, applied by lead trainers in the trainings for adult facilitators?
6
Training Approach
The framework for the study is the pedagogy and structure used to initially train the lead
trainers from each state. The lead trainer training was designed by Katie Clarke at the
University of Minnesota using learning methods adapted from the Exploratorium Institute for
Inquiry and applying them to the material from the Power of the wind Facilitators Guide and
Youth Guide (Sebestik, 2008). The original training was offered over a fifteen hour period and
combined presentation/discussion with extended time dedicated to hands-on experiences in
participant teams. The training built on lessons in the curriculum guides, but adapted them to
demonstrate a range of instructional approaches that deliberately varied the amount of
facilitator and learner control. Segments of the training were also dedicated to reflection on
learning and applying the methods with youth. The use of questioning and investigating skills
were emphasized throughout all aspects of the training.
The training was designed to build adults skills to question and investigate through design
challenges and then to apply these methods in programs to engage youth in the wind energy
content. Specifically, the model for the project and the training emphasized instructional
strategies to:
Encourage reflection about learning,
Foster cooperation and teamwork,
Enable youth to use inquiry-based strategies to form questions, plan and conduct
investigations to reach higher order thinking skills,
Promote the belief that everyone can learn science.
The differences expected for the youth participants were directly connected to the extent that
the adult facilitators are prepared to facilitate reflection, cooperation, teamwork, and inquiry
based learning.
Application of the Training Model

An application model (as opposed to an expectation for direct transfer of training or strict
fidelity of implementation) brings into focus how principles, ideas, or theories interface with
what constitutes the practical in different contexts and involves negotiation between concepts
and context (Ottoson, 1997, p.91). Application of ideas involves filtering, with the anticipation
that ideas will look differently as they come into practical contact. Assessment based on
application must deal with the translation and mutual adaptation of ideas and context over
time. We are no longer looking for mirror images; we are looking for the essence of an idea
(p.92). The essence, or consistent core, in the Power of the wind study was the use of the
curriculum lessons through methods that would increase adult facilitators effective application
of questioning and investigation skills in the context of 4-H programs. The engineering
education field is well-positioned to partner with large youth organizations to incorporate the
questioning and investigation methods. An analysis of the successes and setbacks of new
applications of non-formal engineering learning provides critical information about how these
partnerships can benefit youth.
Through this application lens, the study is not focused on tracking the replication of the original
model. Rather, the study is weighted toward understanding the filtering, translation, and
adaptation of the model by lead trainers. This study examines the presence of the essential
elements of the training designed to prepare adults to generate questions, investigate
7
phenomena related to wind energy, share findings, reflect on what was learned through
conducting design challenges and work in teams.
Overview of Supporting Literature
Non-formal STEM education for youth

Non-formal STEM learning is critical for both, increasing the science literacy of citizens and
increasing the numbers of young people who consider and pursue STEM careers. Landmark
research supports the critical role of engagement in afterschool STEM educational opportunities
as a predictor of interest in STEM fields (as opposed to high grades in formal science courses
but low interest) (Tai, 2006). Furthermore, educators and providers in the field are beginning
to clarify the need for adequate STEM education dosage (Afterschool Alliance, 2011).
The amount of time that learners spend in formal learning settings peaks at 18.5% of total
hours during the year when youth are in grades 112, and the formal learning time decreases
as learners move into undergraduate/ postsecondary settings, graduate school, work settings,
and retirement. The remainder of the learning clock is comprised of non-formal and informal
learning. In popular, political, and academic discourse, learning is all too frequently equated
with schooling. This widespread conflation privileges the consideration of formal academic
outcomes while obscuring the central role of a broad range of everyday capacities and social
outcomes now recognized to be associated with a more holistic view of youth development and
preparation for life. While academic achievement is essential for the success of most
individuals, education efforts writ large including those associated with formal schooling,
after-school programs, community youth programs, and information learning opportunities
need to help youth develop across many dimensions (Banks, et al, 2007, p 18).
If non-formal learning is so important, then what constitutes a quality non-formal learning

experience in STEM? The non-formal education field is striving to achieve a balance in the
design of learning activities that 1) support in-school science learning, 2) highly engage youth,
and 3) are easy to implement (Means, et al, p.8). However, it is not enough to provide a
series of fun activities for young people outside of school and to expect rich, meaningful non-
formal learning. Something is not necessarily better than nothing when it comes to non-
formal learning programs for youth. Young people who participate in no programs have better
outcomes than youth who participate in low quality non-formal learning programs (Belle, 1999).
Inquiry
The scientific method can be practiced by learners through the scientific inquiry process. The
National Science Education Standards (1996) define inquiry this way: Inquiry is a set of
interrelated processes by which scientists and students pose questions about the natural world
and investigate phenomena. Inquiry consists of a set of skills or processes, including but not
limited to questioning, observing, predicting, experimenting, explaining, comparing models,
inferring/concluding, reasoning logically, and communicating ideas to others. The National
Science Education Standards refer to scientific inquiry-based teaching as the use of methods
that promote the activities of students in which they develop knowledge and understandings of
scientific ideas, as well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world. Simply
put, it is a pragmatic pedagogy used to help learners to understand and practice how scientists
process their work (NRC, 2000).
In a review of research and evaluation studies of inquiry-based science instruction in formal,

informal and non-formal settings (Minner, et al., 2010), an approach was defined as inquiry-
8
based if the instruction was about life, earth or physical science, if it engaged students with
scientific phenomena, instructed them in some part of the investigation cycle and used
pedagogical practices that emphasized student responsibility for learning or active thinking
(Minner, 479). Based on the degree to which learners are engaged in independently asking and
answering questions, science education researchers have categorized scientific inquiry
instruction by the extent to which the learner chooses their own questions (Colburn, 2000;
Windschilt, 2002).
Status of Evaluation of Non-formal STEM Programs

The rigorous goals to
1) advance learning for young people in the content areas of STEM,
2) to build overall science literacy, and
3) to prepare young people for careers in STEM imply that programs must excel at both
engaging youth and increasing youth understanding of content and learning processes.
However, the body of research and evaluation related to non-formal STEM programs is weak.
Existing research has bridged across formal and informal/non-formal learning settings, yet it has
mainly occurred within the domain of science education. This time (informal/non-formal
learning) is unaccounted for in science education research due to the difficulty of evaluating
such heterogeneous subjects, learning environments, activities and everyday learning
situations (Gerber, et al, 2001,p.537). In a research synthesis of studies on inquiry-based
science instruction conducted from 19842002, only six studies out of 138 quantitative and
qualitative studies with a range of methodological rigor were conducted in informal education
settings (non-formal settings were not specified in the study) (Minner, et al., 2010).
Evaluations of non-formal STEM-related programs primarily have been conducted at the

individual program level, and have utlilized self-report pre/post-surveys to determine
effectiveness of instruction and the learning experience. There is an urgent need to build a
body of research-based knowledge that identifies the strategies and practices that make non-
formal STEM educational programs both engaging and effective in advancing learning with
youth.
Recently, several large youth development organizations and researchers have begun working
to further the study of non-formal STEM-related programs. Harvard Family Research Projects
review of STEM Out-of-School time programs for girls spotlights six programs; five of which use
non-experimental evaluation designs and one of which used a quasi-experimental design (Chun,
& Harris, 2011). The review concludes that the limited body of existing research on out-of-
school time programs focused on STEM-related education coexists with a lack of consensus on
metrics.
This area of study is at a crossroads as the increasing investment and attention in non-formal
STEM-related programs necessitates more rigorous study of program quality. In a newly NSF-
funded study of publicly funded afterschool programs in California, SRI International staff has
further identified challenges in studying a system of afterschool programs that are typically
organized at the community level and that lack the network and geographical scope of formal
education settings (Means, et al, 2011). These structural differences make representative
sampling in a large study challenging and resource-intensive.
9
Adult Volunteers as Non-formal STEM Facilitators
In addition to the need to build the body of evidence for the effectiveness of non-formal STEM
programs, the scope of understanding about the preparation of the adults who deliver non-
formal programs deserves further scrutiny. The high degree of heterogeneity of adults
competes with the heterogeneity of the youth participants themselves. An added complexity in
many non-formal STEM programs is that programs for youth are often delivered solely, or in
partnership with paid staff, by volunteers. As youth-serving organizations build their capacity to
provide non-formal STEM programs, a deeper understanding of when to engage and how to
prepare adult volunteers to most effectively deliver STEM programs is needed.
Cooperative Extension services in land grant universities, with statewide infrastructures that
reach into communities with publicly-funded program areas ranging from community
development to youth development, engage large numbers of adult volunteers in the delivery of
youth programs. Extension relies on the diffusion of new methods (Ottosmon, 1997) to bridge
new learning from research-based land grant universities to the community and to reach more
youth with these methods. 4-H Youth Development, with a national goal to reach 1 million new
young people through STEM-related programs by 2013, relies heavily on volunteers to facilitate
youth learning. This study of application seeks to identify effective training models for
volunteers with attention to levels of investments in staff expertise and time.
Why is the examination of the training model of adults important now, in the early stages of
piloting an approach within a large youth organization? In studying a developing area of
practice, a balance must be sought to determine how much and when to invest resources to
study program effectiveness. On the one hand, it is important to invest enough resources in
the practical aspects of the program (training, materials, staff time, volunteer time) so that it
can be successful. On the other hand, it is vital that these investments are wisely made and
based on evidence related to the effectiveness of the practice. However, it is not feasible to
launch a rigorous study when the model is not yet formulated nor is it justified to insert
measures for constructs that are not clearly defined. This study strives to achieve a balance by
both, allowing effective practices to emerge and by seeking evidence across the heterogeneity
of the sites.
Implementation
Six land-grant University Extension organizations in the U.S. formed a partnership to pilot a
non-formal learning program based on wind energy using the Power of the wind curriculum
(Sebestik, 2008). The project period, originally intended to span from January 2009December
2009, was expanded to June 2010. An advisory team of wind energy industry professionals,
university faculty, and others formed to guide the project in the early months of the project
period.
Lead trainers from each state participated in a two-day training model which was used to base
trainings on in each state for adult facilitators who worked directly with youth. Since STEM
non-formal learning is new to most 4-H adult facilitators, a blend of existing volunteers and
newly-recruited volunteers were included in the project in order to learn more about how to
best prepare adults to deliver these types of programs.
In youth development programs that are primarily facilitated by adult volunteers, the success of
the learning experiences for youth is largely dependent on the success of the training of adults
10
who bring widely ranging backgrounds to their work with youth. For the purpose of building
youth understanding of the engineering process behind wind energy, inquiry-based learning
methods were a foundation on which adults were engaged in learning how to ask questions and
how to conduct investigations. The original training demonstrated and trained adults to use
methods in which the learner directs questions and investigations. Inquiry-based process skills
helped to meet a design challenge (e.g. design a better pinwheel) with questions followed by
a process of planning, designing, investigating, reporting/communicating learning about
phenomena (in this case, wind energy). The designers emphasized with partners that inquiry-
based learning is not the only, or the best way, to learn about wind energy but was a useful
starting place for using the Power of the wind curriculum with youth in 4-H settings.
The inquiry-based learning method is in contrast to preparing adults to provide wind energy
activities step-by-step from a lesson plan that may give youth experience with materials but
may not contribute to a quality learning experience. Engineering instructional models applied in
formal classroom settings use engineering design challenges to integrate science inquiry, thus
moving a build it and go activity to an opportunity to both, think and act like an engineer and
a scientist. Learning is not just the process of constructing products through hands-on
activities; learning includes the precursor activities of reflecting on what you already know and
generating learning goals for what you need to know (Brophy, Klein, Portsmore, Rogers,
2008, p. 376). While adult facilitators can learn (and be novices) alongside youth, the training
that prepares them for this partnership in learning is an important reference model for how
learning can occur. The project was designed to first give adults this experience in inquiry
learning through the training.
A 15 hour face-to-face training was provided to lead trainers from across the sites. The
objectives, as outlined in the training script, included that participants would:
Learn about their connection to wind energy,
Learn about the set-up and content in the Power of the wind curriculum guide,
Experience different approaches to teaching and learning that vary the amount of
learner control,
Identify appropriate applications for different teaching/facilitation styles,
Identify teaching/facilitation methods that demonstrate varying amounts of learner
control,
Explore phenomena and generate both investigable and non-investigable questions,
Learn to change non-investigable questions into investigable ones,
Design, implement, and share investigative findings,
Practice and understand the importance of reflection in an investigative process,
View differences in approaches to activities and have an opportunity to adapt a learning
experience.
In addition, the grant for the project supported the development and provision of the initial
train-the-trainer model to orient and train a group of lead trainers in each state who, in turn,
trained adult facilitators in their state to work with youth. Materials (e.g. curriculum guides,
wind turbine kits) were provided through the grant to support the implementation of the project
in each state. Adult facilitators, with the help of lead trainers, recruited young people to
participate in the project.
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Methods
In the first phase of the study, a descriptive, process evaluation was conducted to document
how the project was implemented in each of the states. Since the training and pilot model
were untested and the approaches were relatively novel for the organization and lead trainers,
the program evaluation focused on gathering evidence on the extent to which the training
approaches effectively prepared adult facilitators. Surveys, conference call meetings,
observation forms and program-related documentation were designed to assess the skills and
confidence of the lead trainers, and of adult facilitators, and to finally assess the program
effectiveness with youth.
The process evaluation methods measured the surface of the project, and the study uses
methods to examine the content of trainings across three sites. To deepen the understanding
of how wind energy content and inquiry processes were applied across the sites, the audio from
three video recordings of a common training session across sites was transcribed, coded, and
analyzed to measure the extent to which the questioning and investigation methods presented
at the initial training were present in the trainings across sites. Specifically, adult facilitators
training related to five essential elements:
1) working with middle school age youth,
2) forming questions,
3) planning/ conducting investigations,
4) the use of the three instructional approaches, and
5) embedding inquiry into the curriculum,
which were examined through visual and auditory evidence presented on the recordings of the
trainings.
The goal of the study of the recordings was not to rate the quality or the skills of the lead
trainers, but to better understand the various contexts for training, the adult facilitator
audience, and the application of the methods through the lead trainers. The application of the
original training was studied by analyzing three training segments based on the Power of the
wind lesson How can we design a better pinwheel? (Sebestick, 2008, pp. 1617). The NVivo
9 data management system was used to facilitate the analysis.
Results
The process evaluation results reported here focus on describing implementation of the project
and the self-reported comfort levels with the essential elements of the training model by adults
facilitators across the five states in the project. Then, the results from the study of adults who
participated in one of three of the training applications are presented.
Process Evaluation
Over the course of the eighteen month project, a variety of project types emerged, ranging
from one-time educational events to more intensive day camps. Fifteen lead trainers trained
137 adult facilitators, and 3,353 youth of all grade levels were involved in a range of related
programming from one-time events to extended programs in club or group settings. Three
hundred fifty-six youth participated in club or group Power of the wind programming.
12
Description of Lead Trainers
Eleven of the 15 lead trainers, five male and six female, were involved over the 18 month
project. Most lead trainers had prior experience working with Cooperative Extension or 4-H. Of
the 11 lead trainers, 10 were Extension employees and one was an adult volunteer. Eight lead
trainers had eight or more years of experience in Extension. Only one lead trainer was new to
Extension or 4-H. Although most lead trainers had prior experience with Extension and/or 4-
H, only two had experience working in wind energy, either professionally or personally. One
lead trainer reported they had between 1-4 years of experience and the other had between 5-8
years of experience connected to the wind energy industry.
Lead trainers became involved in the project for a variety of reasons. Most noted the
importance of youth learning about wind energy, as well as renewable energy in general. Some
also felt wind energy was a relevant topic for their audience because of wind farm development
in their state. When asked if they would continue their involvement with project activities after
the completion of the grant, all reported that they had plans to continue working with youth in
non-formal learning related to wind energy in their state.
Reasons lead trainers were involved in the project (n=10):

Wind energy in my state is a great topic because of public awareness and economic
impact. Great chance to promote in my state.
We have significant wind farm development in the area that I serve.
Concern for the future of wind power in my state.
Because there are many new wind farms being constructed in our area. It was an
opportunity for me to learn more about wind power.
Our nation desperately needs to become more reliant on clean, renewable sources of
energy. Teaching about the Power of wind is one step in opening up a world of
possibilities to our youth.
An interest in renewable energy and grant funding.
I feel it is important for youth to understand wind energy, so that they can be
knowledgeable about it for future use because it is a great resource.
To gain knowledge to educate youth in the wind industry.
Encourage creative problem solving and engineering skills in youth, learn more about
wind power and the future of energy production, support green energy.
Teaching about and preparing youth to face environmental issues.
While the application of the content of wind energy was a strong fit for most lead trainers, the
learning methods related to questioning and investigating were new to most. In fact, one lead
trainer communicated to a member of the planning team that the use of questioning and
investigation methods within the grant project was unexpected. This individual expected more
training about the wind energy industry and equipment itself, and less focus on how to facilitate
learning about it. This focus in the project on learning methods set up a tension early in the
project about how to best prepare adults.
Lead Trainer Self-Assessment of Readiness

Lead trainers were surveyed immediately after completing the two day training to assess their
comfort with the new learning method. Using a Likert scale to rate their comfort, lead
trainers overall reported being comfortable applying the inquiry training with adult facilitators,
13
and helping to guide youth through the inquiry process (See Figure 1). A majority of the
individuals at the training had an education background, while other lead trainers did not. This
is indicated by the comment from one individual: Not being a professional educator I am just
getting up to speed on some of the vocabulary. Additionally, some individuals needed more
practice to increase their sense of preparedness - Doing it once with adults will increase
comfort level.
Figure 1
Lead Trainer Self-Assessments (n=11)
How would you rate

your comfort level Somewhat Somewhat
doing the Uncomfortable Comfortable
uncomfortable comfortable
following..?
Teaching adults how to
form a question that can 0% 0% 27% (3) 73% (8)
be investigated.
Finding ways to embed
inquiry into the Power of 0% 0% 27% (3) 73% (8)
the wind curriculum.
Receiving constructive
feedback from other
adults related to the 0% 0% 27% (3) 73% (8)
methods addressed in
the training
Guiding youth as they
form questions that can 0% 0% 36% (4) 64% (7)
be investigated.
design an investigation 0% 0% 36% (4) 64% (7)
to answer a question.
Teaching adults the
three approaches of 0% 9% (1) 27% (3) 64% (7)
teaching.
Teaching adults how to
design an investigation 0% 0% 45% (5) 55% (6)
to answer a question.
Providing constructive
feedback from other
adults related to the 0% 0% 55% (6) 45% (5)
methods addressed in
the training
The lead trainer role was designed to implement the program and evaluation during the project,
and to recruit and train adult facilitators to work directly with youth. Lead trainers gathered
evaluation data through videotaping trainings, administering post-training surveys, and
providing feedback. After the training, some of the lead trainers observed adult facilitators as
they worked with youth, using an observation tool designed for the project. The tool served as
both a data collection instrument and a structured guide for lead trainers to provide feedback to
adult facilitators. Lead trainers were also involved in monthly project webinars, they designed
mini-grant projects, and led some of their own youth activities.
14
Application of Training with Adult Facilitators
Lead trainers from each state applied the model in their organizational and community settings
by training groups of adult facilitators. Overall, 137 adult facilitators were trained over the
course of the project. Most adult facilitators across the states reported that they were prepared
to implement the essential elements of the model, with less than one-tenth of all adults (4% -
11%) reporting that they were uncomfortable with any one of these skills. The adult facilitators
(n=107) reports are documented in Figure 2.
Figure 2
Adult Facilitators Post-Training Self-Assessments (n=107)
How would you rate Uncomfortable Somewhat Somewhat Comfortable

your comfort level uncomfortable comfortable
doing the
following..?
Working with middle 4% (4) 7% (7) 47% (49) 43% (45)
school age youth to learn
about wind energy.
Using the three 2% (2) 8% (8) 44% (44) 46% (46)
approaches of teaching
when working with
youth.
Guiding youth as they 0% 8% (8) 39% (42) 53% (57)

form questions that can
be investigated.

design an investigation to
answer a question.
Finding ways to embed 0% 11% (12) 49% (52) 40% (43)

inquiry into the Power of
Adult Facilitators Assessment of Project with Youth

At the end of the 18 month project, adult facilitators were asked to rate project effectiveness in
engaging youth in wind energy and inquiry-based learning. Over the 18 month period, 3,353
young people of all grade levels were involved in some aspect of the project, and 356 youth
participated in a club or group program based on the project model across five states. Thirty
adult facilitators provided ratings on project effectiveness with youth. Most (90%) agreed that
Power of the wind was effective in making youth more curious about wind energy. From the
adults perspective, the youth were most effective in being able to explain wind energy concepts
to another person. Over three quarters of respondents agreed that youth they worked with
were more confident asking questions, planning an investigation and carrying out an
investigation after their involvement. Nearly one quarter of adult facilitators surveyed
disagreed that youth seemed more confident in planning an investigation as a result of their
involvement in the project.
15
Figure 3
Youth Abilities in 4-H Science from Adult Perspective (n=30)
Disagree Disagree a Agree a Agree

Little Bit Little Bit
4-H Power of the wind 3% 7% (2) 30% (9) 60%

was effective in making (1) (18)
youth more curious about
wind energy.
The youth I worked with 3% 10% 30% (9) 53%
are able to explain wind (1) (3) (16)
energy to someone else.
Because of Power of the 3% 13% 57% 27% (8)

wind, the youth I worked (1) (4) (17)
with seem more
confident asking science-
related questions.
Because of Power of the 3% 20% 47% 27% (8)

wind, the youth I worked (1) (6) (14)
with seem more
confident planning an
investigation.
Because of Power of the 3% 10% 50% 37%

wind, the youth I worked (1) (3) (15) (11)
with seem more
confident carrying out an
investigation.
Three Trainings: Compare and Contrast

The usefulness of a process evaluation can be increased when design applications are examined
more closely to understand differences. A key program design application in this project
involved the partners trainings, modeled after the initial training to fit the state organizations
needs. Design choices for non-formal engineering programs have implications for program
effectiveness and the ability of the program to promote youth learning, particularly with the
new-to-4-H territory of training adults to work with engineering content and to use inquiry-
based methods. While the survey method used indicates that adults reported adequate comfort
with the applying the essential elements, and suggest that youth had opportunities to learn in
the project, the results were mixed and based on self-assessments of participants. The
evaluation needs a deeper level of analysis to reveal needed improvements to the project
training model.
Figure 4 compares and contrasts three applications of the training with adult facilitators that
occurred in three of the partner states. These trainings were selected by lead trainers to
videotape in order to archive promising practices that emerged through the applications. The
recordings are also useful for narrative content analysis, to understand exactly how the
trainings were structured, and how adult facilitators responded and interacted with the training
models.
16
Figure 4
Three Training Applications
Training Description Length Audience Follow up

Training 1:
Two lead trainers led training A series of web
with an emphasis on 11 AmeriCorps conferencing sessions to
instruction of the inquiry Two days; total members including provide adult facilitators a
process, work in teams, and of 15 contact college students chance to reflect on and
aspects of wind energy hours and recent give feedback about what
(including basic electricity graduates. was working and what was
concepts). not working with youth.
Training 2:
One lead trainer led training
4 community
with an emphasis on
volunteers, one
participants use of the inquiry
One day; total Extension educator
process to explore wind energy
of 7.5 contact with professional N/A
concepts through the
hours backgrounds in
curriculum. Participants worked
STEM-related
alone and practiced sharing
careers.
results with large group.
Training 3:
One lead trainer led training to
prepare 4-H staff to lead wind
energy related events focused 15 adult and youth
on practicing the lessons in the 2.5 hours N/A
club leaders
Power of the wind curriculum
with trainer modeling the
formation of question.
Adult Facilitators in Three Trainings

The self-reported comfort levels of the twenty-eight adult facilitators who participated in one of
the three trainings are shown in Figure 5. The self-assessments of readiness to use the
essential elements of the training model, while not an exact match, are reasonably similar to
the overall results shown in Figure 2 for all 107 adults trained.
17
Figure 5
Adult Facilitators in Three Trainings Self-Assessments (n=28)
How would you rate Uncomfortable Somewhat Somewhat Comfortable

your comfort level doing uncomfortable comfortable
the following..?
Working with middle school 7% (2) 4% (1) 50% (14) 39% (11)
age youth to learn about
wind energy.
Using the three approaches 0% 4% (1) 46% (13) 50% (14)
of teaching when working
with youth.
Guiding youth as they form 0% 7% (2) 43% (12) 50% (14)
questions that can be
investigated.
design an investigation to
answer a question.
Finding ways to embed 0% 18% (5) 39% (11) 43% (12)
Adult facilitators reports of not being ready or comfortable to work with youth using the
essential elements of the training model are important to address. In addition to the
implications for the quality of the learning experience for youth, these reports indicate
opportunities for improvement and for building understanding about how to best prepare and
involve adults as facilitators of non-formal learning of engineering content and processes.
Figure 6 illustrates the distribution of somewhat uncomfortable and uncomfortable ratings
across each of the three trainings. Despite the small and varying sample sizes of the three
trainings, these ratings help to pinpoint patterns in self-assessments.
18
Figure 6
Adult Facilitators Not Comfortable with Essential Elements
How would you rate All 3 Trainings Training 1 Training 2 Training 3

your comfort level (n = 28) (n = 7) (n = 6) (n = 15)
doing the
following..?
Uncomfortable Uncomfortable Uncomfortable Uncomfortable

/Somewhat /Somewhat /Somewhat /Somewhat
uncomfortable uncomfortable uncomfortable uncomfortable
Working with middle
school age youth to learn 11% (3) 0% 0% 20% (3)
about wind energy.
Using the three
approaches of teaching 4% (1) 14% (1) 0% 0%
when working with
youth.
form questions that can 7% (2) 0% 0% 13% (2)
be investigated.
design an investigation to 7% (2) 0% 16% (1) 7% (1)
answer a question.
Finding ways to embed
inquiry into the Power of 18% (5) 14% (1) 16% (1) 20% (3)
The highest numbers of adult facilitators who reported not being comfortable were in the
essential elements of 1) working with middle school age youth to learn about wind energy (3
respondents), and 2) embedding inquiry into the curriculum (5 respondents).
Narrative from Three Trainings

A lesson from the Power of the wind curriculum (How can we build a better pinwheel?) was
used across the three trainings and was selected for analysis. The essential elements (Figure 6)
of the training model were used as a coding scheme. The author took a deductive approach to
coding narrative in the tape that most closely represented one, or none, of the essential
elements. Videotape audio was transcribed verbatim, then coded. The coding of narrative was
verified with two external reviewers. In addition, the videotaped trainings were analyzed for
the total minutes spent with adult facilitators/trainees working in teams, physically conducting
their investigations, and sharing or reflection with the large group. NVivo 9.0 was used to
manage and graph the coding for the narrative.
The results from the narrative analysis of the five essential elements of training are compared in
Figure 7. Most of the instruction and practice across the Build a better pinwheel segments
related to planning or conducting investigations. Little or no instruction or practice was
allocated toward methods for working with middle school age youth or instruction for
embedding inquiry into the curriculum. Training 1 had the most narrative in the areas of
forming questions and planning/conducting investigations. Training 2 had the highest or the
only narrative in the areas of working with youth, the three approaches, and embedding inquiry
into the curriculum. Training 3 had the highest percentage of other narrative.
19
Figure 7
Narrative Use in Adult Facilitator Trainings
Narrative devoted to Training 1 Training 2 Training 3

instruction or practice
related to:
Working with middle school 0% 6% 0%
age youth to learn about
wind energy.
Using the three approaches 0% 33% 0%
of teaching when working
with youth.
Forming questions that can 13% 4% 5%
be investigated.
Design/conducting an 71% 43% 54%
investigation to answer a
question.
Finding ways to embed 1% 2% 0%
Other narrative 15% 12% 41%
Total narrative 100% 100% 100%
Given that each application varied widely in the structure and length, Figure 7 compares the
percentages of time and narrative related to Designing a better pinwheel. The total time
allocated to the lesson across the three trainings ranged from 2055 minutes in length.
Designing a better pinwheel instruction and experience was 4% of the overall 15 contact
hours in Training 1, 12% of the overall 7.5 contact hours in Training 2, and 13% of the overall
2.5 contact hours in Training 3. Therefore, while the same lesson was used and analyzed for
similarities and differences, the lesson occurred in the context of a whole training in which
either a great deal of additional content and skill building was delivered or relatively little
additional training was provided. With those important differences, the narrative text training
tape was a useful indicator of the depth of the attention to, and exploration of the essential
elements of the model.
While each of the three trainings lessons incorporated some or all of the essential elements
emphasized in the initial training for lead trainers, Training 2 provided the most comprehensive
integration of the elements. Training 1, with 15 total contact hours, stands out from the other
two as an application of the initial training that ensured that adult facilitators had relatively
more instruction and experience in teamwork, forming questions, planning/conducting
investigations, and sharing or reflecting on the results. While data were not collected to
provide evidence of the differential effectiveness of the trainings to prepare adults to work with
youth, the application of the training model through Trainings 1 & 2 show the strongest
evidence from the post-training assessments and the videotapes that the goals outlined for the
project were integrated into the application. The adult audience for Training 1, an AmeriCorps
group of trainees, were fulfilling mandated training requirements for which they received
stipend payments. The application in Training 2 shows evidence that relatively more time was
dedicated to instruction on the three approaches and embedding inquiry into the curriculum,
and that some time was spent in each of the other essential element areas. However, this
application did not contain any practice conducting investigations in teams. This training was
20
delivered to an audience of volunteers with strong science or engineering-related professional
backgrounds. These volunteers did not receive a stipend for the day-long training.
Figure 8
Time Comparisons of Lesson in Three Training
Videotape Evidence for Key Training 1 Training 2 Training 3

Instructional Strategies
Lesson length in minutes 40 55 20
Time Conducting 30 37 15
Investigations (minutes)
Time in Teams (minutes) 30 0 15
Time Sharing 6 13 3
Results/Reflection (minutes)
Implications
In this current study, a new training model was introduced across five organizations within the
context of the 4-H Youth Development program with a goal to prepare adult facilitators to work
with youth to explore wind energy concepts using inquiry-based methods. It is assumed that
the adults who stepped forward to work with youth were all considered novices in the sense
that they were new to wind energy as a content area, were new to facilitating inquiry-based
learning, or were new to working with youth in non-formal settings. Some adults were most
likely novices in all three areas. Since this assumption has important implications for this study,
it is important that future similar studies investigate the baseline skill level and experience of
adult facilitators to more reliably represent the adult audience as learners and facilitators.
The first phase of the study produced self-report survey responses that were difficult to
interpret and subsequently transfer to a deeper understanding about what adult facilitators truly
learned. Some adult facilitators felt prepared to work with youth using design challenges to
explore wind energy, but some did not feel prepared. More evidence was needed to
understand what aspects of the model were not working to prepare adult facilitators.
Deeper analysis of a purposeful sampling of tapes of the trainings for adult facilitators revealed
that the application of the training model ranged widely in instruction and experience. The core
strategies from the initial training were not incorporated consistently across the three training
examples as lead trainers worked to make the model fit in their organizations. For example, the
range in the length of trainings across the three examples indicates major adjustments with one
training designed as a 2.5 hour training and another designed as a 15 hour training. Designing
a training product that is attractive to and meets the needs of adult facilitators needs further
study. The challenges involved in extensive training of adult facilitators, many of whom are
volunteers, are steep. Even when resources allow stipends for time spent in training, these
stipends typically cannot cover the costs of time away from work or home.
This study was based on the belief that the effort spent preparing adults to facilitate non-formal
engineering education is as important as the hoped for benefits for youth. In fact, the benefits
for youth cannot be expected until the essential elements for the adequate preparation of
adults are clear. In the study, partner sites applied and tested models with the anticipation that
a strong, yet practical, model could emerge based on the foundations of the initial training. The
21
analysis of training tapes from the pilot suggests that it is important and revealing to study the
applications of trainings in a large, multi-site pilot project in order to document implementation
and to discover new ways of delivering the training that were not originally thought of.
Applications, in which the essence of the idea is carried forward, can result in innovations and
improvements to an original design.
The limitations of this study relate to its exploratory and descriptive nature, which did not
adequately capture the relationships that may exist between training of adults and the
effectiveness of their work with youth. These findings cannot be generalized beyond, or within,
this project. The analysis of three of the total twenty trainings for adult and youth facilitators
throughout the project period does not offer a representative picture of all of the trainings that
were applied. Furthermore, the data were collected in such a way that linking responses from
youth participants to the adults they worked with (and the adults specific training application)
was not possible, making it impossible to draw linkages to the trainings for adult facilitators and
the adult facilitators work with youth.
Conclusion
The findings from this study raise questions about how non-formal educational programs
involve and mobilize adult facilitators to work with youth in STEM-related learning when the
emphasis is not only on engaging young people, but also on deepening their thinking and
learning about phenomena. In this case, evidence suggests that three training applications
studied more deeply incorporated the essential elements in varying degrees and with varying
success.
The three adult audiences in the study were distinctly different from each other and it is likely
that the audience played a large factor in how the trainings were applied. Adults were given
instruction and experience in forming investigable questions, planning investigations,
conducting investigations, working in teams, and reflecting on their results. Through a content
analysis, it is possible to more deeply understand how a train-the-trainer model is applied in the
community. An intensive two-day training of AmeriCorps members and a one-day training of
science or engineering-related professionals offered examples of two different applications that
were able to go more deeply and go more broadly across the essential elements of the training
model.
Looking beyond the training of adults, future studies of non-formal learning programs in
engineering are needed so that educational designers have credible evidence about the
protocols and skills needed by adults that connect directly to youth engagement and learning in
non-formal settings. Investments can be tailored to the most effective adult recruitment
strategies, training design, training dosage, and resources that lead to engaging youth in non-
formal engineering learning.
Acknowledgements:
We gratefully acknowledge the funding provided by the 3M Foundation, Saint Paul, MN to make this
project possible. I would like to acknowledge the development, training and evaluation leadership
provided by the Minnesota team of Katie Clarke, Tyler Ahnemann, Amy Grack Nelson, and Janet Beyer
over the course of this project. The adult facilitators and our Extension colleagues also made this project
possible and stronger by applying the model in other states and in communities. Thank you to Dale Blyth
and Hui Hui Wang for reviewing the manuscript, to Amy Shaffer and Siri Scott for reviewing the narrative
coding, and to Amy Shaffer for proofreading assistance.
22
Biographical sketch of author
Pamela Larson Nippolt is Assistant Extension Professor and Program Leader, Program Evaluation at the
University of Minnesota Extension Center for Youth Development, 200 Oak Street, Minneapolis, Minnesota
55455. nippolt@umn.edu.
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Copyright of Journal of Youth Development ~ Bridging Research and Practice. Content may not be
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ISSN 2325-4009 (Print); ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
24
Mothers Satisfaction with Youth
Out-of-School-Time Programs
Juyoung Jang
Family Social Science Department
St. Paul, MN
jangx095@umn.edu
Jodi Dworkin
Family Social Science Department
St. Paul, MN
25
Mothers Satisfaction with Youth

Out-of-School-Time Programs
Juyoung Jang and Jodi Dworkin

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors

related to mothers satisfaction with youth out-of-school-time (OST)
programs. The relationship to demographic characteristics and the
effects of mothers perception of youth OST program opportunities
on mothers satisfaction with OST programs are discussed in this
paper. Ordered logistic regression revealed the positive effects of
partners working hours, mothers education, and mothers
perception on mother satisfaction. Generalized ordered logit models
further revealed that the effects of the variables and the effects of
child sex, income, and race differed by the level of mother
satisfaction. These findings have important implications for youth
workers and policy makers.
Introduction
Research on youth suggests that participation in out-of-school-time (OST) programs have
several positive effects on youth development. Youth who participate in OST programs are
more likely to have better school achievement (Cooper, Valentine, Nye, & Lindsay, 1999),
prosocial attitudes (Zaff, Moore, Papillo, & Williams, 2003), and less likely to dropout of school
(Mahoney & Cairns, 1997) than young people who do not participate in OST programs. Parents
can influence youths OST program participation by encouraging participation and providing
support for program participation (Morrissey & Werner-Wilson, 2005).
Previous research has focused on how familial demographic characteristics such as income and
ethnicity affect youth OST program participation. Minority families and low-income families
might have difficulties accessing attractive OST programs (Simpkins, Ripke, Huston, & Eccles,
2005), and consequently, those youth might not be able to participate or continue their
participation (Coulton & Irwin, 2009; Weitzman, Mijanovich, Silver, & Brazil, 2008). Although
research has revealed an association between demographics and OST program participation,
there is a lack of understanding regarding how demographics are related to parental
26
satisfaction with OST programs. When parents are more satisfied with OST programs, youth
participation increases. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the factors related to
mothers satisfaction with OST programs.
Literature Review
Though youth OST program participation has been studied extensively, the parent perspective
has rarely been explored. Previous studies about youth participation in OST programs have
revealed that participation differs by income, race/ethnicity, parents working status, and
neighborhood (e.g., Duffet, Johnson, Farkas, Kung, & Ott, 2004; Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001;
Simpkins et al., 2005).
Youth of low income families have been found to be less likely to participate in OST programs
(Simpkins et al., 2005; Weitzman et al., 2008). Non-White parents were more likely to report
low levels of parental satisfaction with out of school time opportunities than White parents
(Weitzman et al., 2008). Brown and Evans (2002) examined the relationship between OST
programs and ethnicity and found that participation rates and hours in programs were greatest
for White youth compared to those of other ethnicities. Among minority youth, Hispanic youth
were least likely to participate in OST programs and those who participated tended to spend
less time in the programs (Brown & Evans, 2002; Weitzman et al, 2008). Ethnic minority
parents have also reported challenges in finding OST programs which were available,
affordable, and high quality. Because family income level was generally associated with race
and ethnicity, the patterns of OST program participation of minority youth have been found to
be similar to those of youth in low income families (Duffet et al., 2004).
Neighborhood has also been found to affect youths participation in OST programs (Coulton &
Irwin, 2009). Since youth living in neighborhoods with high crime rates can be exposed to
illegal activities or violence and spend time with deviant peers, formal OST programs can
protect youth from negative societal influences (Posner & Vandell, 1994). However, those same
neighborhood characteristics can deter youth from participating in OST programs (Borden,
Perkins, Villarruel, & Stone, 2005; Coulton & Irwin, 2009). For instance, high risk
neighborhoods might experience a lack of available OST programs for youth at risk for poor
developmental outcomes (Eccles, Barber, Stone, & Hunt, 2003). Parents working status is also
related to youth participation in OST programs. Children of single employed-parent or two full-
time employed-parent families were more likely to participate in OST programs than children of
non-employed parents and of two-parents with only one working (Weitzman et al, 2008).
Parental Satisfaction with OST Programs

There is little study about parental satisfaction with youths OST programs. The limited
research that does exist has revealed that parental satisfaction is related to youths level of
participation. Parents whose children had limited participation in OST programs reported lower
satisfaction than parents with children participating regularly in activities (Weitzman et al.,
2008). Weitzman and colleagues (2008) argued that low parental satisfaction with OST
programs was closely related to family resources. More specifically, low income families and
parents with limited higher education were likely to report low levels of satisfaction. Parents of
low income families tended to have difficulties finding OST programs which were high quality or
affordable. In addition, parents reporting low satisfaction indicated that issues of convenience
and availability were things they would like to change.
27
Research Questions
The present study was designed to address the neglect of the parent perspective in previous
literature, by recognizing parents as critical to youth OST program participation. Specifically,
two research questions were explored:
a) Are mothers perceptions of OST program opportunities related to demographic
characteristics (childs age and gender, household income, mothers race, marital status,
working hours, and education level, partners working hours, and residential area)? and,
b) How are demographic characteristics and mothers perception of OST program
opportunities associated with mother satisfaction with OST programs?
Method
Procedure
The data for this study comes from phone interviews with a statewide sample of Minnesota
households with children in 7th through 12th grade. Data were weighted to ensure the sample
was representative of Minnesota households. The original study was conducted by Dale Blyth
and Ann Lochner in 2008 (see Lochner, Allen, & Blyth, 2009) and made possible with funding
from the Minnesota Department of Education, McKnight Foundation, the Minnesota Department
of Human Services, Youth Community Connections, and the University of Minnesota Extension
Center for Youth Development. The study was designed to understand parent and youth
perceptions of the supply and demand for community learning opportunities. In 2008, using
random digit dialing, telephone interviews were conducted with 1,487 mothers and 808 youth
(787 pairs) about OST programs. The lower sample size for youth was primarily the result of
not having parental permission and the young person not being available when the interviewer
called. The overall response rate was 56.4%, calculated based on contacted eligible households.
Missing data ranged from 0.13% to 3.0%, resulting in 690 parent-youth pairs with complete
data. Since our sample size is sufficiently large, listwise deletion does not cause a reduction in
statistical power (Acock, 2005).
Measures
Mother satisfaction with out-of-school-time (OST) programs. The dependent variable
was mother satisfaction with OST programs. Three questions were used to create categories of
mother satisfaction with OST programs. First, Thinking about how [childs name] spends
(his/her) time when (he/she) is not in school, if you could choose, would you basically stick with
things the way they are, or would you change the way [childs name] spends (his/her) time?
The response options were basically stick with things or change things. Second, How do
you feel about the activity and program options you and [childs name] have to choose from?
Response options were there are enough options, there needs to be more options, or there
are just too many options to choose from. Third, As a parent, how much of a struggle is it for
you to make sure [childs name] has things to do when (he/she) is not in school? Response
options were: something you have under control, something you struggle with only
occasionally, or something you struggle with on a regular basis.
Based on their responses, mothers were divided into three groups: low satisfaction (0), middle
satisfaction (1), or high satisfaction (2). Those who reported negative responses for all three
questions (i.e., change things for the first question; there needs to be more options or
there are just too many options to choose from for the second question; and something you
struggle with only occasionally or something you struggle with on a regular basis for the third
question) were categorized as the low satisfaction group (23.9%). Those who reported mixed
28
responses (i.e., basically stick with things, there needs to be more options, and something
you have under control) were coded as the middle satisfaction group (52.6%). Those who
reported all positive responses for the three questions (basically stick with things, there are
enough options, and something you have under control) were categorized as the high
satisfaction group (23.5%).
Mothers perception about out-of-school-time (OST) program opportunities. Mothers

perception about OST program opportunities in their community included six individual items.
Mothers were asked how hard they thought it was to find activities and programs in their
communities with the following characteristics: (a) trustworthiness, (b) affordability,
(c) convenient location, (d) interesting to child, (e) age appropriateness, and (f) high quality.
The range of responses was from very easy to find (1) to very hard to find (4). Response
options were reverse coded such that higher scores indicated more accessible programs.
Demographic characteristics. Mothers reported annual household income, current working

hours, partners' working hours, residential area, and highest level of education (see Table 1).
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics (Note. Sample is weighted.)
Variables % Mean SD
Child sex
Boys 52.1
Girls 47.9
Child age 14.6 1.8
Income
Under $25,000 7.5
$25,000 - $50,000 18.7
$50,000 - $75,000 24.4
$75,000 - $100,000 19.1
$100,000 or more 30.3
Race
White 88.3
Non-White 11.7
Marital status
Married 82.9
Single 17.1
Mother's working hours
40 or more hours 51.8
1 to 39 hours 31.5
Not-employed 16.7
Partner's working hours
40 or more hours 66.6
1 to 39 hours 10.4
Not-employed 23.0
Residential area
Large city 18.5
Medium city 19.8
Small city 29.5
29
Table 1 (continued)
Variables % Mean SD
Town 14.4
Rural area 17.7
Mother's education level
Less than high school 2.2
High school graduate 14.4
Some college 21.5
Associates/2-year degree 15.1
Bachelors/4-year degree 29.9
Graduate school 16.9
Mother's perception
Trustworthiness 1.8 0.9
Affordability 2.3 0.9
Convenient location 1.9 0.9
Interesting to child 2.0 0.9
Age appropriateness 1.9 1.0
High quality 2.1 0.9
Results
To explore the first research question, Pearsons correlation tests, T-tests and ANOVA tests
were computed. Correlation analyses revealed when a mother perceived it was easier to find
out of school activities or programs which fulfilled one of the characteristics trustworthiness,
affordability, convenient location, interesting to child, age appropriateness, and high quality, it
was also easier to find activities or programs which satisfied the other aspects.
T-tests revealed that mothers of girls perceived that it was easier to find OST activities or
programs interesting to their child than mothers of boys (t = 2.01, p < .05). No other gender
differences emerged. Mothers race, marital status, and residential area were all significantly
related to the perception variables. White mothers perceived that it was easier to find OST
programs that were trustworthy, affordable, convenient, age appropriate, and high quality than
non-White mothers. Similarly, married mothers perceived that it was easier to find OST
programs satisfying all six aspects than did single parents. Mothers living in large cities
reported the most difficulty finding OST programs which were trustworthy, affordable,
conveniently located, interesting to the child, appropriate for childs age, and of high quality.
Mothers living in rural areas reported the most difficulty finding OST programs in a convenient
location.
To examine the second research question, both ordered logistic regression and generalized
ordered logit models (Fu, 1999; Williams, 2006) were performed. In this study, we had three
categories of the dependent variable, low, middle, and high satisfaction. Ordered logistic
regression was conducted to reveal the factors increasing parental satisfaction with OST
programs, then, generalized ordered logit models were performed to explore varied effects of
the independent variables on each level of parental satisfaction. Six ordered logistic regressions
and six generalized ordered logit models were performed, each model including one of the six
perceptions about OST program opportunities. The sample was weighted based on region
population; unless otherwise specified all analyses were conducted using the weighted sample.
30
Ordered logistic regressions revealed the positive effects of partners working hours, mothers
education level, and mothers perception about OST program opportunities on mother
satisfaction with OST programs. Mothers whose partner worked 1 to 39 hours were more likely
to be satisfied with OST programs than those with a non-employed partner (p < .05). In
addition, mothers with higher education levels were more likely to report higher OST program
satisfaction (p < .05). The six measures of mothers perceptions about OST program
opportunities were positively related to mother satisfaction with OST programs. Mothers who
perceived that it was easy to find OST programs in their community which fulfilled each of the
six categories were more likely to report higher satisfaction with OST programs than those who
perceived that it was hard to find them (p < .001).
Next, we performed generalized ordered logit models to examine the influences of independent
variables across levels of parental satisfaction with OST programs (see Table 2). Using
generalized ordered logit models, we obtained two sets of estimates: (a) the odds of having at
least middle satisfaction (middle or high satisfaction) relative to having low satisfaction, and (b)
the odds of having high satisfaction relative to having low or middle satisfaction. The odds ratio
over 1 indicates that higher values on the independent variable make it more likely that
mothers will have higher satisfaction than the current satisfaction level.
31
Trustworthiness Affordability Convenient location
> Low > Middle > Low > Middle > Low > Middle
OR [95% CI] OR [95% CI] OR [95% CI] OR [95% CI] OR [95% CI] OR [95% CI]
Generalized Ordered Logit Models for Mother Satisfaction using Mothers Perception
Child sex 1.1 [0.7, 1.8] 1.7 [1.1, 2.8] 1.2 [0.7, 1.9] 1.7 [1.1, 2.8] 1.1 [0.7, 1.8] 1.8 [1.1, 2.9]
Child age 1.1 [0.9, 1.2] 1.1 [1.0, 1.3] 1.1 [0.9, 1.2] 1.1 [1.0, 1.3] 1.1 [0.9, 1.2] 1.1 [1.0, 1.3]
Income 1.2 [1.0, 1.6] 1.0 [0.8, 1.3] 1.2 [1.0, 1.6] 1.1 [0.8, 1.4] 1.3 [1.0, 1.6] 1.1 [0.8, 1.4]
Race (White=1) 1.5 [0.8, 3.1] 0.9 [0.3, 2.3] 1.8 [0.9, 3.4] 1.0 [0.4, 2.7] 1.5 [0.8, 3.1] 0.9 [0.3, 2.2]
Marital status (Married=1) 0.9 [0.3, 2.2] 0.8 [0.3, 2.4] 1.0 [0.4, 2.4] 0.8 [0.3, 2.4] 0.9 [0.3, 2.2] 0.9 [0.3, 2.6]
Mothers working hoursa
40 or more hours 0.8 [0.4, 1.4] 0.7 [0.3, 1.4] 0.8 [0.4, 1.4] 0.6 [0.3, 1.3] 0.8 [0.4, 1.4] 0.6 [0.3, 1.3]
1-39 hours 1.0 [0.5, 2.1] 1.0 [0.5, 2.2] 1.0 [0.5, 2.0] 1.0 [0.5, 2.2] 1.0 [0.5, 2.1] 1.0 [0.5, 2.1]
Partners working hoursb
40 or more hours 1.7 [0.7, 4.2] 1.6 [0.6, 4.8] 1.6 [0.7, 3.7] 1.6 [0.6, 4.2] 1.5 [0.6, 3.8] 1.5 [0.6, 4.2]
1-39 hours 3.0 [0.8, 11.1] 4.3 [1.3, 14.7] 2.5 [0.8, 8.3] 3.7 [1.1, 11.9] 2.3 [0.7, 8.2] 4.0 [1.3, 12.8]
Residential areac
Large city 0.8 [0.3, 1.9] 0.5 [0.2, 1.1] 0.8 [0.3, 1.7] 0.4 [0.2, 1.0] 1.8 [0.3, 1.8] 0.5 [0.2, 1.1]
Small city 0.9 [0.4, 2.2] 0.4 [0.2, 0.9] 1.0 [0.4, 2.3] 0.4 [0.2, 0.9] 0.9 [0.4, 2.1] 0.4 [0.2, 0.9]
Town 1.0 [0.4, 2.5] 0.8 [0.4, 1.8] 0.8 [0.3, 2.0] 0.7 [0.3, 1.5] 0.8 [0.3, 2.2] 0.7 [0.3, 1.6]
Table 2
Rural area 0.9 [0.4, 1.9] 0.7 [0.3, 1.5] 0.7 [0.3, 1.5] 0.5 [0.2, 1.2] 1.0 [0.4, 2.1] 0.9 [0.4, 1.8]
32
Mother's education level 1.0 [0.9, 1.2] 1.3 [1.1, 1.6] 1.1 [0.9, 1.3] 1.3 [1.1, 1.6] 1.1 [0.9, 1.3] 1.4 [1.2, 1.7]
Mothers perception
Trustworthiness 1.9 [1.4, 2.5] 2.1 [1.4, 3.1] - - - -
Affordability - - 1.4 [1.1, 1.9] 1.9 [1.4, 2.6] - -
Convenient location - - - - 1.9 [1.5, 2.5] 2.3 [1.7, 3.1]
Wald Chi2 (df = 30) 107.0 100.9 113.7
Note. OR = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval.

Sample is weighted.
* p<.05, ** p<.01, ***p<.001.
ab
Parents working hours: reference group = not-employed. c Residential area: reference group = medium city.
middle satisfaction. Here we focus on the patterns of influence that were revealed.
different from those affecting the odds of having high satisfaction relative to having low or
satisfaction (middle or high satisfaction) relative to the odds of having low satisfaction were
It was revealed that the independent variables influencing the odds of having at least middle
Generalized Ordered Logit Models for Mother Satisfaction using Mothers Perception (Cont)
Interesting to child Age appropriateness High quality
> Low > Middle > Low > Middle > Low > Middle
OR [95% CI] OR [95% CI] OR [95% CI] OR [95% CI] OR [95% CI] OR [95% CI]
Child sex 1.0 [0.6, 1.7] 1.6 [1.0, 2.7] 1.1 [0.7, 1.9] 1.8 [1.1, 3.0] 1.2 [0.7, 1.9] 1.8 [1.1, 2.9]
Child age 1.1 [0.9, 1.3] 1.1 [1.0, 1.3] 1.1 [0.9, 1.3] 1.1 [1.0, 1.3] 1.1 [0.9, 1.3] 1.1 [1.0, 1.3]
Income 1.3 [1.0, 1.6] 1.0 [0.8, 1.3] 1.3 [1.0, 1.6] 1.0 [0.8, 1.4] 1.2 [1.0, 1.6] 1.0 [0.8, 1.3]
Race (White=1) 2.2 [1.0, 4.6] 1.2 [0.5, 3.3] 1.8 [0.9, 3.7] 1.1 [0.4, 2.7] 1.9 [0.9, 4.0] 1.0 [0.4, 2.8]
Marital status (Married=1) 0.9 [0.3, 2.6] 1.0 [0.3, 2.9] 0.9 [0.3, 2.5] 0.9 [0.3, 2.6] 1.0 [0.4, 2.7] 0.8 [0.3, 2.8]
Mothers working hoursa
40 or more hours 0.7 [0.4, 1.4] 0.6 [0.3, 1.3] 0.9 [0.5, 1.6] 0.6 [0.3, 1.3] 0.8 [0.4, 1.4] 0.6 [0.3, 1.3]
1-39 hours 1.0 [0.5, 2.1] 1.0 [0.4, 2.0] 1.2 [0.6, 2.4] 1.1 [0.5, 2.3] 1.0 [0.5, 2.0] 0.9 [0.4, 2.0]
Partners working hoursb
40 or more hours 1.5 [0.5, 4.0] 1.3 [0.5, 3.7] 1.5 [0.6, 3.8] 1.3 [0.5, 3.9] 1.6 [0.6, 4.3] 1.8 [0.6, 5.6]
1-39 hours 2.4 [0.6, 9.5] 3.4 [1.1, 11.2] 2.2 [0.6, 8.3] 3.8 [1.1, 13.0] 2.7 [0.7, 10.0] 4.9 [1.3, 18.0]
Residential areac
Table 3
Large city 0.9 [0.4, 2.2] 0.5 [0.2, 1.2] 0.9 [0.4, 2.2] 0.6 [0.2, 1.4] 1.0 [0.4, 2.3] 0.5 [0.2, 1.2]
Small city 1.1 [0.5, 2.8] 0.5 [0.2, 1.1] 1.0 [0.4, 2.4] 0.5 [0.2, 1.1] 1.0 [0.4, 2.4] 0.5 [0.2, 1.0]
33
Town 0.9 [0.4, 2.3] 0.7 [0.3, 1.6] 0.9 [0.3, 2.3] 0.8 [0.3, 1.8] 1.0 [0.4, 2.7] 0.8 [0.4, 1.8]
Rural area 0.9 [0.4, 1.9] 0.7 [0.3, 1.5] 0.8 [0.4, 1.9] 0.7 [0.3, 1.6] 1.0 [0.4, 2.1] 0.7 [0.3, 1.6]
Mother's education level 1.0 [0.9, 1.2] 1.4 [1.1, 1.7] 1.0 [0.9, 1.2] 1.3 [1.1, 1.6] 1.0 [0.9, 1.2] 1.4 [1.1, 1.6]
Mothers perception
Interesting to child 2.2 [1.6, 2.8] 2.5 [1.8, 3.5] - - - -
Age appropriateness - - 2.1 [1.6, 2.8] 2.7 [1.9, 3.8] - -
High quality - - - - 2.1 [1.6, 2.8] 2.0 [1.5, 2.8]
Wald Chi2 (df = 30) 108.5 113.6 113.5
Note. OR = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval.

Sample is weighted.
* p<.05, ** p<.01, ***p<.001.
ab
Parents working hours: reference group = not-employed. c Residential area: reference group = medium city.
Next, we performed generalized ordered logit models to examine the influences of independent
variables across levels of parental satisfaction with OST programs (see Table 2). Using
generalized ordered logit models, we obtained two sets of estimates: (a) the odds of having at
least middle satisfaction (middle or high satisfaction) relative to having low satisfaction, and (b)
the odds of having high satisfaction relative to having low or middle satisfaction. The odds ratio
over 1 indicates that higher values on the independent variable make it more likely that
mothers will have higher satisfaction than the current satisfaction level.
Across the six models, mothers perception about OST program opportunities was the most
significant factor influencing mothers to have at least middle satisfaction OST programs.
Mothers who perceived that it was easy to find OST programs which were with trustworthy,
affordable, conveniently located, interesting to the child, age appropriate, and high quality were
more likely to have middle or high satisfaction compared to mothers perceiving it was not easy
to find those programs. In addition, having higher income was associated with having at least
middle satisfaction. When considering the variable interesting to the child, White mothers were
more likely to have at least middle satisfaction compared to non-White mothers.
Additional demographic differences emerged when exploring the odds of having high parental
satisfaction with OST programs. Mothers of girls were more likely to have high satisfaction
relative to low or middle satisfaction than mothers of boys. In addition, mothers whose partner
was working 1 to 39 hours a week were more likely to have high satisfaction compared to
mothers whose partner was unemployed and those mothers who did not have a partner.
Mothers having higher education were also more likely to have high satisfaction relative to low
or middle satisfaction. For the models of mothers perception about trustworthiness,
affordability, convenient location, and high quality, residential area was also associated with
having high satisfaction. Compared to mothers living in a medium sized city, mothers living in a
large city were more likely to have high satisfaction in the affordability model and those living in
a small city were more likely to have high satisfaction in the trustworthiness, affordability,
convenient location, and high quality models.
Discussion
Because parental influences are critical to youth OST participation and youths OST program
participation has a significant impact on their development, it is important to improve our
understanding of OST programs from the perspective of parents. Although considering the
parent perspective is essential, it is typically overlooked in OST research. In the present study,
we addressed this gap.
First, this study revealed significant differences in parents perceptions of OST program
opportunities based on demographic factors. Low income mothers and ethnic minority mothers
reported that it was more challenging to find activities that met their needs and desires. This in
turn impacted their overall satisfaction with OST programs.
Second, partners working hours, mothers education level, and mothers perception about OST
program opportunities influenced mother satisfaction with OST programs. However, when we
examined the effects of demographic characteristics and mothers perception on each
satisfaction level, a more detailed picture emerged. Income and race played significant roles
for switching from low satisfaction to middle satisfaction, which means that low-income,
minority parents might have difficulties attaining at least middle satisfaction. On the other
hand, to have high satisfaction, child sex, partners working hours, mothers education, and
34
residential area were critical. Mothers perception about OST program opportunities were
related to increasing parental satisfaction with OST programs.
Implications
The results of this study have important implications for youth workers. Youth workers often
report challenges with attempting to improve the quality of OST programs and with developing
programs to meet various needs of diverse populations (Mahoney, Parente, & Zigler, 2009).
Our study revealed that ethnic minority mothers and mothers with low SES experienced a lack
of affordable and high quality OST programs. Further, minority and low SES mothers had lower
satisfaction with OST programs than White and high SES mothers, even after accounting for
their perception of OST opportunities. This may explain the low participation rate of youth in
those families. However, it also suggests that youth workers need to work to understand the
complex contexts beyond parents SES that make an OST program highly satisfying for families.
For example, residential area was important for mothers to have high satisfaction with OST
programs. Residential area may simply be a proxy for community contexts such as
neighborhood safety or school setting which would undoubtedly impact youth OST activities.
Thus, to deliver effective OST programs that meet families demands, youth workers need to
understand and consider the community context of programs.
Findings also reveal a demand for more high quality programs in large cities and programs that
are available to low income and ethnically diverse youth. The good news is that when parents
reported it was easy to find a program that met one of their needs (e.g., interesting to child)
they also reported it was easy to find a program that met their others needs (e.g., trustworthy
and affordable).
These data provide essential information to expand the scope of the field of OST to include the
parent perspective and more specifically to explore parent satisfaction with OST programs. A
strength of this study is the use of matched parent and youth data, providing a more holistic
view of out of school time. However, these data represent mothers from one Midwestern state
and are cross sectional. Although our demographics (beyond gender) are representative of the
state, they do not allow us to explore demographic differences in more detail. Future research
should use longitudinal data to better capture the influence of parental satisfaction with OST
opportunities on youth outcomes.
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36
Youth Voice: Developing Future Leaders
Charla Bading
4-H & Youth Development
Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service
San Angelo, TX
cbading@ag.tamu.edu
Barry L. Boyd
Dept. of Agricultural Leadership, Education & Communications
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX
b-boyd@tamu.edu
David Lawver
Dept. of Agricultural Education & Communications
Texas Tech University
David.lawver@ttu.edu
Jon Ulmer
Dept. of Agricultural Education & Communications
Jon.ulmer@ttu.edu
Chris Boleman
4-H & Youth Development Program Director
Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service
cboleman@ag.tamu.edu
37
Youth Voice: Developing Future Leaders
Charla Bading and Chris Boleman

Texas Agrilife Extension Service
Barry L. Boyd
Texas A&M University
David Lawver and Jon Ulmer

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine youths

perceptions regarding their involvement on youth advisory boards in
Cooperative Extension. A stratified, random sample of counties with
active youth advisory boards was selected to ensure representation
from all Extension districts in the state. A copy of the Involvement
and Interaction Rating Scale was mailed to all participants. The
findings indicate that youth feel good about their level of
participation on their youth advisory board and that adult members
of the board allow them to have an active voice in the activities of
the board.
Introduction and Theoretical Framework

Youth EngagementYouth LeadershipYouth VoiceYouth InvolvementYouth-Adult
Partnership, are all terms used in youth development to describe the role youth play in youth-
serving organizations (Zeldin, McDaniel, Topitzes, & Calvert, 2000). In the context of service-
learning, youth voice refers to the input and decisions young people provide in developing and
implementing plans to guide service-learning efforts (Justinianno, Scherer, Johnson, Lewis,
Swanson, & Felix, 2001). Jones and Perkins (2005) note that youth are well informed about
their neighborhoods and can serve as worthy contributors when working with adults as
community partners (para. 1). However, youth voice is often missing in community programs
because adults are unaware of what the term means.
Why is Youth Voice Important?

When youth and adults engage as partners in the decision-making process, both groups
benefit. Billing (2000) observed that youth related outcomes are increased when youth are
38
given responsibility for planning, implementing, and evaluating their own learning. Avolio and
Vogelgesang (2011) note that having a variety of meaningful leadership roles and experiences
early in life leads to later emergence as a leader. The Innovation Center for Community at the
University of Wisconsin-Madison states that including youth in the decision-making process also
has a positive effect on adults (Zeldin, et al., 2000).
Youth-Adult Relationships within Programs

Only a few scholars have presented models to show how youths skills can be utilized in youth
development programming. Hart's (1992) Ladder of Childrens Participation assesses where
young people stand in relation to adults in the area of project development, as well as where
organizations stand in this regard. Hart outlines three non-participatory levels:
1. Manipulation: Children participate, but have no understanding of the issues and do not
understand their actions.
2. Decoration: Children are there to entertain or look good, but they have little
understanding of the purpose and no say in organizing the event.
3. Tokenism: Children are given a voice, but they have little choice about the subject or
the style of communication and little opportunity to develop opinions. (1992, p. 9)
The final four levels of participation on Harts ladder involve different kinds of adult-youth
arrangements. Hart notes that for a project to be considered participatory, the following
requirements should be met:
Youth understand the intentions of the project,
They know who impacted the decisions concerning involvement,
They have a role with a purpose,
They volunteer to be part of the project after they know what the project entailed.
(1992, p. 11)
Hart refers to adult initiated projects involving shared decisions with youth as "true
participation." Hart comments that "projects like these...are all too rare" and attributes this to
"the absence of caring adults attuned to the particular interests of young people" (1992, p. 14).
Mitra (2000) developed a pyramid model that shows a hierarchy of three varying forms of youth
voice: information, collaboration, and autonomy. Her research focused on junior and senior
high school students involved in educational change. The information level illustrates the
minimal and most common form of involvement, where youth share ideas with adults who
interpret the data without youth input. Collaboration describes where youth and adults work
together to identify problems, interpret the data, and implement an action plan to promote
change. Youth independently design and implement plans in the autonomy stage. Mitras
model demonstrates that youth voice can be invited and utilized in various forms, thus allowing
students to serve as respected contributors in youth-adult partnerships.
Jones and Perkins (2005) designed a continuum that is based on an extensive review of
literature. The Continuum of Youth-Adult Relationships five-stages include: adult-centered
leadership, adult-led collaboration, youth-adult partnership, youth-led collaboration, and youth-
centered leadership. In the first stage, youth have no voice. As programs progress through the
stages, the level of youth voice increases. This study uses the Involvement and Interaction
Rating Scale which is based on this model (Jones & Perkins, 2005).
39
Research shows that when young people work with adult volunteers:
youth programs become more successful and have a greater impact on youths ability
to communicate, solve problems, and work effectively with others; and
youth mature and become more responsible (Boleman & Burkham, 2005).
Thus, it is important for young people to be involved with adults in developing, implementing,
and evaluating programs for youth.
Youth Perceptions of Adults

Several studies have focused on the influence of youth-adult relationships and the influence on
the attitudes of youth. Lynch and Cicchetti (1997) examined youths awareness of their
relationship with adults. They asked 1,226 low-risk elementary and middle school children, ages
7 to 15, about four different relationship partners: mother, best friend, teacher, and classmates.
The relationship with teachers was rated lowest by students of the four relationships (Lynch &
Cicchetti, 1997).
This gap between youth and adults appears to be widening due to the lack of opportunities for
youth-adult partnerships. Traditional program structures where youth are receivers and adults
are the providers still seems to be the norm (Lynch & Cicchetti, 1997). As youth skills grow and
develop, they need the opportunity for more decision-making power; thus, traditional program
structure tends to preserve the impression that adults are in charge and not interested in youth
voice. This discourages youth who want to be contributors in community programs and bond
with adults. (Lynch & Cicchetti, 1997).
Social contact between youth and adults can lead to more positive perceptions and reduced
prejudices (Allport, 1954). Caspi (1984) evaluated the effect of intergroup contact on attitudes,
by comparing children attending a traditional preschool to children attending an age integrated
school, which included a large number of elderly substitute teachers. The children at the age-
integrated school, in direct contact with older adults, held a more favorable attitude towards the
elderly than children who attended the preschool without elderly teachers.
Purpose and Objectives
The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions and experiences of youth engaged in
youth-adult relationships within Extension programs. The study was guided by the following
objectives:
1. Describe the demographic characteristics youth members on the youth board.
2. Assess the perceptions of youth toward their involvement with one another as youth
board members.
3. Assess the youths perceptions regarding how they are treated by adult members of
the youth board.
Methodology
The Texas AgriLife Extension Service requires that each county create an advisory committee
called a Youth Board. The Youth Board is a program area committee that meets face-to-face at
40
least twice annually. Membership on the Board consists of eight to ten members, comprised
one-half youth and one-half adults. Youth members are typically 14-18 years old (Boleman, &
Burkham, 2005).
The Youth Board is responsible for reviewing yearly educational impacts and helping to decide
how task forces/coalitions can address priority issues. Additionally, the group plans outreach
efforts to new youth audiences and looks at new projects for implementation in the county 4-H
program (Boleman, & Burkham, 2005).
Population and Sample

The population for this study consisted of all county Youth Boards in the Texas AgriLife
Extension Service. A purposeful cluster sample was chosen for this study. The Texas Extension
Service is divided into four regions. Each of the four regions consists of 3 districts with
approximately 20 counties in each district. Each region has four 4-H Regional Program Directors
who were asked by the researcher to identify nine counties within their region that qualified for
the study. Only those counties who met the following criteria were selected:
1. County is fully staffed, and has had no vacancies within the previous year.
2. County has a Youth Board in place.
Once the counties were selected, the county Extension agent(s) in each county was contacted
and informed of their selection. Of the 36 counties asked to participate, the researcher
received surveys back from 31 counties.
Instrumentation
The Involvement and Interaction Rating Scale (Jones, 2004) was used to assess youth
perception of their involvement as pertaining to participation on a Texas AgriLife Extension
Service Youth Board. This instrument was developed to identify characteristics and attitudes of
individuals participating in adult and youth partnerships. A 10-point, interval scale was utilized
to assess the given constructs set by the instrument. Bipolar statements were used to measure
the perceptions of each participants experience.
Jones (2004) established the initial reliability of the instrument, reporting a Cronbach Coefficient
Alpha of .94. The authors ran a Cronbach Coefficient Alpha reliability coefficient for each scale
with the following results: Youth Involvement (.87) and Adult Involvement (.72). By removing
question 2 from the adult involvement scale, the reliability was improved from .72 to .82. The
Cronbach Coefficient Alpha reliability coefficient for the Youth-Adult interaction scale was .87.
Data Collection and Analysis

The Involvement and Interaction Rating Scale rates relationship quality on a 10-point scale. The
scale intervals were 1 to 2 (very poor); 3 to 4 (poor); 5 to 6 (fair); 7 to 8 (good); 9 to 10
(excellent). The 38-item rating scale included bipolar statements (i.e., positive and negative) to
measure participants perceptions of their experiences. Negative statements were reverse
coded for analysis.
The original response date to complete the survey and return it to the researcher was
September 15, 2011. Eighty-seven surveys were received by the early deadline. Nine surveys
were received after the early deadline. No significant differences or response error was found
between early responders and late responders at the p<.05 level.
41
Findings
Objective one was to describe the demographic characteristics of the Texas AgriLife Extension
Service Youth Board youth members which are presented in Table 1. Approximately 65% of
the participants were female. Due to the limited number of responses in the 12 and under
category, this group was combined with the 13-14 age group to make the 14 and under group.
The 17-18 year old group had the most responses to the survey with the groups 14 and under
and 15-16 being very close in percent of survey responses. Ninety percent of the respondents
were Anglo; however, non-Anglo ethic groups, including Asian, Black, Hispanic and Native
American, were represented. Fifty-nine percent of the participants lived in areas with less than
10,000 population, defined as town with fewer than 10,000 populations and rural non-farm or
farm (rural area where agricultural products are sold). The other 16% represented either:
Town/City 10,000-50,000 population and its suburbs, Suburb of city more than 50,000
populations, or Central city more than 50,000 populations. Because of the small number of
responses Town/City, Suburb and Central City were combined to represent the populations
greater than 10,000 category.
Table 1
Demographics characteristics of Youth Board youth participants N=75
Number Percent
Gender
Female 51 68.0
Male 24 32.0
Age
14 and under 17 22.7
15-16 21 28.0
17-18 37 49.3
Ethnicity
Anglo 68 90.7
Non-Anglo 7 9.3
Resident
Population < 10,000 59 78.7
Population > 10,000 16 21.3
Objective two examined the perceptions of youth toward their involvement with one another as
youth board members. Table 2 gives the mean score for each of the questions related to youth
perception of their own involvement. The lowest mean score (6.61) is for the question related
to youth rely on themselves to make key decisions. The bipolar statement related to this
question is, youth make few decisions for themselves, often relying on the decisions of adults.
The question youth have an equal vote in the decision-making process has the highest mean
score of 8.53. The overall mean score for youth serving on the Youth Board for the youth
42
perception of their own involvement indicator questions is 7.91, which indicates they felt good
about their involvement on the Board.
Table 2
Scale item means and scale mean score for youth participants
on county Youth Boards N=75
Question Mean
Youth have full access to information that is needed to make

decisions. 8.56
Youth have an equal vote in the decision-making process. 8.53
Youth always have the opportunity to discuss their concerns

about group decisions. 8.48
Youth help one another in developing new skills. 8.48
Youth frequently share ideas that matter to them. 8.28
Youth are very excited about their involvement with this project. 8.11
Youth take lots of initiative in working on projects. 7.88
Youth arrive to meetings/events on time. 7.88
Youth are given major responsibilities for specific tasks or

assignments. 7.57
Youth are very concerned with community change. 7.40
Youth are fully committed to their duties. 7.33
Youth rely on themselves to make key decisions. 6.61

Overall Mean
7.91
Note: The scale ranges from: 1-2 (very poor); 3-4 (poor); 5-6 (fair); 7-8 (good); 9-10 (excellent).
Table presents positive aspect of each question.
A t-test was used to determine if significant differences existed in perceptions of youth

involvement between gender, ethnicity and residence. As shown in Table 3, males were more
positive than females on their ratings of youth involvement (mean of 8.03 and 7.84,
respectively), but the differences were not significant at p<.05. Even though there was no
significant difference between white and non-Anglo participants or population < 10,000 and
population > 10,000, the table also shows that both Anglo members and those that reside in
population < 10,000 areas are more positive when ranking youth involvement.
43
Table 3
Youth Board youth members perception by gender, ethnicity and resident of
their own involvement N=75
N M SD t df *p
Gender
Female 51 7.84 1.16 0.67 73 .50
Male 24 8.03 0.99
Ethnicity
Anglo 68 7.92 1.12 0.31 73 .75
Non-Anglo 7 7.78 1.01
Resident
Population < 10,000 59 7.93 1.10 0.47 73 .63
Population > 10,000 16 7.78 1.15

The scale has 13 questions to assess youth involvement. *p < .05.
An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was also employed to test for differences existing between
youth participants perception of their own involvement based on age. As shown in Table 4, the
one-way ANOVA indicated no significant differences in perception between youth participants by
age.
Table 4
Youth Board youth members perception of their own involvement by age N=75
n M SD F *p
Age
14 and under 17 7.94 1.16 0.13 .87
15-16 21 7.99 1.05
17-18 37 7.95 1.13

The scale has 13 questions to assess youth involvement. *p < .05
Objective 3 examined each youths perception regarding how they were treated by adult
members of the youth board. Table 5 gives the mean score for each of the questions related to
youth perception of how adults let them be involved. The highest mean score (8.85) indicates
adults are very concerned with community change. The overall mean score of youth members
of the Youth Board for the youth perception of how adults let them be involved indicator
44
questions is 7.82 indicating youth feel like the adult members of the Youth Board allow them to
be actively involved at members of the board.
Table 5
Youth Board youth only members adult involvement indicators questions
mean and overall mean N=75
Question Mean
1. Adults display a willingness to accept and nurture youth leadership. 8.08
2. Adults display a tendency to want to guide youth. 6.28
3. Adults always listen to the suggestions of youth. 7.77
4. Adults never totally take over everything when working on project

activities. 7.24
5. Adults learn new skills from one another. 7.80
6. Adults always take the ideas of youth seriously. 7.67
7. Adults encourage youth to come up with their own ideas. 8.49
8. Adults are very excited about being involved with the project. 8.16
9. Adults are very concerned with community change. 8.85
Overall Mean 7.82

Table represents positive aspect of questions.
A t-test determined if significant differences existed in youth perceptions of how involved adults
let them be on the board based on gender, ethnicity and residence. As shown in Table 6, both
female and male participants had positive feelings in regards to how involved adults allow them
to be as members of the youth board; however, females were more positive than males on
their ratings of youth involvement (mean of 8.03 and 7.95, respectively). However, the
differences were not statistically different at the .05 level. The table also shows that both Anglo
members and those that reside in population < 10,000 areas are more positive than non-Anglo
and population > 10,000 when ranking how involved adult let youth be involved, yet the means
are not statistically different.
45
Table 6
Youth members perception by gender, ethnicity and residence of how involved
adults let them be N=75
N M SD t df *p
Gender
Female 51 8.03 1.22 0.26 73 .79
Male 24 7.95 1.23
Ethnicity
Anglo 68 8.01 1.23 0.18 73 .85
Non-Anglo 7 7.92 1.11
Resident
Population < 10,000 59 8.05 1.19 0.60 73 .54
Population > 10,000 16 7.84 1.32

The scale has 9 questions to assess adult involvement. *p < .05.
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was also employed to test for differences youth perceptions by
age group, on how involved they feel adults on the Youth Board allow them to be in decision
making. As shown in Table 7, the one-way ANOVA indicated no significant differences between
youth participants perceptions by age.
Table 7
Youth members perception of how involved adults allow them to be
with the Youth Board by age N=75
n M SD F *p
Age
14 and under 17 7.87 0.96 .15 .85
15-16 21 8.01 1.37
17-18 37 8.06 1.25

*p < .05.
Conclusions
The Involvement and Interaction Rating Scale measured youths perception of their involvement
on the youth board as well as their perceptions regarding how involved adults allow them to be.
46
The overall mean score of the youth members of the Youth Board for the perception of their
own involvement indicator questions is 7.90. This score indicates that youth demonstrated high
levels of youth voice and decision making, responsibility, and commitment to the project. The
overall mean score for their perception of how adults let them be involved is 7.81. This
indicates that adult show support through their commitment to nurture youth voice and decision
making and dedication to the project.
Because the Involvement and Interaction Rating Scale cannot be matched directly to the five
stages in Jones and Perkins Continuum of Youth-Adult Relationships, it is difficult to state what
a good relationship actually means. It could describe anything from a Youth-Adult Partnership
to Youth-Centered Leadership (2005). The authors believe that most of the youth experienced,
at minimum, a Youth-Adult Partnership. It is suggested that future research include a
qualitative component that asks the youth and adults to openly describe behaviors of the Youth
Board in order to better determine the true stage of their relationship.
The findings of this study also indicate the youth participating in Extension Youth Boards are
experiencing leadership roles where they make significant decisions; thus, providing them with
those early life experiences that will help them become effective leaders (Avolio & Vogelgesang,
2011).
Even though the overall mean scores for youth involvement (7.90) and adult involvement (7.81)
lead the researchers to conclude that the youth members feel good about their involvement on
the Youth Board, there is nothing in this study that describes why they feel that way or why
they feel or dont feel excellent (scoring a 9-10) about their involvement. Scores in this range
might indicate a true Youth-Centered Leadership program (Jones & Perkins, 2005). Further
studies need to be conducted to determine what action steps to help youth programs reach this
ideal level. The findings described here were limited by the sample size and population and
cannot be generalized to the larger population.
Although the findings in this study lead the researcher to conclude that youth serving on these
Youth Boards had a positive experience, there are things Extension should keep in mind as they
continue to involve youth in leadership positions.
Youth should be involved in the program development process from the beginning.
Don't ask youth to get involved after the adults have made all of the decisions. Respect
young people as equal partners in decision making by making sure they are given
significance tasks in planning, implementing and evaluating programs.
Avoid tokenism when incorporating youth into all relevant Extension committees and
task forces. Dont appoint two youth to a committee with a large number of adults and
expect a true youth-adult partnership.
Share ideas with youth, but dont make all of the decisions for them. Youth will develop
stronger leadership skills if given opportunities to succeed as well as to fail, thus
teaching them to see and accept the consequences of their decisions. This supports
Bruce, Webster, and Hoovers (2006) findings that teens feel that adults often
overshadow their own participation.
Implement practices such as training youth and adults in leadership and facilitation,
using asset based approaches, and reflection as a tool for both youth and adults
(Camino, 2005).
47
References
Allport, G.W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. New York, NY: Doubleday Books.
Avolio, B.J., & Vogelgesang, G. (2011). Beginnings matter in genuine leadership development.
In S.E. Murphy, & R.J. Reichard (Eds.), Early development and leadership: Building the next
generation of leaders, (pp. 179204). New York: Psychology Press/Routledge.
Billing, S.H. (2000). Research on K-12 school-based service-learning: The evidence builds. Phi
Delta Kappan, 81(9), 658-664.
Boleman, C., & Burkham, A. (2005). Volunteer administration in the 21st century. Texas
Cooperative Extension, College Station Texas. Publication #D-1452.
Bruce, J.A., Webster, N.S., & Hoover, T.S. (2006). Developing youth voice in service-learning
projects. Journal of Extension [Online], 44(4). Article 4TOT1. Available at:
http://www.joe.org/joe/2006august/tt1.php
Caspi, A. (1984). Contact hypothesis and inter-age attitudes: A field study of cross age contact.
Social Psychology Quarterly, 47, 74-80.
Camino, L. (2005). Youth-led community building: Promising practices from two communities
using community-based service-learning. Journal of Extension [Online], 43(1). Article 1FEA2.
Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005february/a2.php
Hart R. (1992). Childrens Participation: From tokenism to citizenship, Innocenti Essays No. 4.
New York, NY: UNICEF.
Innovation Center for Community and Youth Development. (2003). Youth adult partnerships: A
training manual. Takoma Park, MD: Innovation Center for Community and Youth Development.
Jones, K.R. (2004). An assessment of perceptions and experiences in community-based youth

adult relationships. Unpublished doctorate dissertation. Pennsylvania State University, University
Park, PA.
Jones, K.R., & Perkins, D.F. (2005). Determining the quality of youth-adult relationships within
community based youth programs. Journal of Extension [Online], 43(5). Article 5FEA5. Available
at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005october/a5p.shtml
Justinianno, J., Scherer, C., Johnson, L., Lewis, B., Swanson, R., & Felix, A. (2001). Youth
voice: A guide for engaging young people in leadership and decision-making in service-learning
programs. Points of Light Foundation.
Lynch, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1997). Childrens relationships with adults and peers: An examination
of elementary and junior high school students. Journal of School Psychology, 35, 81-100.
Mitra, D.L. (2000). Opening the floodgates: Giving students a voice in school reform. Forum.
United Kingdom.
48
Zeldin, S., McDaniel, A., Topitzes, D., & Calvert, M. (2000).Youth in decision-making:
A study on the impact of youth on adults and organizations. A report developed by the
University of Wisconsin-Madison and the Innovation Center for Community and Youth
Development, Chevy Chase, MD.
49
Positive Youth Development:
A Resiliency-Based Afterschool Program Case Study
Lindsey Brown
Recreation, Parks & Leisure Studies Dept.
SUNY Cortland
Cortland, NY
brown.lindseyj@gmail.com
Eddie Hill
Human Movement Sciences Dept.
Park, Recreation & Tourism Studies Program
Old Dominion University
Norfolk, VA
ehill@odu.edu
Amy Shellman
Recreation, Parks & Leisure Studies Dept.
SUNY Cortland
Cortland, NY
amy.shellman@cortland.edu
Edwin Gmez
Human Movement Sciences Dept.
Park, Recreation & Tourism Studies Program
Norfolk, VA
egomez@odu.edu
50
Positive Youth Development:

A Resiliency-Based Afterschool Program Case Study
Lindsey Brown and Amy Shellman

SUNY Cortland
Eddie Hill and Edwin Gmez

Abstract: This study examined the impact of an afterschool program

on resilience in youth at an elementary school in Central NY. The goals
of the program were to: (a) increase resiliency among participants, and
(b) reduce the occurrence of aggressive behaviors (i.e., bullying) in 5th
and 6th graders. Of the 79 students who completed the survey, 19
participants were able to be matched with pre- and posttests. In the
study, 13 as participants in the afterschool program, and six as non-
participants. Results of paired samples t-tests indicated that those who
participated in the afterschool program showed a significant increase
(p= 0.05) in resiliency scores. The program also had a positive impact
on decreasing discipline-related referrals.
Introduction
Traditionally, youth development professionals have focused on the shortcomings of children.
More recently, the youth development movement has taken a more strengths-based approach
to achieve positive developmental outcomes. The strengths-based approach is a constructivist
technique that deemphasizes pathology and focuses on interventions that build on individuals
strengths (Cheon, 2008). Particular attention is given to values, youth potential, school and
community, self-determination and resiliency (Choen, 2008; Hill, Brown, & Cosnett, 2011). This
last construct, resiliency, is the focus of this study, and will be elaborated upon later in terms of
a formal and operational definition.
A growing issue within elementary schools nationwide is aggressive behaviors, or bullying,

within youth, potentially leading towards peer victimization, which may be alleviated by
promoting resiliency among youth. For the purpose of this paper, the more common
occurrences of victimization, such as disrupted behavior, are addressed, as opposed to the
isolated incidents of highly publicized school tragedies (e.g., shootings and other lethal
51
hostilities). Bullying is defined as hostile behavior that is intentionally directed towards another
individual, where there is an imbalance of power, and it is usually repetitive (Cummings, 1999).
Thus, the purpose of this research is to explore the perceived effects of a resiliency-based
afterschool recreation intervention on levels of resiliency in youth and instances of aggressive
behaviors.
Positive Youth Development

As was earlier suggested, in both social science research and pop culture, there has traditionally
been a strong focus on what is wrong with people rather than what is right with people
(Hurtes & Allen, 2001), and until recently, scant attention has been paid to the strengths-based
positive youth development perspective in preventing the onset of troubles with adolescents.
The strengths-based approach deemphasizes pathology and builds interventions on the
strengths of the individuals (Cheon, 2008).
An alternate perspective to negative, dysfunctional beliefs about youth development comes

from positive psychology, a sub-discipline of psychology, defined as the scientific study of
human strength, resilience, and optimal human functioning, (Kelley, 2003, p. 49). Rather than
focusing on treating youthful dysfunction, positive psychology facilitates well-being and
resiliency in youth and promotes pro-social behavior (Kelley, 2003). Commonly, it is assumed
that juvenile offenders are in some way, defective; lacking an essential quality (i.e., impulse
control, self-esteem, cognitive functions, assertiveness, and social skills). Kelley wrote that at-
risk youth would benefit if they were supplied with ways to prevent or control dysfunctional
tendencies through programs that addressed these characteristics.
Benefits of Afterschool Programming

Much of the research indicates that between the time children arrive home from school and the
time parents arrive home from work, there is an increased level of adolescent delinquent
behavior due to a lack in supervision (Gottfredson, Cross & Soule, 2007). In New York alone,
approximately 931,686 children (27%) take care of themselves afterschool and only 15% (of K-
12 students) are able to participate in afterschool programs; furthermore, of those who cannot
participate, 36% would, if a program were available to them (Afterschool Alliance, 2004).
Borden, et al., (2005) identified four major categories regarding intrinsic and extrinsic reasons
for why youths felt they should participate in out-of-school programs:
a) afterschool programs help them stay off the streets,
b) youths feel they have the ability to learn new things in afterschool programs,
c) programs help them avoid boredom, and
d) youth enjoy activities that are fun.
Students specifically mentioned that they liked the feeling of demonstrating they can be
successful, that they had fun, and that they were given a chance to escape the confines of their
home; in both a physical and philosophical sense. Borden and colleagues also identified four
major constraints infringing upon youths ability to participate in an activity:
a) lack of time,
b) other interests,
c) adverse impressions of the youth center, and
d) parental restrictions preventing participation.
Five key recommendations were devised for designing youth programs in order to increase
participation levels (Borden, et al., 2005):
52
a) define the participants that will be engaging in the program,
b) create programs that offer children the ability to develop essential life skills,
c) allow room for parents to be involved,
d) incorporate best practices, and
e) continuously evaluate the program.
These steps are aligned with the National Recreation and Park Associations Benefits-Based
Programming (BBP) (Allen & Cooper, 2003).
Aggressive Behavior
Graham and Bellmore (2007) noted that some occurrences of aggressive behaviors, or bullying,
stem from an instance where an aggressive child misinterprets the actions of another child, thus
becoming outwardly hostile towards that child. Different types of bullying have been identified
including: direct bullying, which involves threats, teasing and taunts; verbal bullying, involving
similar actions and including name calling, spreading rumors and excluding individuals; physical
bullying, which includes destruction of property, hitting and physical altercations; and sexual
harassment, which demeans a person based on their gender or sexual orientation (Beaty &
Alexeyev, 2008). Afterschool programs utilizing a positive youth development approach alleviate
some of these aggressive behaviors. Add connection to Benefits of After School Programming.
Roffman, Pagano, and Hirsch (2001) conducted a study that explored the effects of an after
school program on youth participating in the Boys and Girls Club of America. Roffman, et al.
found that, on average, the boys in their sample had significantly higher rates of getting into
trouble than the girls, and indicated that low income minority males may express
socioemotional problems through externalized negative behaviors. In addition, the girls reported
self-esteem levels relatively higher than the boys, and these reported levels did not decline with
age. Both genders were asked to rate the extent to which staff influenced their decision to
participate in the program. Girls rated the staff as a reason for participation a bit higher than
the boys, suggesting that girls may create stronger relationships easier than boys with older
role model figures.
Positive youth development encompasses a strength based conception of adolescence (Lerner,

Lerner, Almerigi, & Theokas, 2005). Some youth development specialists (Gambone, Klern, &
Connell, 2002; Leffert, et al., 1998; Witt, 2002) have indicated that, in addition to academic
competence, youth need opportunities for appropriate physical development, and for emotional,
civic, and social competence. Kelley (2003) stated that high rates of boredom, alienation, and
disconnection from meaningful challenges are signs of a deficiency in positive youth
development. This negative youth development could cause problem behavior such as drug
use, premature sexual involvement, and minor delinquency.
Resiliency
Resiliency has been defined as the ability to bounce back, to withstand hardship and repair
ones self (Wolin & Wolin, 1993). The concept of resiliency is more than responding to difficult
situations; it is the realization of cognitive capabilities, self-regulating behaviors and building of
social support networks (Brennan, 2008). Brennan suggested that there are two types of
resiliency: individual and community, and stated that through partnerships between youths and
adults, young people can establish proper coping skills and adults can learn new and innovative
ways to approach situations.
53
Some research suggests that resiliency is innate; however, it is imperative for some children to
be exposed to protective factors that can help combat risk factors thereby assisting children
in fostering their own resiliency (Allen, et al., 1998; Benard, 2004; Hurtes, Allen, Stevens, &
Lee, 2000). Protective factors consist of individual or environmental characteristics that promote
resiliency, such as having a positive youth mentor/coach, or a neighborhood with a healthy
sense of community. Risk factors include increased levels of stress, and inconsistent parenting
(Benard, 2004; Ellis, Braff, & Hutchinson, 2001). According to Ellis and colleagues, leisure
professionals promote youth development by designing programs that promote protective
factors and hence, resiliency.
In Wolin and Wolins (1993) conceptualization of resiliency, they identify seven constructs that
comprise resiliency: Insight, the ability to understand verbal, body, and situational cues and
modify behavior accordingly; Independence, the ability to separate one's self from risk factors
or negative consequences; Relationship, the ability to form and maintain healthy relationships;
Initiative, the ability to take charge and be self-determined; Creativity, the ability to generate
healthy options and/or alternatives that will help to cope with hardships. Humor, is the ability to
play and stay light-hearted; and Morality (or values orientation), the ability to recognize one's
values or outcomes and see long-term to support a healthy life.
Benefits-Based Programming
The goal of the Benefits-Based Movement is to alter the perception of recreation as an optional
leisure activity, to a vital, human service, with preventive, developmental, and rehabilitative
aspects (Allen, et al., 1998). These benefits correspond highly with the risk and protective
factors inherent in the resiliency literature. As part of the Benefits-Based Movement, the
Benefits-Based Programming (BBP) model includes four steps:
a) outcome oriented program goals should be identified and meaningful to the agency,
the participants, and other stakeholders to ensure that the program goals and
objectives coincide with the users and stakeholders expectations of program
outcomes;
b) program components should be intentionally structured to address the stated goals
(i.e., the programmers must discover the theory (e.g., resiliency) on which
successful programs are based, and they must then find supporting literature to
make informed changes to a program to suit the needs of the target population);
c) progress toward desired goals must be assessed(e.g., formative and summative via
program evaluation); and
d) an organization must publicize its outcomes via program advertisement, newspaper
and journal articles, conferences, or workshops (Allen & Cooper, 2003).
Thus, recreation professionals in afterschool programs as well as other settings can promote
youth development, in part, by intentionally designing programs that promote protective factors
that use the concepts of resiliency (Ellis, et al., 2001).
Hypotheses
H1: Compared to pre-test scores on the RASP, post-test scores for the treatment group will be
significantly higher following the after-school program.
H2: There will be fewer discipline referrals during and after the program.
54
Methods
Development of the afterschool program in this study was informed by the RALLY afterschool
program (Johnston, 2009), a review of the resiliency literature (Wolin &Wolin, 1993) and
literature on the benefits of afterschool programming (e.g., Witt, 2005), and positive youth
development (Cheon, 2008). The afterschool program, League 56 Academy, was identified as
the experimental treatment and the elementary students chose whether or not they attended
(drop-in program).
This study utilized a quasi-experimental, nonequivalent control group design to assess the effect
of the afterschool program on 5th and 6th graders resilience. In addition, an effort was made to
track instances of negative behavior in 5th and 6th graders prior to, during, and following the
afterschool program.
Sample
The principal of an elementary school in Central New York (CNY) asked the faculty at SUNY
Cortland to help with Recreation Time (formally known as Recess Time) to assist in intentional
programming with the hopes to decrease occurrences of bullying. The problem was occurring
primarily between the 5th and 6th grade students. The program was open to all 5th and 6th
graders, which included about 120 students.
Measurement
The seven resiliency traits identified and described by Wolin and Wolin (1993) served as the
theoretical foundation upon which the League 56 Academy was developed. The seven traits
were operationalized via the Resiliency Attitudes and Skills Profile (RASP), which consisted of a
series of 40 I statements with multiple inquiries about each of the seven resiliency traits.
Items were measured on a 6- point, Likert-type scale, with 1= Strongly Disagree and 6 =
Strongly Agree (Hurtes, 1999).
The RASP has a reported internal consistency of .91 (Hurtes & Allen, 2001). Although the RASP
specifically measures the seven constructs separately, the assessment shows higher levels of
internal consistency for the test as a whole (Hurtes & Allen, 2001). Hurtes and Allen reported
that the RASP is also positively correlated with the Psychological Well-Being scale (r = .47) and
negatively correlated with the Psychological Distress scale (r = -0.22).
Aggressive behavior or bullying was measured using the number of behavioral referrals or pink
slips students received. Referrals were reported to the principal by teachers and school aides
during school hours. Thus, the definition of bullying was left up to the supervising
administrators within the school.
Design
In an effort to build a sense of community within the school, the 5th and 6th grade cohort was
referred to as League 56. In the fall of 2009, students were introduced to the afterschool
program known as League 56 Academy. League 56 Academy occurred twice weekly for eight
weeks. Each week one of the seven resiliency traits was targeted through intentional
programmed recreation activities. During the last week, a summary of resiliency was the focus.
All recreation activities were cooperative-based, teambuilding exercises rather than competitive-
based experiences.
55
League 56 Academy was programmed and facilitated by undergraduate students majoring in
Recreation, Parks and Leisure Studies at SUNY Cortland. These students were enrolled in
recreation programming and leadership courses. Integrated into the curriculum of these two
courses were program design and facilitation techniques specific to the League 56 Academy.
Students developed a Weekly Activity Plan (WAP) describing activities relevant to the
resiliency trait of the week, and including a measurable objective for the target trait. WAPs
typically included a series of six thematically related recreation activities with detailed
instructions on how to implement each activity. Students also practiced facilitating the
designated activities prior to the start of the League 56 Academy.
The program followed the same schedule each day it was offered. For the first 30 minutes, the
SUNY Cortland students provided homework assistance to the 5th and 6th graders. This was
followed by a healthy snack provided through a USDA grant for afterschool programs.
Elementary students then checked in with their group leaders and participated in a high energy,
large group activity designed to get them moving and ready for the afternoon. Students were
then split into smaller groups [on average eight] where they participated in the activities
intentionally designed to target the resiliency trait for that week. Specific activities were
selected to promote the trait of the week. For example, during the week of Relationships, the
following activities were some of the selections. 1) Trust walk/run to encourage trusting
classmates during the activity. This activity foster the idea of building trust among classmates
and rather than testing it. 2) Communalities [sic] is an activity that explores similar interests
among the students. For example, through the activity students learn such things as what they
enjoying doing in free time, or what they would like to do when they grow up. 3) Key Punch is
a challenge activity that allows for groups to have leaders, and followers to accomplish a task
within a given timeframe. This activity also promotes planning and problem-solving within a
group, require students to listen to one another and follow through with handling conflicts.
Following the activities, students engaged in a reflective learning session utilizing open-ended
questions, tangible objects, and other resources to help them process their experience. The
following table illustrates a typical day in the program.
56
Table 1
Example Program Schedule
Time Activity Description

2:50 3:05 Program Preparation & Leaders will set up any needed supplies and props for that day's
(15 minutes) Set-up program, either outside or in the gym (weather dependent).
3:05-3:15 Students will check-in with their group leaders and have the
(10 minutes) option of bringing their own or being given a healthy snack
Attendance and Snack provided to them by the school district.
Check Planners While the students are snacking, leaders will check the students'
planners to make sure they have recorded what to do for
homework, have the right books and papers, etc.
3:15-3:20 Students will be organized into a large group and participate in
(5 minutes) Deinhibitizer/Icebreaker an activity designed to get them moving and ready for the
afternoon.
3:20-3:55 Students will be separated into groups with approximately seven
(35 minutes) Resiliency-Focused peers and three group leaders. Leaders will facilitate
Activity intentionally structured activities in order to promote the
resiliency trait of that week.
3:55-4:05 Following the activities, leaders will facilitate small group
(10 minutes) discussions designed to help students process their experiences.
Reflective Learning
We will use open-ended questions, tangible objects and writing
materials to make this process engaging.
4:05 4:30 Students will have the option of working on that nights
(25 minutes) Academic Time homework assignment, asking for help with a difficult school
subject or completing an assignment provided to them by us
(they always have homework, check Planners).
4:30 Students will pack their belongings and depart the school.
Dismissal Group leaders and/or program coordinators will stay with the
children until all the children have left.
Data Collection
All 5th and 6th grade students were asked to complete the RASP before the start of the
afterschool program and one-week after completion of the program. The survey administrator,
who was the students respective teacher, asked the students to complete the questionnaire
honestly and to the best of their ability. It was explained to the students that their participation
was voluntary and if they chose not to participate that they could simply return the sheet to the
envelope after the survey had begun. The envelopes were then sealed and returned to the
researchers.
Data Analysis & Results

SPSS Version 17.0 was used to analyze data obtained from the RASP. A descriptive analysis of
aggressive behavior (bullying) was performed on the number of discipline referrals reported for
the 5th and 6th graders six weeks prior to the implementation of the program, eight weeks
during the program, and five weeks following the program. Due to potential interactions that
may have occurred between program participants and non-participants, rather than assessing
the number of referrals assigned to participants or non-participants, a more appropriate
assessment was to consider referrals for the total 5th and 6th grade student population.
57
Description of Sample
The League 56 Academy was available and accessible to the entire 5th (N=69) and 6th grade
(N=60) student population at the elementary school. Of the 129 potential participants, 79
consented to participate in the study, resulting in a 61% response rate. Average attendance
was eight in each of the seven small groups. Overall, an average of 32 students attended each
session.
Resiliency Attitudes and Skills Profile (RASP): Mean Scores of Participants and Non-
Participants
Of the 79 students selected to participate in the study, 32 of the pre and post test scores were
able to be matched. Participation in the program was measured by attending eight sessions,
one more than half of the meetings offered. Thirteen of the 32 matched sets met the standard
to be classified as participants in the League 56 Academy (attended eight or more sessions)
and six study participants who attended the afterschool program less than eight times were
labeled non-participants. The remaining 13 matched data sets were unable to be identified as
participants or non-participants and were consequently removed from the analysis. Paired
samples t-tests were used to compare participant/non-participant pretest and posttest scores.
Change scores between groups were also assessed.
Results indicated a significant difference between participants pretest (M = 4.349, SD = 0.85)

and posttest scores (M = 4.518, SD= 0.90), with t(12) = -0.745, p = .04 with a corresponding
effect size, r2pb = 0.044. No significant difference was found between pretest (M = 4.146, SD =
0.506) and posttest (M = 4.265, SD= 0.547) scores for non-participants. When examining the
gain scores (means of pretest minus posttest for each group), the difference was not significant
(see Table 2).
Table 2
RASP 40 Item Scale Results
Groups N Df M SD T Sig.
Participant Pretest 13 4.35 0.854
Posttest 13 4.52 0.897
Difference 17 -0.17 -0.043 -0.745 0.045*
Non- Participant Pretest 6 4.15 0.506
Posttest 6 4.27 0.547
Difference 17 -0.12 -0.041 -0.504 0.441
Gain Scores Difference 19 17 0.05 0.133 0.606
*significant at (p < 0.05)
Descriptive Analysis of Aggressive Behaviors

No behavioral referrals (pink slips) were reported for the duration of the fall semester for 5th
graders. Before the program was instituted, (month of September 2009, 17 school days) there
were zero aggressive behaviors reported for 6th grade students. During the 8-week program
(October through November 2009, 36 school days) there were five behavioral referrals (all
males) submitted to the faculty. For the month of December, (17 days) there were five referrals
(one female, and four males).
58
Table 3
Instances of Aggressive Behaviors as reported by the Principal
Number of Percentage of
School
Program Month Aggressive Aggressive
Days
Behaviors Behaviors*
Before September 17 0 0%
During October & November 36 5 13.89%
After December 17 5 29.41%
* Measured by: School Days/Number of Aggressive Behaviors
Discussion
This study used a quasi-experimental design to examine the effects of a resiliency-based

afterschool program on youth. In accordance with the four-step, Benefits-Based Programming
model (Allen, et. al, 1998), stakeholders, including participants, parents, school board, school
administrators and teachers, were taken into consideration when creating outcome oriented
program goals. The sample was hand-selected (5th and 6th graders at a local elementary school in
Central New York,) in order to address aggressive behaviors within that population.
Limitations
While an overall focus and use of resiliency seems to be a potential intervention to meet the needs
of youth, it is important to note that it takes ample time and effort to combine a number of
organizations, individuals, and teaching concepts to accurately tailor a program that benefits a
particular population and enhances their general well-being. This was the first year the program
was offered and while the sample is small the data suggest a positive trend toward increasing
resilience.
Data collection and coding proved to be problematic. One of the primary concerns involved the
matching of the last four digits of the elementary students phone number. This was difficult for
a number of reasons, e.g., phone numbers changed in the course of the semester, students forgot
their number from pre to post test, some had multiple phone numbers (e.g., one for mother, one
for father, or cellular versus home phone), and some students (e.g., siblings) may have had the
same last four numbers (making it difficult to distinguish one set from the other). It is within these
limitations that we provide a summary of findings.
Summary of Findings
Research Hypothesis 1
Accepted: Given the results of the paired samples t-test, participants had a significant increase in
scores over non-participants.
Research Hypothesis 2
Accepted: The program had a positive impact on aggressive behavior as evidence by five referrals
during the 36 days of the program, then 112% increase of referrals after the program was
discontinued the 17 days before the semester ended.
59
Future Recommendations
It is recommended to encourage an in-school portion so students may be introduced to the
concepts that they will be encountering afterschool. In relation to those participants who did not
score well within certain traits, it would be advised to assess whether an individual consistently
scored poorly of if it was solely within a specific traits. It is also recommended that the teachers
stress the trait of the week during school (e.g., language arts). In addition, in order to increase
response rates for qualitative feedback regarding students academic performance, it is suggested
that the researcher conduct an interview or focus group with the teachers, post program.
An extension of the program is highly recommended. With a significant increase of referrals after
the program ended suggest students need the program to cover the length of their school
calendar, not the college calendar. One suggestion would be to adopt a year around afterschool
program that models the League 56 Academy. The facilitators of this program were college
students completing service-learning for class credit, this limited their interaction time. Schools
seeking to have a program that extends beyond the college calendar could seek funding to hire
staff (e.g., college students or other qualified youth leaders) to direct the program. Designing a
program around the public school calendar would also strengthen the resiliency lessons throughout
the program. Finally, ending the program at 4:30pm in the afternoon may be too short of a
timeframe to effectively promote the resiliency trait of the week. Other successful programs, such
as the in- and afterschool program CARE NOW, which operates as a public school/university
partnership, had better results with a 10-week long program ending at 5:45pm (Hill & Milliken,
2012).
With respect to the RASP as a measure of resiliency, most of the items used to measure resiliency
held up to the various iterations of reliability and validity analyses. However, because in some
cases, stark differences were found between this studys findings, in relation to Collins (2009) and
Johnstons (2009) studies, replication of the RASP on the same and other populations should
continue. In addition, better attempts to match pre- and posttest data sets should be made.
Although using the last four digits of phone numbers worked for many of the participants, it was
problematic for others. Using a school identification or lunch number may be more effective.
Furthermore, applying more rigorous analyses to the RASP would substantiate its use in
afterschool, resiliency-based programs on a national level.
Practical Implications and Conclusion

Similar to previous findings (e.g., Collins, 2009), the use of recreational activities with youth can be
effective at enhancing such assets as resiliency. Additionally, as mentioned before, the League 56
Academy served an average of 32 students per afterschool session. These students who were not
being served afterschool prior to this program; it gave them academic assistance, positive
mentors, a healthy snack, and provided them with an opportunity to develop positive outlooks on
life (i.e., resiliency). Thus, the League 56 Academy using a benefits-based approach to
programming to promote positive youth development may be a worthy model to replicate.
Benefits-based programming (BBP) provides practitioners a framework for engineering recreation

experiences. Historically, recreation [especially afterschool] programs have often been viewed as
diversionary (Allen, Stevens, Hurtes, & Harwell, 1998). More recently, afterschool programmers
have explored the impact of intentional recreation programming utilizing a BBP framework (Brown
& Hill, 2011; Hill, Brown & Cosnett, 2011; Hill & Milliken, 2012; Hill, Milliken & Gmez, 2011).
These and other studies further demonstrate the value of using the BBP model in identifying
needs; enhancing evaluation techniques; better articulating the evidence-based research to the
public; and further substantiating the need for funding for afterschool programs.
60
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62
Parental Attachment and Eating Behaviors
in Late Adolescent Females
Amber-Leigh Rush
Capstone College of Nursing
The University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, AL
Alice L. March
Capstone College of Nursing
Tuscaloosa, AL
almarch@bama.ua.edu
63
Parental Attachment and Eating Behaviors

in Late Adolescent Females
Amber-Leigh Rush and Alice L. March

Abstract: Females demonstrating unhealthy eating behaviors in early

adolescence may continue to exhibit them in later years, yet there is
little empirical research including late adolescents. Attachment theories
suggest that adolescents with eating disorders demonstrate insecure
attachments to parents. This non-experimental descriptive study in 249
late adolescent females examined the relationship between eating
behaviors and parental attachment, and explored the relationship
between selected demographic variables and parental attachment.
Participants responded to an electronically collected survey of
demographic variables, self-reported eating behaviors, and completed
the Parent Attachment Questionnaire. Participants reporting healthy
eating behaviors had higher scores on two of the three maternal scales,
indicating a greater level of attachment. Significantly higher scores
were found for two maternal and two paternal attachment scales for
selected sociodemographic variables. Quantifying parental attachment
in late adolescent females enhances understanding of eating disorders
in this population and may help to identify issues important to address
in therapy.
Introduction
Hospitalizations related to eating disorders are increasing in the United States. Between 1999 and
2005 the combined rates for all eating disorder hospitalizations increased by 18% and the related
costs of $271 million represents an increase of 61%. One in four of people hospitalized in 2005 for
eating disorders had cardiac dysrhythmias and 4% had liver or renal failure. Both statistics
represent a greater than 100% increase in a six year period and not surprisingly the age group
with the highest rate of admission (27%) was from 19 to 30 years of age, with female admission
rates higher than male admission rates (Zhao & Encinosa, 2009). Eating disorders are not
uncommon among late adolescent females, and as evidenced by the previous statistics, the
immediate and long term personal health issues and financial burden of this problem can be
devastating. Fortunately, prevalence rates of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating
disorders in females without hospital admissions are low at 0 .9%, 1.5%, and 3.5%; respectively
64
however, this compares unfavorably in relation to the prevalence rates of men; 0.3%, 0.5%, and
2.0%, respectively (Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, & Kessler, 2007).
Eating disorders in high school aged females have been extensively researched due to the
relatively high prevalence in this population (Forrest & Forrest, 2008; Rafiroiu, et al., 2007).
Sociodemographic risk factors for the development of eating disorders include younger age, female
gender, and Caucasian race (Pratt & Woolfenden, 2002). Other risk factors are athleticism,
sorority membership, and a number of psychological variables (Basow, Foran, & Bookwala, 2007;
Berry & Howe, 2000; Cooley & Toray, 2001). Adolescent females weight concerns heighten
around 16 years of age and usually begin to decrease as they grow older. Yet females who
demonstrate eating disorder behaviors in high school may continue to exhibit them in later
adolescence and during adulthood (May, Kim, McHale, & Crouter, 2006). There is little empirical
research describing the variables surrounding eating disorder behaviors in this population.
The purpose of this non-experimental, descriptive study of late adolescent females was to examine
the relationship between healthy eating behaviors and parental attachment, and whether
attachment was the same for both parents. Because the researchers were interested in other
aspects of parental attachment a secondary purpose of the study was to explore the relationship
between certain sociodemographic factors and parental attachment, and whether those factors
were the same for both parents.
Guiding Framework
Attachment theory posits that an attachment figure, usually a parent, is a source of support for a
child to explore the environment. The responsibility of the attachment figure is to provide a secure
base from which the child can explore. The child is independent during the time of exploration yet
can come back to the attachment figure when needing encouragement and aid (Kenny & Hart,
1992). The child seeks this encouragement and aid from the attachment figure during stressful
events. The child does not possess the coping skills to deal effectively with the stressful events,
and the attachment figure acts as a buffer aiding in the restoration of a sense of safety. After the
sense of safety is reestablished, the child can continue to survey and interact with the environment
at a safe distance from the parent (Vivona, 2000).
Attachment styles include one positive attachment style referred to as secure, and two insecure
styles; avoidant and ambivalent. The child who demonstrates secure attachment successfully uses
the parent as a base for exploration of the environment, which allows the child to develop
autonomy (Kenny & Hart, 1992). In avoidant attachment the child seeks distance from the parent
because the parent is considered invasive and/or indifferent. The parent may be perceived to be
neglectful and interfering with the childs exploration in the ambivalent attachment style, which
results in the childs inability to identify a secure distance from the parent (Vivona, 2000).
Insecure attachment occurs when a child feels that the safety needs are not met by the parent
(Gutzwiller, Oliver, & Katz, 2003). Insecure attachment has been linked to poor academic
outcomes and impaired psychological well-being (Eggert, Levendosky, & Klump, 2007; Kenny &
Sirin, 2006). Late adolescence and early adulthood are vital developmental stages for exploration
of self and separation from parents (Gutzwiller, et al.), and it is at this time that young females
may experience the onset of or a worsening in unhealthy eating behaviors.
Food is a means of sustenance, and is a vital component of attachment to parents (Dallos &
Denford, 2008). Hunger produces distress in the child, and the way in which the parent responds
to the childs need for food determines the degree of care and comfort the child perceives that he
65
or she can expect from the parent. Children learn that food is used by the parent to express love
and affection or punishment and distancing. Because food can be used to express love and
affection, this creates a secure base of attachment and unhealthy eating behaviors may be a
demonstration of impaired parental attachment (Dallos & Denford, 2008).
Literature Review
The literature includes studies involving the eating behaviors of late adolescent females including
female athletes (Berry & Howe, 2000) and sorority members related to the onset or worsening of
eating disorders during college (Basow, et al., 2007). Body dissatisfaction prior to graduating from
high school predicted worsening eating patterns during college, and multiple factors such as poor
self-perception, increased stress, low self-esteem, depression, and other psychological features
were associated with both onset and continuation of eating disorders during college (Cooley &
Toray, 2001). Other factors such as the developmental stresses of transitioning into adulthood,
which includes leaving home and changing living situations, distances the woman from supportive
and involved parents, and may contribute to new or worsening unhealthy eating behaviors,
whether that youth attends college or enters the job market (Gutzwiller, et al., 2003).
Parental attachment theory suggests that secure attachment allows the child to explore the
environment because a secure base to return to has been established (Kenny & Hart, 1992). If
this is true, late adolescent females who demonstrate healthy eating behaviors should report
greater levels of secure attachment to one or both parents and less interpersonal problems. For
the purposes of this study the researchers define late adolescence as ages 18 to 25 years of age,
using assumption of an adult role (graduation from college) as the endpoint of adolescence
(Jessor, 1998). A study examining parental attachment found that adolescent females with
significant weight concerns were more likely to report increased frequency of interpersonal conflict
and poor relationships with mothers (May, et al., 2006). Studies examining parental attachment
and eating disorders among older adolescents exist, but few examine both attachment and eating
behavior, and even fewer report maternal attachment separate from paternal attachment. For
example, one study of eating disorders in female college athletes did not explore parental
attachment (Berry & Howe, 2000).
As noted, research related to the parent-child relationship of females with eating disorders has
focused either on the attachment style with the mother or the attachment style with the father,
rather than both parents in the same study (Dallos & Denford, 2008; Gutzwiller, et al., 2003). For
example, one study explored isolation from fathers, which was associated with insecure
attachment, but no maternal variables were collected. Daughters who feel ignored and rejected
by the father may develop poor or ambivalent attachment, and the fathers lack of involvement
causing the insecure attachment is posited to be a contributing factor in the development of eating
disorders (Gutzwiller, et al., 2003).
In studies that examined both maternal-child and paternal-child attachment there was no clear
evidence suggesting whether the attachment style of either parent was more likely to lead to
problems with eating disorders (May, et al., 2006; Tereno, Soares, Martins, Celani, & Sampaio,
2008). One study reported common themes among families (Dallos & Denford, 2008). In
adolescents with eating disorders, the mother of the teen was more likely to report an insecure
attachment with her own mother while growing up. This suggests that the attachment style the
adolescents mother had with the grandmother may continue forward and be demonstrated in the
relationship with the daughter (Dallos & Denford). The overall numbers of studies examining the
onset, worsening, or continuation of eating disorders in late adolescent females are limited and
further study of eating behaviors in late adolescence is needed.
66
Hypotheses and Research Questions
The first hypothesis of this study was that late adolescent females reporting healthy eating
behaviors will have higher mean scores on the Parental Attachment Questionnaire (PAQ) scales
when compared with females who do report those behaviors. The related research question was:
What is the relationship between parental attachment and healthy eating behaviors in late
adolescent females? The second hypothesis, that certain sociodemographic variables are
associated with parental attachment leads to the second research question: What are the
sociodemographic factors related to parental attachment?
Methods
Sample
This was a convenience sample of randomly selected female college students at a university in the
southern region the United States. An email explaining the survey and obtaining consent was sent
to 1668 students. Inclusion criteria included female sex, status as a full-time student, and age 19
to 25 years old. Exclusion criteria included females who were registered as exclusively distance
learning students, which indicates that they are expected to be in a graduate program of study.
Procedure
After obtaining human subject protection approval, the registrar's office provided a list of email
addresses for enrolled female students who met the inclusion criteria. A random number
procedure selected participant addresses from the original list, and an email recruitment letter was
sent inviting students to participate in the study. The email included a description of the study, a
consent form, and a link to the actual survey. To assure confidentiality access to the survey
required no personal information. The first page of the survey included an additional copy of the
informed consent information, and before a participant could advance to the survey, the
participant selected an option acknowledging that she had read the informed consent, and
understood her protected rights.
A 17 item sociodemographic questionnaire collected data including age, race, credit hours
completed, and grade point average. The questionnaire included items about rural versus
suburban/urban residency during her formative years. Other variables included the state of
permanent residence (i. e. Alabama), number of siblings, marital status, employment, and source
of financial support. Previous research demonstrated insecure attachment in children of divorced
parents; therefore parental marital status was included (Crowell, Treboux, & Brockmeyer, 2009).
Sorority membership was included based on its identification as a contributing factor in eating
disorders (Basow, et al., 2007). The sociodemographic variables were included to better describe
the sample, explore possible relationships, and to provide groups for comparison.
Self-Assessment of Eating Behaviors Questionnaire

The Eating Behaviors Questionnaire was composed of 15 investigator created questions and
identified eating behaviors such as, type of diet the participant followed, number of meals per day,
and number of times during the past year a weight loss diet was started. The main goal of the
study was to investigate behaviors associated with healthy eating therefore the only eating
behaviors items that were examined during analysis were no reports of self-induced vomiting
(coded as yes or no) and number of meals per day (recoded to 1 or 2 meals per day, and 3 or
more meals per day). These behaviors have been identified in previous studies as risky weight-
control behaviors (Forrest & Forrest, 2008; Rafiroiu, et al., 2007).
67
Parental Attachment Questionnaire
The PAQ, a 55-item questionnaire, assessed participants perceptions of the relationship with each
parent as a rating measurement of attachment (Kenny, 1987). Separate responses were collected
for the mother and the father for each item and were scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from
1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). Scale score totals ranged from 13 to 135, with higher scores
indicating a greater level of secure parental attachment. The three subscales, Affective Quality of
Relationship (27 items), Parent as Facilitator of Independence (14 items), and Parent as Source of
Support (13 items), measured specific aspects of attachment (Kenny, 1994).
Previously reported reliability includes test-retest reliability of the Parental Attachment

Questionnaire of 0.92 (Kenny, 1987), and Cronbachs alphas for internal consistency have ranged
from .93 to .96 (Frey, Beesley, & Miller, 2006; Kenny, 1987; Kenny & Sirin, 2006). Validity was
established by moderate correlation to similar concepts (Holmbeck & Wandrei, 1993; Kenny &
Donaldson, 1991), and concurrent and convergent validity has been examined (Kenny &
Donaldson, 1991).
Results
Statistical Analysis
The analysis software, SPSS version 18, was used to complete the statistical analysis. Frequencies
examined the descriptive sociodemographic data. The inferential statistic that determined the
differences in mean scores on the PAQ was independent t-test. The initial sample of 260 students
yielded a final sample of 249. A number of students started the survey, but stopped when they
encountered the eating behavior questions. The group that completed only the sociodemographic
portion of the study was not significantly different in any demographic categories from the
participants completing the entire survey.
Findings
Of the 1668 emails sent 260 students participated in the survey, resulting in a response rate of
approximately 16%. Online survey rates vary, and can be as low as 20% (Ellison, Bradshaw, Rote,
Storch, & Trevino, 2008), or as high as 60% (Pealer, Weiler, Pigg, Miller, & Dorman, 2001).
Frequencies described the sociodemographic makeup of the final sample. Consistent with the
universitys enrollment for female students between 19 years of age and 25 years of age there
were 84.7% Caucasian, 7.2% Black, 1.6% Asian, and 0.4% Native American participants. Two
thirds of the participants reported married parents. Although almost half of the sample was
employed at least part time, nearly two thirds reported parents as the main source of financial
support. Only one in ten lived at home and one in four was a sorority member (Table 1).
Table 1
Table of Selected Demographic Variable
Demographics* Yes No
Parents Married 66.3% 26.9%
Financially parent-supported 30.9% 63.1%
Employed 45.0% 50.2%
Resident of Alabama 70.7% 22.9%
Residing in Home 7.2% 87.6%
Sorority member 22.5% 72.3%
* For the categories that do not equal 100%, the
missing percentages represent the participants who did
not provide a response for that question.
68
In examining the hypothesis, that late adolescent females who report healthy eating behaviors will
have higher mean scores on PAQ scales, when compared with females who do report those
behaviors, the analyses supported the directional hypothesis. Statistically significant differences in
mean score on maternal attachment scales were found for three or more meals eaten per day and
no self-induced vomiting (Table 2). Mean scores on the Maternal Independence Scale were higher
for the group who did not report self-induced vomiting, and significant differences in the scores for
number of meals eaten per day were found for the Maternal Relationship Scale. The group of
participants that reported three or more meals per day had higher mean scores, indicating a higher
level of maternal attachment.
Table 2
Table of Selected Maternal Scale Findings*
Maternal Maternal Maternal

Support Independence Scale Relationship Scales
Scale
Mean p Mean p Mean p
Category Response
Formative years Rural 46.67 0.011 59.44 0.028
residency Other 45.56 56.99
Parents marital Married 46.70 0.010 114.69 0.020
status Not married 44.04 110.63
Number of meals More than 3 115.97 0 .020
per day Less than 3 108.39
Self-induced No 13.100 0 .020
vomiting Yes 9.778
* For the categories that do not equal 100%, the missing percentages represent the
participants who did not provide a response for that question.
In answer to the second research question: What sociodemographic factors are related to
differences in mean scores of maternal and paternal attachment scales as assessed by the PAQ,
the study found statistically significant differences in mean scores on maternal attachment scales
for formative years residency and parents marital status (Table 2). Mean scores on the Maternal
Support Scale and the Maternal Independence Scale were higher for the group who reported
formative years as rural and mean scores on the Maternal Support Scale and the Maternal
Relationship Scale were higher for the group with married parents.
There were no significant differences in the mean scores on paternal scales to support the
hypothesis that late adolescent females who report healthy eating behaviors will have higher mean
scores on the PAQ. In answer to the research question considering sociodemographic factors
related to differences in mean scores of paternal attachment, the study found statistically
significant differences in mean scores for source of financial support and parents marital status
(Table 3). Mean scores on the Paternal Independence Scale and the Paternal Relationship Scale
were higher for the group who reported parents as the source of income and for those reporting
married parents.
69
Table 3
Table of Selected Paternal Scale Findings*
Paternal Paternal Paternal Relationship

Support Independence Scales
Scale Scale
Category Response Mean p Mean p Mean p
Source of Financial Parent 55.07 104.17
Support Self 52.28 0.011 92.70 0 .003
Parents marital status Married 57.09 0 .010 109.40 < 0 .000
Not married 51.44 89.72
* For the categories that do not equal 100%, the missing percentages represent the
participants who did not provide a response for that question.
Discussion
Literature explicating risks for the development of eating disorders identify age, female gender,
and Caucasian race as associated factors (Pratt & Woolfenden, 2002). The current study did not
find any significant difference in attachment related to age, and no difference in scores was
demonstrated in relationship to race of the participant. However, this study was in a homogenous
group ranging in age from 19 years of age to 25 years of age, and it is possible that the narrow
age range as well as other similar sociodemographic characteristics may account for these finding.
Other analyses included sorority membership and parents marital status. In a previous study
sorority membership was a contributing factor in unhealthy eating behaviors (Basow, et al., 2007);
however the current study does not support the earlier finding. Insecure attachment may occur
among youth of divorced parents (Crowell et al., 2009). The current study lends support to the
conclusion that more secure parental attachment may exist when parents are married by
demonstrating higher mean scores on both maternal and paternal scales, indicating more secure
attachment.
Previous studies examining eating disorder variables have not reported clear differences in the
attachment variables by parent (mother versus father) (May, et al., 2006; Tereno, et al., 2008).
The current study demonstrated some clear differences. For example, healthy eating behaviors
that produced significant findings on the maternal attachment scales were not replicated on
paternal scales. The paternal scales significant findings were for demographic variables only, with
neither eating behavior associated with a higher score of attachment. These findings suggest that
late adolescent females have developed differences in attachment to the mother versus
attachment to the father.
The current study findings suggests that secure maternal attachment was associated with
reporting healthy eating habits such as at least three meals per day and no reported self induced
vomiting. Although the study did not find significant differences in paternal attachment related to
eating behaviors, the scores did demonstrate a greater level of attachment to the father when
financial support was provided by parents. Existing studies exploring parental financial support
and eating behaviors were not found, but previous studies did report that insecure attachment to
the father may be a factor in the development of eating disorders (Gutzwiller, et al., 2003). It is
possible that late adolescent females consider financial support as indicative of protection and
attention by the father and perhaps this provides the secure base required for exploration of the
environment.
70
Limitations
Several limitations should be noted. First, this study was completed in a non-clinical population and
is not representative of females diagnosed with or who are being treated for eating disorders.
Second, the primary investigator was an undergraduate research fellow who with the oversight of
a faculty mentor devised a tool that assessed eating behaviors. Clearly the Eating Behavior Survey
has not been used in prior research and lacks reliability and validity data, but content validity was
established through expert opinion of practicing nurses. Third, this was a cross-sectional study
and was not able to capture whether the reported behaviors were new, the same, or worse than
before, nor can any causality be implied.
Of the 1668 emails sent, only 249 students participated in the complete survey, resulting in a
lower than expected response rate. This low response rate may have affected the overall results.
Additionally, the sample consisted of a fairly homogenous group of females from one geographic
area of the United States, and therefore is not representative of the general population.
Implications and Future Research Direction

Clarification of variables affecting parental attachment should produce results to aid in the
development of interventions to change eating behaviors in adolescents in general and in late
adolescent females in particular. For example if mothers were provided with information about
fostering independence in daughters this could enhance attachment levels on Maternal
Independence Scales and may help to encourage females to make appropriate eating behavior
choices, such as three or more meals daily.
The results of this study create some interesting ideas for future study. It was unexpected to find
no significant differences in mean scores on paternal scales related to eating behaviors, because
literature investigating females attachment to their father in regards to eating disorders does
suggest significant relationships (Gutzwiller, et al., 2003). Future research with a proven valid and
reliable tool will help to clarify these findings. Additionally, ongoing research of eating behaviors
should compare parental attachment in single-parent families with parental attachment in married
parent families. The use of the PAQ in a clinical population could be beneficial in suggesting
approaches to treatment of eating based on increasing secure parental attachment.
In conclusion, this online survey of late adolescent female identified healthy eating behaviors
related to higher levels of maternal attachment and identified sociodemographic variables
associated with a greater level of paternal attachment. To our knowledge this is first the study of
eating behaviors and sociodemographic variables that examine maternal and paternal attachment
separately in this population. The findings indicate that relationships between maternal
attachment and healthy eating behaviors exist; supporting previous studies that maternal
attachment is significant in relation to eating behaviors. The study found no differences in
paternal attachment scores in relation to eating behaviors, but did reveal sociodemographic
variables related to paternal attachment. Parents marital status was the only category that was
significant for both the maternal and paternal scales, suggesting that there may be other
undiscovered variables that affect both maternal and paternal attachment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT: We wish to acknowledge that this undergraduate research project could not have been
completed without the support and mentorship of the McNair Scholars Program, The University of Alabama.
71
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73
Building the Capacity of 4-H/Youth Development
in Iraq
Patreese D. Ingram
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA
Pdi1@psu.edu
Georgene Bender
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL
gmbender@ufl.edu
Matt Kreifels
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Lincoln, NE
mkreifels2@unl.edu
Mark Balschweid
Lincoln, NE
mbalschweid2@unl.edu
74
Building the Capacity of 4-H/Youth Development

in Iraq
Patreese D. Ingram
The Pennsylvania State University
Georgene Bender
University of Florida
Matt Kreifels and Mark Balschweid

Abstract: A team of 4-H/Extension educators were invited to Erbil,

Iraq to conduct a week-long intensive training to assist Iraqi youth
workers in preparing effective programming as they build their 4-H
program. The workshop incorporated the 4-H Essential Elements for
Program Success and a Curriculum and Lesson Development
Training module. Three-quarters of participants said they were
leaving the training with a set of curriculum developed by
themselves or others during the workshop. Most (88%) indicated
they had tentative plans for implementing the lessons they
developed during the training. This project created a solid
foundation upon which Iraqi youth workers can build.
Introduction
The United States Department of Agriculture/Foreign Agricultural Service (USDA/FAS) has been
working since 2009 through the use of Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) advisors. A
relationship with Iraq youth programs began with the efforts of a former U. S. 4-H educator in the
Anbar province with the development of the first 4-H youth clubs in 2009. The first clubs focused
on teaching youth to tend sheep. Funding was provided by USDoS (United States Department of
State). Over the course of two years the 4-H program grew to include 42 4-H clubs with over
1,100 Iraqi children participating (McPeake, 2011). In 2010, the Iraqi National Center for Youth
Clubs was formed.
75
Almost half of the Iraqi population is under the age of 18 (Kyriakou, 2005). This population
dynamic provides an opportunity to impact the lives and livelihood of future generations of Iraqis
in instruction specifically directed at young people. Similar to the approach used in the United
States at the turn of the 20th century (History of 4-H, 2011) there exists an opportunity to
positively influence the lives of all Iraqi citizens through focused efforts on improved farming
techniques and home economics through instruction focused on youth. 4-H is a positive youth
development program. The theory of positive youth development:
specifies that if young people have mutually beneficial relationships with the people
and institutions of their social world, they will be on the way to a hopeful future
marked by positive contributions to self, family, community, and civil society. (Lerner,
Almerigi, Theokas, & Lerner, 2005, p. 12).
According to Karoline Scott, FAS Specialist, in a country that has been devastated by years of
violent conflict, the values and skills Iraqi youth are learning in 4-H clubs are helping achieve a
more stable and successful future (Scott, 2011).
USDA was working in Iraq and through the federal agencies, USDA NIFAs 4-H National
Headquarters and FAS (Foreign Ag Service). These federal agencies initiated a collaborative
opportunity for land-grant partners who had either experience or involvement with the Iraq 4-H
program to participate in developing a weeklong training.
Overall Project Vision and Study Objectives
Vision
The overall vision of the Iraqi leadership was to provide sustainable, community-based, positive
international youth development programs that
1) Build life skills through agricultural sciences that benefit youth in their careers, improve
their economic well-being, and help support their families and communities;
2) Prepare youth for work across the agricultural value chain;
3) Enhance and complement other instruction in language and literacy, computer, math,
science, and civic engagement through experiential learning; and,
4) Provide leadership development opportunities that promote interpersonal relations,
communication skills, problem solving, teamwork, and character development.
Study Objectives
In order to positively impact Iraqi youth, training was provided to youth extension agents and
youth workers in both government and non-government agencies. Volunteers, who are essential to
the success of 4-H youth development programs, need training in effective methodology (Enfield,
Schmitt-McQuitty, & Smith, 2007; VanWinkle, Busler, Bowman, & Manoogian, 2002). Training in
program planning, curriculum development and delivery, and program evaluation are all needed in
order to effectively prepare workers for establishing effective youth programs. (Wells, & Arthur-
Banning, 2009).
The objectives for this training project were two-fold:
1. To increase the knowledge and understanding of Iraqi youth workers of the essential
elements of 4-H youth development programs, and
2. To strengthen Iraqi youth workers skills in curriculum development and delivery.
76
Methodology
The Training Process

The USDA/FAS invited a team of 4-H/Extension experts to conduct a training workshop on
program planning and curriculum development and delivery. This activity provided a week-long
intensive training workshop to assist Iraqi youth workers in preparing effective programming in
working with young people. The training was conducted in Erbil, Iraq. The Iraqi leadership did not
wish to simply implement 4-H curriculum that already existed. They wanted the skills to develop
curriculum that was relevant and appropriate for Iraqi youth. Seventeen Iraqi youth workers
participated in the training.
The team consisted of four agricultural and extension professionals from three land-grant
universities including the University of Florida, the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, and the
Pennsylvania State University. These professionals brought extensive experiences in rural and
urban 4-H programming, agricultural programming in a variety of international settings, training of
youth workers and educators, cultural diversity, and program evaluation. Additional trainers from
the U.S. consisted of an International Agricultural Development Specialist from the USDA Foreign
Agricultural Service and the Director of the National Headquarters for the 4-H Youth Program.
Two in-country college students also assisted the team during the workshop. The purpose of their
involvement was to participate in presenting workshop sessions and to further develop the
materials presented for future trainings in Iraq. Consultation and materials were also provided by
the Penn State 4-H Program Leader. Workshop preparation and planning took place by conference
calls, face-to-face meetings, and a conference via Skype with the key Iraqi leader for the project.
The groups also met with a local Arabic translator from Iraq who gave the group helpful insight
into the culture and assisted with the translation of written material to be used during the in-
country workshop and during the web Skype call.
Using the National 4-H Council curriculum entitled Essential Elements of 4-H Youth Development
Programs (National 4-H Council, 2009), the facilitation team focused on youth development and
program components using an experiential learning model. The curriculum and lesson
development training module was based on teaching methods and curriculum planning courses
used in agricultural education teacher education programs. The facilitation team provided a basis
for curriculum and lesson development. Table 1 presents the schedule that was implemented,
incorporating the two components.
77
Table 1
Training Implementation Schedule
5 Days Essential Elements for Program Success Curriculum & Lesson

Development
Day 1: Session 1: Key Ingredients (Opening Session) Fundamentals of
Curriculum Development
Session 2: A Positive Relationship with a Caring Adult Units of Study
(Element 1) Lesson Planning
Objectives
Session 3: A Safe Emotional and Physical Environment Creating Group Lessons
(Element 3)
Day 2: Session 4: An Inclusive Environment (Element 2) Modes of Learning
Curriculum Development
Session 5: Engagement in Learning (Element 5) Basics
Creating Individual
Lessons
Day 3: Session 6: Opportunity for Mastery (Element 4) Evaluation of Learners
Formatting Lessons into
Session 7: Opportunity to See Oneself as an Active 4-H Model
Participant in the Future (Element 6) Review of Individual
Lessons
Day 4: Session 8: Opportunity for Self-Determination Writing Individual Lessons
(Element 7) Lesson Sharing
Session 9: Opportunity to Value and Practice Service

to Others (Element 8)
Day 5: Session 10: Putting it all Together (Concluding Individual Curriculum
session) Writing
To accommodate the language barriers, two translators held a key role in the training program.
The translators served as a bridge between the presenters and the participants, writing participant
comments in Arabic on flipcharts as the facilitators did the same in English. They also translated
the pre and post evaluation forms and facilitated casual comments during break and meal
functions as the presenters mingled among the participants. For parts of the workshop
presentations a simultaneous translation system was used.
Data Analysis
A pre-post-evaluation was used to assess the objectives of the training. The evaluation was
designed to measure the knowledge, attitudes, and intentions of Iraqi participants related to youth
development programming. Session 1 of the training provided awareness of the eight essential
elements of positive youth development, as well as participants role in intentionally planning,
implementing and achieving a balanced youth development program. A portion of each day also
focused on concepts related to curriculum development. Each item was rated on the extent to
which participants agreed with the statement using the following five point Likert-type scale:
Strongly Disagree =1, Disagree =2, Neutral =3, Agree =4, and Strongly Agree =5. Participants
were asked to rate between five and eight statements related to each of the eight essential
elements that were the focus of the training program in Sessions 2 through 9.
Data were analyzed using SPSS version 19. Descriptive statistics included frequencies, means, and
standard deviations. Inferential statistics including paired t-tests were used to compare mean
scores before and after the training. The level of significance was set a priori at p <.05.
78
Findings
Objective 1
The tables below report percentages of respondents who agreed or strongly agreed with each
statement. A comparison of means and percentages to responses Before the Training with
responses After the Training indicate that the training program had a measureable impact on the
degree to which the participants knowledge, attitudes, and intentions changed related to youth
development programming.
Competencies related to the essential elements for program success were represented by 60
competency statements. The percentage of participants who agreed or strongly agreed with
the competency statements After the Training ranged from 76.4% - 100%, with 30 of the 60
competency statements rated as 100%. The mean scores for 58 of the 60 competency
statements increased after the training when compared to the scores before the training. The
increase in mean scores was statistically significant for 36 of the 60 statements.
Table 2 presents the percentage of agreement with each competency statement related to
understanding the essential elements of positive youth development (Session 1) before and after
the training. For each competency statement, the increase in mean scores after the training was
statistically significant.
Table 2
Percentage of Agreement, Mean Scores, and t-test Results for Competency Statements Before and
After the Training: Session 1 Essential Elements
Before After
N % A/SA M SD N % A/SA M SD p
I can identify the key
ingredients (Essential 17 70.6 3.5 1.12 17 100.0 4.4 .514 .011*
Elements) of Positive Youth
Development.
I understand and can explain
the essential elements to 16 62.6 3.3 1.13 17 100.0 4.4 .514 .008*
others.
I can discuss the essential
elements with ease with other 17 70.5 3.5 1.09 16 93.8 4.5 .624 .016*
volunteers/staff.
I can lead discussions related
to the activities used to teach 17 70.6 3.5 1.12 17 100.0 4.4 .514 .011*
an overview of the essential
elements.
I can compare the different
ingredients that make a youth 17 70.5 3.6 1.11 17 100.0 4.3 .492 .041*
program work.
I can distinguish each
essential element from the 17 58.8 3.2 1.13 17 76.4 3.9 .658 .038*
others.
Note. A/SA = agree or strongly agree; *p<.05
79
developing positive relationships with a caring adult (Session 2) before and after the training.
There was a statistically significant difference in scores for four of the eight statements before and
after the training.
Table 3
After the Training: Session 2 A Positive Relationship w/ Caring Adult
Before After
I recall the key points in a
caring relationship between a 17 70.6 3.5 1.12 17 94.1 4.2 .562 .041*
youth and an adult volunteer.
I can repeat the important
concepts of a positive 16 68.8 3.5 1.03 16 94.1 4.2 .447 .009*
relationship with a caring
adult to other
volunteers/staff.
I can discuss the essential
elements with ease with other 17 82.4 4.0 .966 17 94.1 4.3 .606 .289
volunteers/staff.
I understand the importance
of a positive relationship with 16 58.8 3.6 1.13 16 81.3 4.1 .718 .234
a caring adult.
I am able to explain to others
new concepts relating to 16 64.7 3.3 1.36 17 82.3 4.1 .696 .061
positive relationships.
I can choose activities to
teach the key concepts of 16 68.8 3.5 1.31 17 94.2 4.4 .619 .011*
positive relationships between
youth and adults.
I know the difference
between a positive and a 16 75.1 3.8 .910 17 94.2 4.4 .629 .020*
negative relationship.
I can appraise youth
development environments to 16 68.8 3.4 1.15 17 81.3 4.0 .680 .055
determine if they support
positive relationships.
80
creating a safe emotional and physical environment (Session 3) before and after the training. For
each of the six statements, there was a statistically significant increase in scores before and after
the training.
Table 4
After the Training: Session 3 - A Safe Emotional and Physical Environment
Before After
I can define what safe
emotional and physical 17 58.5 3.3 1.21 17 88.2 4.1 .635 .009*
environments look like.
I can list various elements that
create a safe emotional or 16 56.3 3.2 1.04 17 94.1 4.2 .528 .003*
physical environment.
I can explain to other
volunteers/staff the 16 82.4 3.7 .919 17 100.0 4.3 .492 .029*
importance of understanding
safe emotional and physical
environments.
I can evaluate safe versus
non-safe environments in 17 70.6 3.5 1.12 17 94.2 4.4 .618 .026*
youth-adult programs.
I can implement activities to
further the understanding of 17 64.7 3.5 1.12 17 100.0 4.2 .437 .029*
safe emotional and physical
environments.
I can recognize emotional and
physical safety issues in a 16 41.2 3.0 1.11 17 100.0 4.2 .437 .000*
youth development program
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creating an inclusive environment (Session 4) before and after the training. For seven of the eight
statements there was a statistically significant difference in scores before and after the training.
Table 5
After the Training: Session 4 - An Inclusive Environment
Before After
N % M SD N % A/SA M SD p
A/SA
I can list behaviors or
practices that lead to an 17 70.6 3.5 .943 17 100.0 4.2 .437 .003*
inclusive environment.
I can list behaviors or
practices that hinder an 17 70.6 3.3 1.05 17 88.2 4.1 .600 .002*
inclusive environment.
I can describe the effects of
power, status, and peer 16 56.3 3.3 1.01 17 100.0 4.3 .478 .000*
influence on youth.
I understand the potential
consequences of acceptance 17 47.1 3.0 1.36 17 94.1 4.2 .562 .001*
or rejection.
I can demonstrate program
practices and behaviors that 17 70.6 3.4 1.17 17 94.1 4.3 .587 .001*
create an inclusive
environment.
I am likely to use inclusive
practices in my programs. 17 70.5 3.6 1.11 17 82.3 4.0 .935 .055
I can distinguish between an
inclusive and exclusive 17 70.6 3.2 1.35 17 88.3 4.3 .701 .000*
environment.
I can examine my program
and incorporate activities that 17 58.8 3.1 1.07 17 94.1 4.1 .485 .002*
create an inclusive
environment.
82
engagement in learning (Session 5) before and after the training. For each of the seven
statements, there was a statistically significant difference in scores before and after the training.
Table 6
After the Training: Session 5 Engagement in learning
Before After
I can describe the steps in the
experiential learning cycle. 17 57.9 3.2 1.25 17 100.0 4.1 .392 .004*
I can generate discussion
questions to guide youth 17 82.3 3.7 1.25 17 100.0 4.4 .507 .029*
through the experiential
learning process.
I can explain why experiential
learning is more enjoyable for 17 76.5 3.6 1.45 17 100.0 4.6 .492 .003*
youth than lecture style
lessons.
I can develop an activity using
an active learning strategy. 17 58.8 3.2 1.25 17 94.1 4.1 .485 .003*
I can process an activity using
the experiential learning 17 76.4 3.7 1.26 17 100.0 4.5 .514 .004*
process.
I can modify an activity so
that it uses experiential 16 56.3 3.1 1.20 17 100.0 4.5 .512 .000*
learning.
I can differentiate between
active and passive learning 17 76.5 3.5 1.12 17 100.0 4.4 .507 .002*
strategies.
83
providing an opportunity for mastery (Session 6) before and after the training. For four of the
eight statements, there was a statistically significant increase in scores after the training. The
difference in before and after scores was not statistically significant for four competency
statements.
Table 7
After the Training: Session 6 - Opportunity for Mastery
Before After
N % M SD N % A/SA M SD p
A/SA
I know that opportunity for
mastery is an essential 16 87.6 4.1 1.14 17 82.3 4.0 .658 .580
element of positive youth
development.
I understand and recall the
importance of opportunity for 16 68.8 3.7 .77 17 88.3 3.9 .500 .609
mastery.
I can describe the effects of
power, status, and peer 16 75.0 3.9 .95 17 100.0 4.2 .469 .164
influence on youth.
I can verbally translate the
importance of mastery to 16 75.0 3.5 1.20 16 76.5 3.8 .750 .261
volunteers/staff.
I can choose appropriate
activities that teach mastery. 16 68.8 3.5 1.12 17 100.0 4.2 .414 .027*
I am likely to use inclusive
practices in my programs. 16 50.0 3.3 1.08 17 82.3 4.0 .696 .000*
I can examine and identify
effective hands-on projects in 16 75.0 3.6 1.08 17 100.0 4.3 .478 .016*
my youth development work.
I can compare mastery
opportunities and know good 16 62.6 3.5 1.26 17 100.0 4.3 .478 .014*
programs from poor ones.
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creating an opportunity for youth to see themselves as an active participant in the future (Session
7) before and after the training. The difference between before and after scores was not
statistically significant for any of the six competency statements.
Table 8
After The Training: Session 7 - Opportunity to See Oneself as an Active Participant in the Future
Before After
I know that the opportunity to
see oneself as an active 16 81.3 4.0 .680 17 100.0 4.2 .403 .544
participant in the future is an
essential element of positive
youth development.
I know the success in setting
and achieving goals gives 16 93.8 4.5 .629 17 100.0 4.4 .512 .432
youth the confidence to aspire
to more challenging
accomplishments.
I can identify valuable
aptitudes, skills and interests 16 81.3 3.9 .997 17 100.0 4.3 .478 .188
that will help youth be
successful in the future.
I can demonstrate the SMART 16 75.1 3.9 .806 17 88.2 4.2 .655 .289
method of goal setting.
I can help others write goals 16 87.6 3.9 .928 17 100.0 4.5 .516 .070
and objectives.
I can identify effective hands-
on projects that promote the 16 81.3 3.7 1.00 17 100.0 4.2 .447 .072
concept of seeing oneself as
an active participant in the
future.
85
providing youth with an opportunity for self-determination (Session 8) before and after the
training. There was a statistically significant difference in scores for one statement before and
after the training. The difference in before and after scores was not statistically significant for four
competency statements.
Table 9
After the Training: Session 8 - Opportunity for Self-determination
Before After
I know the definition of
opportunity for self- 14 78.6 3.9 .615 17 94.2 4.1 .428 .500
determination.
I can list examples of self- 14 71.4 3.5 .851 17 94.2 4.1 .428 .068
determination.
I can recognize self-
determination in a youth 14 64.2 3.5 .937 17 94.1 4.1 .485 .089
development program.
I can explain ideas and
concepts of self-determination 14 71.4 3.6 .928 17 94.1 4.1 .485 .089
to others.
I can choose appropriate
activities to promote self- 14 71.4 3.7 .994 17 100.0 4.5 .514 .010*
determination.
86
providing an opportunity for youth to value and practice service to others (Session 9) before and
after the training. There was a statistically significant difference in scores for one of the six
statements before and after the training. The difference in before and after scores was not
statistically significant for five competency statements.
Table 10
After the Training: Session 9 - Opportunity to Value and Practice Service to Others
Before After
I know the opportunity to
value and practice service to 14 92.8 4.1 .534 17 100.0 4.5 .518 .136
others is one of the essential
elements.
I can define both community
service and service-learning. 14 85.7 4.3 .744 17 100.0 4.4 .514 .752
I can describe the components
necessary for a successful 14 85.7 3.8 .949 17 100.0 4.0 .267 .426
service-learning activity to
others.
I can plan a service-learning
project for youth and adults. 14 100.0 4.3 .497 17 100.0 4.3 .469 .500
I can examine community
service projects and modify 14 71.4 3.6 .928 17 100.0 4.2 .425 .040*
them into service-learning
projects.
I can differentiate between
community service and 14 85.7 4.0 .554 17 88.2 4.1 .663 .547
service-learning projects.
The competencies in which participants had the greatest gains included:
Understanding the essential elements of positive youth development

Creating a safe emotional and physical environment
Creating an inclusive environment, and
Engaging youth in experiential learning
The competencies in which participants had the least gains included:

Providing opportunities for youth to see themselves as an active participant in the future
Providing opportunities for youth self-determination, and
Providing opportunities for youth to value and practice service to others
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Table 11 presents the percentage of agreement to each competency statement related to
curriculum development concepts. Participants were only asked to rate this competency after the
training.
Table 11
Percentage of Agreement and Mean Scores for Competency Statements After the Training:
Session 10 Curriculum Development Concepts
N %A/SA M SD
I know the difference between the lecture method
of teaching and the experiential method of 17 94.1 4.5 .624
teaching.
I can identify the requirements for inquiry-based
learning. 17 94.1 4.1 .485
I can explain to others the difference between
open questions and closed questions. 17 94.1 4.2 .951
I can compare the advantages of both open and
closed questions. 17 94.1 4.0 .866
I can explain the advantage of using Wait Time
when questioning youth. 17 94.1 4.3 .606
I can design a lesson using the Backward Design
Method. 17 82.4 4.2 .727
I can name and explain the steps in the 5-Step
Learning Cycle. 17 76.5 3.9 1.02
I know how to help youth process the learning
experience. 17 100.0 4.6 .507
I can name a variety of ways to determine if the
learner has achieved the desired results of the 17 100.0 4.5 .514
lesson.
I feel confident to create an engaging learning
environment for youth in Iraq. 17 94.2 4.4 .618
I feel prepared to create an engaging learning
environment for youth in Iraq. 17 100.0 4.6 .492
Note. A/SA = agree or strongly agree
Objective 2
At the end of the training participants were asked to indicate the degree to which they were ready
to apply what they had learned. Three-quarters (76.4%) of participants said they were leaving the
training with a set of curricula developed by themselves or other participants during the training
event. An even greater percentage (88.2%) indicated they have a tentative plan for implementing
the lessons they developed during the training event. Table 12 presents the percentage of
agreement to statements related to readiness to apply what had been learned during the training.
88
Table 12
Percentage of Participants Who Agree With Being Ready to Apply What They Have Learned After
the Training
N %A/SA M SD
I am leaving the training with a set of curriculum
(learning/activity guide templates) developed by myself and/or 17 76.4% 3.9 .781
other participants during this training event.
I have a tentative plan for implementing the lessons that have 16 88.2 4.2 .577
been developed during this training event.
Note: A = Agree, SA = Strongly Agree
Discussion
Based upon the results from participants it is clear that the Iraqi workshop participants learned
about the elements of experiential learning and methods for incorporating experiential learning
methodology into their existing curriculum. Based upon pre- and post-test survey results, they also
felt they had learned a significant amount about creating a safe emotional and physical
environment for the young people that they work with. And, not only were they able to recognize
emotional and physical safety issues for young people in their current development programs, they
felt confident that they could share that information to instruct other youth leaders helping them
to create similar safe environments.
In two of the major competency areas that resulted in the least gain in means scores
(opportunity to see oneself as an active participant in the future, and opportunity to value and
practice service to others), the mean scores were rated high before the training and therefore had
limited opportunity for growth. The interest in developing self-determination in youth is a new and
growing movement in Iraq. An example of this movement is the Third Iraqi Civil Society Solidarity
Initiative Conference which was held in Irbil in October of 2011. At that conference, it was
declared that, While youth in Iraq face many challenges, they can be one of the most important
forces for change and social progress and the conference supports civil society and government
efforts to develop the youth sector (Iraqi Civil Society, 2011).
Additional Benefits of the Project
Several additional benefits resulted from this project. Specific benefits include:
The efforts of the team built upon existing 4-H efforts currently underway in Iraq. Several
of the club leaders that came together were able to share ideas across provinces and
subject matter. Ideas for recruiting and engaging youth were discussed formally and during
breaks and in the evenings and during mealtimes.
Groups that dont normally interact were able to connect with one another, establish
relationships, provide contact information and plan future communications. These groups
included government and non-government entities, volunteer organizations, businessmen
and women, and those involved in formal education training.
Youth-based curriculum was developed using curriculum templates that could easily be
exchanged across all participants. Although the curriculum developed was in draft form by
the end of the workshop, e-mail addresses were collected and efforts were established for
the sharing of curricula in final draft form. In addition, the curriculum development efforts
89
were targeted to teach the participants the skills necessary to continue developing
curriculum long after the workshop was concluded.
There was 100% involvement and engagement by all invited youth workers. This was
evident in all lesson presentations, curriculum development exercises, and role-play
activities. In addition, Iraqi attendees to the workshop were able to practice their English
language skills while interacting with the presenters and the language interpreters.
Iraqi, Kurdish, and U. S. relationships were established and/or strengthened among the
participants. Several instances throughout the five-day workshop allowed for the
breakdown of stereotypes and the dispelling of myths. Issues regarding ethnic and gender
differences were highlighted throughout the week allowing for opportunities to model
effective behaviors that create safe environments for all youth regardless of gender or
ethnicity.
There exists a foundation for starting 4-H clubs in the Kurdistan region. Currently, the
majority of 4-H activities are located in the central and southern regions of Iraq. This
workshop provided the necessary information, tools, and contacts for Kurdistan regional
participants to learn more about initiating 4-H clubs in their provinces.
Conclusion
At best, curriculum development is a lengthy, cognitive process grounded in theory that requires
extensive knowledge of the curriculum development writing process combined with knowledge of
the technical subject matter built upon essential standards and measured by indicators. Successful
curriculum writing efforts are then pilot tested at the age-appropriate developmental level before
scaling up and made available to a broader audience. The five days that the facilitation team had
with the workshop participants was simply not long enough to provide for adequate time in
training to produce a youth development curriculum product for widespread distribution.
However, the efforts involved in this project create a solid foundation upon which to build future
youth oriented curriculum development efforts in Iraq. The conference was a first for several of
the participants and relationships developed as a result of the week long interactions. It is
recommended that future efforts focus on longer term arrangements with Iraqi youth workers that
allow for multiple points of contact in-country, to provide oversight for the curriculum writing,
testing, and revision and distribution efforts necessary for widespread adoption of the youth
development curriculum developed. In addition, providing opportunities for Iraqi youth workers to
work along with youth partners in other countries would strengthen their programs. This approach
to strengthening 4-H youth development programs may be applicable to other countries.
References
Enfield, R.P, Schmitt-McQuitty, & Smith, M.H. (2007). The development and evaluation of
experiential learning workshops for 4-H volunteers. Journal of Extension [On-line], 45(1) Article
1FEA2. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2007february/a2.php
History of 4-H. Available at: http://www.4-h.org/about/4-h-history/. 4-H.org.
Iraqi Civil Society Solidarity Initiative. (2011, October). Final declaration of the third Iraqi Civil
Society Solidarity Initiative (ICSSI) Conference: Another Iraq is possible with peace and human
rights. Available at: http://www.iraqicivilsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Final-
Declaration-Erbil-Conference-En.pdf
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Kryiakou, N. (2005). Life in liberated Iraq a disaster, UN report says. FinalCall.com News.
Retrieved from: http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/article_2023.shtml
Lerner, R.M., Almerigi, J.B., Theokas, C. & Lerner, J.V. (2005). Positive youth development a view
of the issues. The Journal of Early Adolsecence, 25(1). Available at:
http://jea.sagepub.com/content/25/1/10
McPeake, J. (2011, July 7). Iraq 4-H program growing. Southeast AGNet. Retrieved from:
http://southeastagnet.com/?s=4-h+program+growing
National 4-H Council. (2009). Essential Elements of 4-H Youth Development Programs. Available
at: http://www.4-h.org/resource-library/professional-development-learning/4-h-youth-
development/youth-development/essential-elements/
Scott, K. (2011, July 5). USDA employee founds 4-H in Iraq, brings hope to Iraqi youth. USDA
Blog. Retrieved from: http://blogs.usda.gov/2011/07/05/usda-employee-founds-4-h-in-iraq-
brings-hope-to-iraqi-youth/
Vanwinkle, R., Busler, S., Bowman, S.R., & Manoogian, M. (2002). Adult volunteer development:
Addressing the effectiveness of training new 4-H leaders. The Journal of Extension, 40(6), 6FEA4
Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002december/a4.php
Wells, M.S. & Arthur-Banning, S.G. (2009). Mapping out your success: Using mind maps to
evaluate youth development programs. Journal of Youth Development, Bridging research and
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91
A Goal Setting Intervention Positively Impacts
Adolescents Dietary Behaviors and
Physical Activity Self-Efficacy
Mical Kay Shilts

Family & Consumer Sciences Department
California State University, Sacramento
Sacramento, CA
shiltsm@csus.edu
Marilyn S. Townsend
Department of Nutrition
University of California, Davis
Davis, CA
mstownsend@ucdavis.edu
92
Volume 7, Number 4, Winter 2012 Article 120704PA001
A Goal Setting Intervention Positively Impacts

Adolescents Dietary Behaviors and
Physical Activity Self-Efficacy
Mical Kay Shilts

California State University, Sacramento
Marilyn S. Townsend
University of California, Davis
Abstract: The efficacy of a youth development intervention on

improving eating and physical activity(PA) self-efficacy, goal
attainment scaling, goal effort, and behaviors was examined in a
repeated measures, quasi-experimental field trial. Ethnically diverse
students (n=64) from a low-income middle school participated in the
10-session intervention driven by the Social Cognitive Theory with a
Goal Setting Theory emphasis. Participants, 13-14 years old, made
significant changes in dietary behaviors (P=0.03) and PA self-
efficacy (P=0.02) after receiving the intervention. Self-efficacy did
not mediate dietary behavior change but did mediate the small
changes made in PA. Goal effort was not a mediator of behavior
change. After the intervention, more participants rated themselves
as making one lasting improvement in eating (P<0.001) and PA
(P<0.05) choices and/or were planning on making more. This study
adds to a small body of research with youth supporting use of goal
setting interventions for diet and PA change in low-income
communities.
Introduction
Obesity is a pervasive health issue for adolescents in the United States with 34% being classified
as overweight or obese (Ogden, Carroll, & Flegal, 2008). Obesity is associated with many chronic
health conditions with risk factors evident in young people (Biro, & Wien, 2010; Kelder, Perry,
Klepp, & Lytle, 1994). These risk factors and behaviors track into adulthood and provide the
rationale for youth intervention (Freedman, et al., 2005; Kelder, et al., 1994; Lytle, 2002).
93
Interventions that are behaviorally focused and theory-driven are the most effective at changing
youth health behaviors (Contento, et al., 1995). The Social Cognitive Theory, widely used for
understanding and researching behavior change in youth, specifies goal setting as an important
strategy (Bandura, 1986). Setting specific goals provides a strategy for organizing nutrition and
physical activity information and skills into practical and manageable steps (Strecher, et al., 1995).
Goal setting research is limited for studies focusing on youth nutrition and physical activity (Shilts,
Horowitz, & Townsend, 2004a). For youth, a literature review found only one study investigating
the effectiveness of a goal-setting characteristic (Shilts, et al., 2004a; White, & Skinner, 1988).
More recently, three goal setting intervention effectiveness studies (Contento, Koch, Lee, &
Calabrese-Barton, 2010; Patrick, et al., 2006; Singh, Chin A Paw, Brug, & van Mechelen, 2009) and
a goal-setting effectiveness study (Shilts, Horowitz, & Townsend, 2009) were reported in the
literature with each showing positive results (Shilts, Townsend, & Dishman, In Press).
Schools need education interventions that have been shown to meet needs of wellness
committees, by promoting healthful eating and physical activity behaviors, and at the same time,
impacting academic performance (Horowitz, Shilts, Lamp, & Townsend, 2008). For example, the
intervention, in this study was previously shown to improve academic performance measured by
achievement of specific mathematics and English education standards, concomitant to its primary
objective of promoting healthful eating and physical activity among low-income adolescents (Shilts,
Lamp, Horowitz, & Townsend, 2009). Schools are strongly encouraged to focus on the three R's,
reading, writing and arithmetic, with minimal time for other content such as health education
(Horowitz, et al., 2008). There is a clear need for short term, light intensity programs shown to
have an impact on both nutrition and physical activity behaviors as well as academic performance.
School wellness committees favor recommending programs shown to be effective (Horowitz, et al.,
2008).
The purpose of this study was to assess efficacy of a youth development intervention targeting
nutrition and physical activity behaviors with its goal setting focus in a low-income middle school
setting. Specifically, outcomes on improving dietary and physical activity self-efficacy and
behaviors were investigated using four analytical approaches to gain a more complete picture of
intervention impact. It was hypothesized that the intervention lessons would generate significant
changes in dietary and physical activity self-efficacy, which in turn would lead to changed
behaviors compared to the no lesson control period. Secondarily, it was hypothesized that goal
effort would mediate behavioral outcomes.
Methods
Procedure
Using a repeated measures, quasi-experimental field trial, evaluation instruments were
administered to participants, three times during the Spring of 2002: baseline (T1), five weeks (T2)
and 10 weeks (T3). During the five-week control period from T1 to T2, participants received their
usual classroom education. During the five-week treatment period from T2 to T3, students
participated in the intervention, delivered by the authors/researchers in one-hour sessions, twice a
week. The University of California, Davis Institutional Review Board approved the study. Parents
or legal guardians gave informed consent and participants gave informed assent. To support
standardized and transparent reporting for nonrandomized intervention research evaluations in
public health, the Transparent Reporting of Evaluations with Nonrandomized Designs (TREND)
checklist guided the protocol (Des Jarlais, D.C., Lyles, C., Crepaz, N., & TREND Group, 2004).
94
Sample
The intervention being tested in this study was designed for use by the 4-H, Expanded Food and
Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) (US Department of Agriculture (USDA)) and the
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program-Education (SNAP-ed) (US Department of Agriculture
Food and Nutrition Service (FNS)) serving low-income communities. Therefore a low-income,
urban middle school in central California was targeted for the convenience sample. The
participants were 8th grade students (n = 64) from all five periods of a home economics course.
Parental consent and student assent were received from 50 participants. Efforts to retrieve
consent and assent forms continued throughout the intervention period. Those not consenting to
the study received the intervention and participated in the data collection but their data was not
included in analyses. Nine consented participants did not complete the evaluation instruments
(e.g. some were members of families that relocated during the intervention, others had prolonged
absences); therefore, 41 participants were included in the analyses. The middle school had 65%
enrollment in free/reduced price meals and met criteria for participation in 4-H, EFNEP and SNAP-
ed.
Intervention
The youth development intervention was designed to improve dietary and physical activity
behaviors of middle school students living in low-income, ethnically diverse communities. Called
EatFit, the 10, one-hour sessions were delivered in a classroom setting with self-efficacy, outcome
expectancies, and self-regulation constructs addressed throughout the curriculum (Bandura, 1986;
Horowitz, Shilts, & Townsend, 2004). Lesson topics included nutrition and fitness basics; diet &
fitness analysis and goal setting; energy balance; food labels; breakfast; fast food; and
advertising. Cultural and socio-economic factors were incorporated into the intervention such as
ethnic recipes, photos of culturally diverse teens, and incorporation of culturally appropriate foods
into the diet analysis program (Horowitz, Shilts, & Townsend, 2005). Computer technology was
used to assist students in diet assessment (Horowitz, et al., 2005).
Using the results of the diet assessment, the web-based program guides students to select goals.
Of the three types of goal setting identified in the literature, (i.e., self-set, participatory, or
assigned), no type was appropriate for the adolescent audience in a classroom setting (Shilts,
2003). A fourth type of goal setting, guided, was developed specifically for the adolescent
audience, informed by focus group and individual interviews (Shilts, 2003), previous goal setting
research (Locke, & Latham, 1990; Shilts, et al., 2004a), and cognitive development theory (Piaget,
1972).
The classroom teacher does not have to assist each student in goal setting as would be the case
for participatory goal setting. Guided goal setting gives choices from a collection of practitioner-
developed major and minor goals with attributes necessary for optimal goal effectiveness:
specificity, proximity, difficulty, and attainability (Locke, & Latham, 2002; Shilts, Horowitz, et al.,
2009; Shilts, Townsend, & Horowitz, 2004b). Each broad major goal is coupled with a collection of
minor goals that are specific in terms of what, when and how often. An example of a major goal is
Eat more fruits and vegetables and a minor goal, Add a fruit or vegetable to your breakfast
three times this week. The adolescent makes an independent decision in selecting the major and
minor goals from the carefully tailored goal options, a key element in this strategy.
Goal progress is tracked during each lesson. Goal setting theory hypothesizes that the process of
self-assessment and providing proximal, specific, difficult yet attainable goal options influence goal
effort (Locke & Latham, 1990; Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981; Mento, Steel, & Karren, 1987;
95
Zegman & Baker, 1983). Goal feedback and tracking focusing on accomplishments can result in
enhanced self-efficacy for the goal (Strecher, DeVellis, Becker, & Rosenstock, 1986). Effort
combined with enhanced self-efficacy, increases the likelihood of behavior adoption (Locke, &
Latham, 1990; Shilts, et al., 2004a). Additional information about the intervention and guided goal
setting are reported elsewhere (Horowitz, et al., 2004; Shilts, Horowitz, et al., 2009; Shilts, et al.,
2004b).
The conceptual framework that guided this study was theory-driven by the Social Cognitive
(Bandura, 1991) and Goal Setting (Locke & Latham, 1990; Locke & Latham, 2002) theories and is
shown in Figure 1. Twelve intervention constructs and strategies incorporated into the
development and design of the intervention components are listed. According to our framework, it
is hypothesized that the intervention will influence dietary and physical activity goal effort and self-
efficacy. Changes in self-efficacy could influence goal effort and vise versa so as those that are
more confident will be more likely to work toward their goal. Changes in goal effort and self-
efficacy will mediate behavior change.
96
97
Michie and colleagues recommend that researchers and program developers describe intervention
content using their taxonomy thus allowing for better comparison with similar interventions (Michie
et al. 2009, Abraham & Michie, 2008). To assist with an intervention description, 26 theory-driven
behavioral component techniques from 122 physical activity and healthy eating interventions
focusing on five behavioral theories/models were identified (Michie and Abraham 2004; Michie et
al. 2009). Previous work outlining EatFit intervention content (Horowitz, Shilts, & Townsend,
2004) was adjusted to be compatible with the new terminology used in the recently published
work of Michie, Abraham, Whittington, McAteer and Gupta (Michie et al. 2009) (Table 1). Of the
26 techniques, 14 were identified as intervention content with six of those driving the goal setting
process (Table 1).
Table 1
Description of 14 behavioral techniques identified by Michie & colleagues*
and used in this goal setting intervention for adolescents
Technique Definition Example from Intervention

Provide Teach general information about The health benefits of eating breakfast and risks of
information about behavioral risk. breakfast skipping are explored via a bingo game. This
behavior-health activity helps support attainment of breakfast related
link goals.
Provide Tell person how to perform a behavior Adolescents are taught to read labels of foods specific
instruction and/or preparatory behaviors. to their selected goal.
Model or Show person how to correctly perform Students interview a parent or guardian about their
demonstrate a behavior. goal setting experiences. Parents serve as a role model
behavior for goal setting.
Prompt self- Keep a record of specified behaviors. Based on a 24-hour food diary, students are given a
monitoring of tailored printout providing a diet strength and two
behavior areas for improvement (major goals).
Prompt specific Facilitate development of a detailed Students are guided to review the offered major goals
goal setting plan, including a definition of the and to select one. They select one of three minor goals
behavior specifying frequency, associated with the chosen major goal.
intensity, or duration and specification
of at least one context, that is, where,
when, how or with whom.
Agree on Specify behavior to be performed so Students complete a contract. They write the major
behavioral that there is a written record of the and minor goals selected, sign the contract and have a
contract persons resolutions witnessed by classmate and parent sign.
another.
Provide feedback Provide data about recorded behavior During each education session, students report goal
on performance or evaluating performance in relation effort and attainment on a tracking sheet.
to a set standard or others
performance.
Provide Praise, encouragement, or material After tracking goal effort and attainment, students
contingent rewards that are explicitly linked to the receive raffle tickets which are drawn for prizes.
rewards achievement of specified behaviors.
Prompt review of Review and/or reconsideration of After tracking goal progress for four sessions, students
behavioral goals previously set goals or intentions. review their previously set goal and have the
opportunity to alter it. Many choose to make it more
challenging.
98
Technique Definition Example from Intervention
Prompt barrier Identify barriers to performing the Students discuss barriers to their goal attainment
identification behavior and plan ways of overcoming during three education sessions with a focus on
them. solutions to barriers.
Teach to use Teach the person to identify A lesson topic includes discussion of positive and
prompts/cues environmental cues that can be used negative cues. The teacher asks, What are some
to remind them to perform a behavior. negative cues that may prevent you from reaching
your fitness goal?
Provide Facilitate observation of non-expert Small groups are formed based on student chosen
opportunities for others performance for example, in a goals. Students compare goal progress and goal
social comparison group class. barriers.
Plan social Prompt consideration of how others Goal contracts are signed by another classmate and a
support could change their behavior to offer parent to facilitate social support.
the person help or social support.
Relapse Help identify situations likely to result A lesson topic titled, The Rest of the Story, includes
prevention in readopting risk behaviors or failure instruction on how to maintain, set, and achieve new
to maintain new behaviors and help goals by reviewing key goal setting concepts: cues,
the person plan to avoid or manage barriers, social support, rewards, desirable goal
these situations. attributes.
*Michie, S., Abraham C., Whittington, C., McAteer, J., and Gupta, S. (2009). Effective techniques in healthy eating and
physical activity interventions: a meta-regression. Health Psychology, 28 (6), 690-701.
Abraham, C. and Michie, S. (2008). A taxonomy of behavior change techniques used in interventions. Health
Pyschology, 27(3), 379-387.
Data Analyses
Using SAS (33) statistical software (version 9.2, 2008, SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC) and significance
at 0.05, four approaches were used to assess outcomes:
Method 1 differences among the three testing periods, T1, T2, and T3, were investigated
using repeated measures analysis controlling for participant characteristics;
Method 2 mean change scores for the control (T1 and T2) and treatment (T2 and T3)
periods were compared using one-tailed paired T-test;
Method 3 goal attainment scaling differences for T2 and T3 were explored using Wilcoxon
signed rank test; and
Method 4 the mediating effect of self-efficacy and goal effort on behavioral outcomes
were examined using path analysis. The total effect of the model was calculated by
regressing behavior change on treatment period. The direct effect was determined by
regressing behavior change on treatment period, and self-efficacy change. The direct effect
coefficient was subtracted from the total effect coefficient to compute indirect or mediator
effect.
Measures
A self-administered instrument assessed participants dietary behaviors (19 items), physical activity
behaviors (4 items), dietary self-efficacy (19 items), physical activity self-efficacy (4 items), goal
effort (2 items) and goal attainment scaling (2 items). Behavior and self-efficacy items addressed
the specific targeted behaviors of the intervention and corresponded to the pre-established goal
options. The items in the dietary and physical activity behavior sections were adapted from the
Centers for Disease Control Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) (Kolbe, Kann, & Collins, 1993).
Response range for the behavior-related items was an eight-point scale signifying the number of
days per week the participant engaged in the targeted behavior, i.e., zero to seven days per week.
The response range for the self-efficacy items was a four-point scale, i.e., one for not at all
99
confident to four for totally confident. Goal commitment/effort questions asked about
participants dedication to the goal selected, i.e., Did you make an effort to reach your eating/
physical activity goal? with a yes or no response option. Using the work of Thomas Kiresuk, goal
attainment scaling was used to explore participant ratings of eating and physical activity behaviors
before and after receiving the intervention (Kiresuk & Sherman, 1968). Goal Attainment Scaling
was developed to evaluate results of community and mental health interventions where the
outcome scales could be tailored to measure specific behaviors and goals of the intervention
(Kiresuk, Smith, & Cardillo, 1994). One scale for dietary behaviors and one scale for physical
activity behaviors were developed for this study with response options ranging from overall my
eating choices have stayed the same to I feel I have made at least one lasting improvement in
my eating choices and I am working on making more improvements (Table 2).
Table 2
Results for multiple methods of analysis for dietary and physical activity variables:
repeated measures, paired T-test, and goal attainment scaling (n=41)
Differences
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Control Intervention Intervention

Period Period Period
(T2 T1) (T3 T2) Control
Period
Method 1 Repeated Measures Method 2 Paired T-test
Variables
Dietary Behavior 55.342.14a 56.002.03a 61.412.07b 0.661.81 5.411.72** 4.762.59*
Dietary Self-Efficacy 53.271.67 a 54.021.59 a 55.541.66 a 0.761.37 1.511.20 0.761.99
PAc Behavior 14.590.91 a 14.730.93 a 16.270.96 a 0.150.88 1.540.94* 1.391.46
PA Self-Efficacy 13.020.38 a 12.930.35 a 13.750.34b -0.100.25 0.830.31** 0.930.46*
Method 3 Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test

Goal Attainment Scaling: Please
rate yourself by checking one Eating PA Eating PA Eating*** PA*
statement that best describes your % % % % % %
eating and PA choices over the past
2 months:
Overall, my choices have stayed -- 54 37 17 15 -- -37 -22 --
the same.
I have attempted to improve my -- 20 10 10 17 -- -10 +7 --
choices but the change didnt last
and I have returned to my usual
habits.
I have made at least one lasting -- 15 29 37 34 -- +22 +5 --
improvement in my choices.
I feel I have made at least one -- 12 24 37 34 -- +25 +1 --

lasting improvement in my choices 0
and I am working on making more
improvements.
a,b
Groups sharing common superscript are not significantly different from each other (p<0.05)
*
p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001
c
PA=physical activity
Reliability of the YRBS items with a nationally representative sample of adolescents indicated
Kappas ranging from 91.1-64.2% (Brener, Collins, Kann, Warren, & Williams, 1995). Using the
concurrent method of Willis, all items adapted from the YRBS for this study were cognitively tested
100
with individual 8th grade students (n = 16), revised and retested (Willis, 1994). Items were
evaluated for content validity by experts in behavioral nutrition (n = 3). The instrument was pilot
tested with 6-8th students (n = 34) and revised (Shilts, Townsend, & Horowitz, 2002). Seventh and
8th grade students (n = 46) completed the revised instrument on two occasions, three weeks
apart, with no intervention (Litwin, 1995). Reliability coefficients were 0.73 for dietary behavior
items, 0.55 for physical activity behavior items, 0.59 for dietary self-efficacy items and .48 for
physical activity self-efficacy items. Scales and instruments used with adults are thought to have
good test retest reliability with coefficients of 0.7 or greater (Litwin, 1995). The coefficients for
the dietary behavior items met this criterion. The other coefficients are lower than 0.7, indicating
more random error associated with the items. Because the reliability assessments were conducted
with 12-14 year olds, the results are marginally acceptable for the purposes of this study.
Correlations are dependent on sample size and we recognize that data was collected from a small
sample and future assessments should include more adolescents. In a separate sample collected
from EFNEP youth participants over a three-year period, middle school students (n = 403)
completed the instrument at one point in time to determine internal consistency scores using
Cronbach Alpha (Litwin, 1995). Internal consistency scores were =0.54 for dietary behavior
items (n=19), =0.65 for physical activity behavior items (n=4), =0.82 for dietary self-efficacy
items (n=19), and =0.72 for physical activity self-efficacy items (n=4).
Results
The mean age of the participants (n=41) was 14.0.4 with more than half being male (63%).
Ethnicity was reported by the teacher as 37% Asian, 27% Hispanic, 20% non-Hispanic white, 12%
non-Hispanic black, 2% Middle Eastern and 2% multiethnic. Teacher-report was used, because in
our previous research youth had difficulty making this determination (Townsend, Johns, Shilts, &
Farfan-Ramirez, 2006).
Four Analytical Methods

1) Comparison of Means using Repeated Measures
Dietary behavior (P=0.01) and physical activity self-efficacy (P=0.03) mean scores were different
at the three testing times, T1, T2, and T3 (Table 2). Dietary self-efficacy (P=0.35) and physical
activity behavior (P=0.23) mean scores were not.
2) Comparison of Difference Scores Using Paired t-test
Comparing the difference score for the control period (T2 T1) to the difference score for the
treatment period (T3 T2), participants made gains in dietary behavior scores (P = 0.03) and
physical activity self-efficacy scores (P = 0.02) (Table 2).
3) Goal Attainment Scaling
More participants before the intervention rated themselves as making no changes in eating
choices, 54% vs. 17% (Table 2) compared to after the intervention. Similarly, more participants
before the intervention rated themselves as making no changes in physical activity levels, 37% vs.
15%. After the intervention, more participants rated themselves as making one lasting
improvement in dietary (37% vs. 12%, P < 0.0001) and physical activity choices (34% vs. 24%, P
< 0.05) and/or were planning to make more compared to the control period. Participants made,
on average, one full point increase in the scale for dietary behaviors and 0.5 point increase for
physical activity behaviors (Table 2).
4) Path Analysis
Self-efficacy. Approximately 80% of the change in physical activity behaviors was
mediated by the self-efficacy variable ( = 1.33) while the remaining change was a direct
101
effect of the other intervention components ( = 0.25) (Figure 1). Conversely, change in
dietary behaviors was primarily a direct effect of other intervention components ( = 4.54)
with a non-significant indirect effect of change in self-efficacy ( = 0.92).
Goal effort. Goal commitment/effort is reported by Locke to be an indicator of the
success of the intervention in the organizational behavior literature (Locke, Latham, & Erez,
1988) which has provided the foundation for goal setting research in health settings
(Cullen, Baranowski, & Smith, 2001; Shilts, et al., 2004a; Strecher, et al., 1995). Our
participants were asked at T3 if they made an effort to reach their eating and physical
activity goals. Although most participants reported making effort to reach their eating
(87%) and physical activity (89%) goals, this variable did not mediate behavior change in
the path analysis.
Discussion
Method 1 (repeated measures) and method 2 (paired T-test) suggest that significant change in
dietary behaviors and physical activity self-efficacy occurred. These results compare favorably to
studies of adolescent obesity prevention interventions of longer duration using computer tailoring
(Haerens, De Bourdeaudhuij, et al., 2006; Haerens, Deforche, et al., 2006) and goal setting
(Contento, et al., 2010; Singh, Chin A Paw, Brug, & van Mechelen, 2007; Singh, et al., 2009;
Singh, et al., 2006) as behavioral strategies. A recent meta-analysis found that goal setting was
one of two promising intervention components to modify dietary fat, fruit and vegetable intake
(Ammerman, Lindquist, Lohr, & Hersey, 2002). Other reviews have identified four additional
components as valuable for targeting childhood obesity: combining nutrition and physical activity
education (Bautista-Castano, Doreste, & Serra-Majem, 2004); ensuring developmental and cultural
appropriateness (Hoelscher, Evans, Parcel, & Kelder, 2002; Seo, & Sa, 2010); use of computer
technology (Hoelscher, et al., 2002; Seo, & Sa, 2010); and incorporation of family involvement
(Bautista-Castano, et al., 2004; Seo, & Sa, 2010). Our intervention contained these four
components (Horowitz, et al., 2004).
Assessing goal attainment scaling in Method 3 provided additional information as to why dietary
behavior improved, but not physical activity behavior. Fewer students reported making one lasting
improvement in physical activity behaviors (change of +15%) compared to dietary behaviors
(change of + 47%) after receiving the intervention. In addition, after the intervention, more
students reported attempting to change physical activity behaviors but returning to usual habits
(change of +7%) compared to dietary behaviors (change of -10%). This finding may explain why
changes in dietary behavior and physical activity self-efficacy were observed (Methods 1 and 2)
but not change in physical activity behavior. Students may have been sufficiently confident
enough to try new physical activities during the intervention but not maintain them.
Path analyses (Method 4) provided information on how these changes might have occurred. The
intervention leading to changed dietary behavior ( = 4.54, P = 0.01) is direct i.e., using
intervention components other than dietary self-efficacy. It did not operate through self-efficacy
or, at least, not as it was measured. The change in self-efficacy is only marginally related to
change in behavior ( = 0.92, P = 0.09). Difficulties detecting relationships between self-efficacy
and dietary intake in youth have been reported in the literature (Baranowski et al., 2010). The
random error associated with the mediocre reliability coefficient of r=0.59 for the dietary self-
efficacy variable is one explanation as well as our small sample size. Another explanation for these
unexpected results for dietary self-efficacy is response-shift bias (Howard, & Dailey, 1979).
Response-shift bias occurs when the participant rates himself differently post-intervention after
acquiring new information related to the test item causing the standard of measurement to shift
102
from pre-intervention (Cook, & Campbell, 1979; Howard, & Dailey, 1979). Participants in this
study may have had unrealistically high expectations for their capabilities prior to the intervention
as noted on the pre-test. Similar findings in adults have been reported for self-efficacy in previous
nutrition education research (Bogers, Brug, Assema, & Dagnelie, 2004; Brug, Assema, Kok,
Lenderink, & Glanz, 1994). Presumably, participants are more realistic about their capabilities
after the intervention, masking actual changes in confidence when using a traditional pre/post
measure (Aiken, & West, 1990; Howard, et al., 1979; Pratt, McGuigan, & Katzeva, 2001; Rohs,
Langone, & Coleman, 2001; Shilts, Smith, Ontai, & Townsend, 2008). There is some evidence to
suggest that administering the self-efficacy measure retrospectively to dampen a response-shift
bias may provide a more accurate reflection of change (Aiken, & West, 1990; Pratt, et al., 2001;
Rohs, et al., 2001; Shilts, et al., 2008). Comparing the analyses from Methods 1 and 2, the results
are consistent.
At the same time, the physical activity path analysis is more difficult to interpret. The intervention
is related to change in self-efficacy, which in turn, is related to change in behavior ( = 1.33). But
the intervention is only marginally related to change in behavior in total, and not at all related in
terms of direct effects ( = 0.25). One conclusion is that there is only a weak relationship
between the intervention and change in physical activity behavior. However, what relationship
exists appears to be almost completely mediated by change in self-efficacy. This result supports
the SCT premise that increasing self-efficacy increases the likelihood of behavior change (Bandura,
1986).
Path analysis indicates that goal commitment (Method 4) did not provide any additional
information clarifying intervention impact. Participants reported high goal commitment
contributing some evidence that the guided goal setting process was well accepted by this
adolescent audience as an appropriate technique for improving dietary behaviors and physical
activity self-efficacy. Goal commitment was measured using a retrospective (T3 only) binary
variable (i.e., Did you make an effort to reach your eating/ physical activity goal? with a yes or no
response option). This type of weak measure may be one reason why goal commitment did not
appear as a mediator to behavior change in our study. Using the goal commitment scale
developed by Klein, Wesson, Hollenbeck, Wright and DeShon with its series of questions with
Likert response options may provide richer data and prove to be a more useful variable in path
analyses (Klein, Wesson, Hollenbeck, Wright, & DeShon, 2001).
Limitations of our study include a small sample size, use of self-report measures, and a quasi-
experimental design. Improving the psychometric properties of the data collection tools would be
valuable and increase the likelihood of capturing existing change. External generalizability is
limited because the sample was from one school and not randomly drawn.
Implications for Research and Practices
The youth development intervention with a focus on guided goal setting appears to contain an
appropriate behavior change strategy for this youth audience as it bridges the gap between time
intensive participatory goal setting and the paternalistic approach of prescribed goals. This study
adds to a small body of research with youth supporting use of goal setting interventions for diet
and physical activity change. Future translational research should include using these pilot results
to plan a large scale delivery and evaluation investigating the effectiveness of this youth
development intervention using the educator as the unit of analysis.
103
Acknowledgements:
We wish to thank Marcel Horowitz, Joyce Bishop, Larissa Leavens, Earl Merrill, Jan Peerson, and Mrs. Suzi
Post and her students for helping the study come to fruition.
Funding:
Funding for the evaluation study was provided by the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program
(EFNEP) and University of California, Davis Department of Nutrition. Funding for curriculum development
was provided by the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Education Program, and EFNEP. The American
Distance Education Consortium funded www.eatfit.net development and the Center for Advanced Studies in
Nutrition and Social Marketing funded the pilot testing of the intervention.
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Teen Ambassador Leadership Kit (TALK)
Donna R. Gillespie
University of Idaho Extension, Minidoka County
Rupert, ID
donna@uidaho.edu
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Teen Ambassador Leadership Kit (TALK)
Donna R. Gillespie
University of Idaho Extension, Minidoka County
Abstract: Teen Ambassador Leadership Kit, (TALK), is an annual

weekend retreat designed for teens interested in promoting and
marketing 4-H in their communities. TALK organizers felt teens
would benefit from an intensive weekend retreat focused on
communication. TALK produces a network of educated and excited
4-H teens that are available to help with 4-H promotion and
marketing. Participants arrive on Friday evening for team building
activities, on Saturday they participate in one of the workshops
offered and on Sunday morning each workshop group has the
opportunity to share their completed projects and what they
learned. At the conclusion of the retreat, teens are designated
"County 4-H Ambassadors" and certificates of completion,
professional business cards and polo shirts are presented. The TALK
teen participants return home to share what they learned with their
local county 4-H staff and help promote and market 4-H in their
communities.
Introduction
The Idaho 4-H Teen TALK (Teen Ambassador Leadership Kit) Retreat inspires and builds
confidence in youth who want to learn how to promote 4-H in their communities, as well as for
those who want to plan and organize 4-H events. Tufts University studies on The Positive
Development of Youth, Wave 8, (Lerner, Lerner & Colleagues, 2011) includes the 6th "C",
contribution, and notes that 4-H youth are 3.4 times more likely to actively contribute to their
communities when compared with youth who do not participate in 4-H. TALK, an annual statewide
retreat, was designed to encourage and aide teen's willingness to contribute and teach the life
skills they need to organize community events and promote 4-H Youth Development.
In their research looking at 4-H enrollment and retention, Harder, Lamm, Lamm, Rose and Rask
(2005), observed that the steady decline in the member population begins at age twelve and
continues on through age eighteen. After considering the factors that affect older 4-H member's
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choices to remain engaged, Gill, Ewing, and Bruce (2010), recommended designing programs and
activities that promote personal growth and life skill building. Idaho 4-H statistics from 2011 show
only 12% of total enrolled youth are currently in grades 10-12, (Idaho ES 237), nationwide
numbers from the Annual 4-H Youth Development Enrollment Report (2003) show 8% of the total
at this grade level. With this in mind, the TALK organizers felt teens would benefit directly from an
intensive weekend retreat focusing on communication that was both challenging and fun.
The Tufts University study, (Lerner, Lerner, & Colleagues, 2011), found that youth in grades five
through eleven show the same likelihood of contribution as do twelfth graders. In Idaho, 4-H
teens ninth through twelfth grade, have an opportunity to attend the Idaho 4-H Teen Ambassador
training each fall and learn skills in public speaking (Shelstad, & Peutz, 2009). Younger teens in
Idaho have indicated an interest in leadership roles and needed a venue to learn communication
skills; the TALK retreat was created to meet this need. An alternative training, such as TALK, was
also needed for youth who could not travel long distances to the state ambassador training but still
wanted to learn communication skills and become 4-H Ambassadors at the county level. (Gillespie,
Bywater, Kent, & Kimball, 2009).
Program Design
TALK was developed through a partnership between University of Idaho (UI) Extension faculty,
4-H professionals, youth and volunteers. Each of the planning committee members are responsible
for teaching a workshop, as well as coordinating other parts of the weekend retreat. All of the
housekeeping, cooking and extra activities are lead by adult volunteer chaperones and
participating teens. The United Dairymen of Idaho and local community businesses donate food,
supplies and educational materials. Guest speakers have included Miss Rodeo Idaho, a local
restaurateur, area Police Departments, local independent business owners, county 4-H teen
councils, the Albion Historic Museum curator, State 4-H Ambassador youth and UI student interns.
TALK is held in March at Campus Grove in Albion, ID. The facility is the former Albion State Normal
School and encompasses several acres of lawn and a renovated dormitory. It is now a privately
owned retreat center. The location is somewhat isolated and space is limited but the retreat
atmosphere provides a perfect setting to focus on learning valuable life skills while having fun
with other teens from across Idaho. TALK is limited to forty-eight teens each year and in three of
the first four years registration has been filled, with more teens on a waiting list to attend.
Teens may attend TALK for two years, currently fifty-three youth have returned for the second
year although more are expected since the two years do not have to be completed consequently.
Workshops offered on even years include writing press releases, creating posters and a personality
awareness session. Teens who participate on odd years attend workshops on event planning, goal
setting and interviewing skills. At the end of two years, the teens have a completed binder of
information called the Teen Ambassador Leadership Kit. Resources about photography, basic 4-H
information and other materials from workshops or guest speakers are also included. This kit
provides the tools teens need to solve some of the challenges they face when promoting and
marketing 4-H. Ambassador polo shirts and business cards are also provided. In addition to 4-H,
TALK participants are encouraged to become involved in other community organizations with
active youth and adult partnerships. Flynn, Frick and Steele (2010) determined that experiences
that contributed most to Montana 4-H alumni becoming involved in community leadership were
related to conducting meetings, developing leadership skills and participating in community
activities. TALK is providing these life skills for Idaho 4-H teens.
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Program Evaluation
Twenty-nine teens, representing seven counties throughout Idaho registered for the 2009 TALK
retreat. In 2010, forty-eight teens (the retreat maximum) representing thirteen counties attended,
in 2011, forty-eight teens from fifteen counties participated and in 2012 forty-two teens from
fourteen counties attended (Gillespie, Bywater, Kimball, Cummins & Barfuss 2012).
Participants complete evaluations at the conclusion of the retreat each year. The teens are asked
about their experience and how they have used the information. The 4-H professionals are asked
to determine the ways teens are using the communication skills they learned and the effectiveness
of the TALK retreat. Evaluations strongly indicated a need for this type of training and TALK
appears to be successfully meeting that need. Funding for this training has been provided in part
by the Idaho Friends of 4-H (4-H Endowment Account). Because the results have shown the
program to be beneficial to youth in the state, funding has continued each year for the past five
years.
Evaluations completed at the end of the weekend retreat asked participants to rate the registration
process, workshops, activities, food and facilities. Teens were asked to list how they planned to
use the information they received in the workshops, what was the most useful part of the
workshop and suggestions for improvement, 100% of participants responded.
When asked how they plan to use the information gained at their respective workshops teens
replied:
I want to be able to teach little kids about how awesome 4-H can be, the things I learned
are going to be a huge help.
I plan to use it when working with people I have a hard time getting along with.
I plan on going out and making my own press releases.
In promoting leadership projects in my community.
Use it to get more members into the 4-H program.
I understand why we think and act like we do; I can better understand someone I didnt
get along with.
While planning for the third year, of the program, two questionnaires, using Survey Monkey were
developed. The first instrument was for former TALK participants and the second one was for the
county 4-H professional in the youths respective county. The survey for youth participants
included questions about when they attended TALK, their age and grade, how they learned about
the retreat, why they decided to attend, if they had encouraged others to attend, if they used the
TALK materials they received, did they feel prepared to market and promote 4-H, and what
specifically they had done after attending TALK. The teens were also asked if they wore their
Ambassador polo shirts and used the business cards they were provided. Retreat participants
were also asked what they thought the three best things were about TALK, the three most useful
things about TALK and if there were additional materials that could have been provided to better
prepare them to promote and market 4-H when they got home. Survey responses were received
from 49% of the teens who had attended TALK; half had attended in 2009 and half in 2010.
Some results from the teens responses include:

67% felt they were prepared to go home and promote 4-H on their own
83% would ask County 4-H staff if they could help with activities
33% were using TALK materials to promote 4-H
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50% referred to TALK materials to make posters and presentations
83% always wore their Ambassador polo shirt when promoting 4-H
83% used their Ambassador business cards
100% promoted, marketed or helped at a 4-H activity because of attending TALK
50% completed county 4-H Leadership projects as a result of attending TALK
According to the comments made by the teen participants, the best thing about attending TALK
was:
Meeting new people who shared my interests
Learned more about how to be professional
Making new friends
Help in writing stories for media
Gaining new ideas
The most useful things learned at TALK:

How to make posters
How to write a story for a newspaper
How to make a press kit
Learning about the different personalities of people
Sharing responsibilities
The most useful things included in TALK materials:

Dress For Success guidelines
Business cards
UI Extension office contact information (emails and phone numbers)
Personalized notebooks
Etiquette information
The survey administered to 4-H professionals asked what kind of interaction they had with the
teens who returned from TALK, the quality of the help they received from the teens, if the teens
used the materials they received at TALK, if they had contacted the TALK teens to help or if not
why not, and to name three important skills the teens learned at the retreat or three skills that the
teens seemed to be lacking. Surveys were received from 4-H professionals in eleven of the thirteen
counties who had teens participating.
Some results from the 4-H staffs responses include:

40% had teens contact them and ask to help with 4-H activities
70% called on TALK teens to come help with 4-H activities
20% thought the TALK teens quality of help was excellent
60% thought the TALK teens quality of help was pretty good
20% had no contact with TALK teens
The two 4-H professionals who reported they had no contact with TALK teens or had not asked
them to help were then asked why this occurred. The responses received were; its easier to do it
myself and dont really have the energy to engage them.
4-H staff felt the best skills gained by teens who attended TALK were:
Confidence
Willingness to participate, assist and perform public speaking
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Better knowledge of the 4-H program
Overcoming fear of meeting people
Enthusiasm
Better communication skills
Teamwork
Setting goals and recognizing steps to accomplishing a task
4-H staff felt the skills lacked by teens who attended TALK were:
Time management
How to be a self-starter
Follow through
Confidence to ask their Extension office for help or advice
Why it is important to help your county promote 4-H
Conclusion
To summarize, the evaluation results indicated youth who attended TALK returned home to help
promote 4-H locally and were prepared with the training and materials they received to
successfully do so. The local 4-H staff is working with the TALK teens, is appreciative of the
training and felt the teens have gained skills such as confidence, willingness to participate, better
knowledge of the 4-H program and the ability to speak in front of people.
Because the evaluation results have been so positive and the program continues to grow each
year, program organizers have been invited to present workshops at various State Leaders Forums
and the Statewide 4-H Trainings. Two UI Extension Impact Statements were also created to share
the results of the program with University administration and other relevant stakeholders. The
2011 IAE4-HA State Award for Search for Excellence in Teen Programming was awarded to the
Idaho 4-H Teen TALK coordinator. In 2012 the TALK planning committee was awarded the NAE4-
HA State and Regional (West) Search for Excellence in Teen Programming Team.
The youth attending TALK are all active 4-H members, but the life skills achieved by participants
could be gained at leadership workshops sponsored by other youth development agencies such as
Boys and Girls Clubs, church youth groups or Scouts. By following the retreat format developed by
the TALK planning committee, goal setting, communication, public speaking and program
marketing skills could all be acquired by their participants as well.
References
Flynn, A., Frick, M., & Steele, D. (2010). Relationship Between Participation in 4-H and Community
Leadership in Rural Montana. Journal of Extension (48:2). On line at:
www.joe.org/joe/2010april/rb1.php.
Gill, B.E., Ewing, J.C., & Bruce, J.A. (2010). Factors Affecting Teen Involvement in Pennsylvania 4-
H Programming, Journal of Extension (48:2). One line at:
www.joe.org/joe/2010april/pdf/JOE_v48_2a7.pdf.
Gillespie, D.R., Bywater, J., Kent, A., & Kimball, K. (2009). Teen Ambassador Leadership Kit
teens learn about TALK. University of Idaho Extension Impact Statement. On line at:
http://www.extension.uidaho.edu/impacts/Pdf_09/5-09dgillespie-TALK.pdf.
114
Gillespie, D.R., Bywater, J., Kimball, K., Cummins, M., & Barfus, L. (2012). Idaho 4-H teens
continue to TALK. University of Idaho Extension Impact Statement. On Line at:
http://www.extension.uidaho.edu/impacts/Pdf_12/9-12dgillespie-talk.pdf.
Harder, A., Lamm, A., Lamm, D., Rose III, H., & G. Rask. (2005). An In-Depth Look at 4-H
Enrollment and Retention. Journal of Extension (43:5). On line at:
www.joe.org/joe/2005october/rb4p.shtml.
Idaho ES 237. (2012). Annual Extension Youth Enrollment Report. On line at:
https://www.uidaho.edu/extension/4h/pages/securefolder/staff/reportingandenrollment.
Lerner, R.M., Lerner, J.V., & Colleagues. (2011). The Positive Development of Youth, Report of the
Findings from the First Eight Years of the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development. National 4-H
Council Marketing and Communications Team. On line at:
http://www.4-h.org/about/youth-development-research/positive-youth-development-study/
National 4-H Headquarters at USDA. (Annual 4-H Youth Development Enrollment Report: 2003
Fiscal Year).
Shelstad, N., & Peutz, J. (2009). 4-H ambassador training: Meeting the needs of youth. University
of Idaho Extension Impact Statement. On line at:
http://www.extension.uidaho.edu/impacts/Pdf_09/12-09nshelstad-4H.pdf.
115
Explore the World with a Global Education Curriculum
Julie Tritz
WVU Extension Service Wayne County
West Virginia University
Wayne, WV
julie.tritz@mail.wvu.edu
Tina Cowger
Wayne, WV
MaryBeth Bennett
Wayne, WV
Richard Fleisher
Wayne, WV
Doug Hovatter
Wayne, WV
Christina McCormack
Wayne, WV
Denis Scott
Wayne, WV
Veronica Wilcox
Wayne, WV
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Explore the World with a Global Education Curriculum
Julie Tritz, Tina Cowger, MaryBeth Bennett, Richard Fleisher, Doug Hovatter,
Christina McCormack, Denis Scott and Veronica Wilcox
Abstract: Recognizing and celebrating the diversity that exists in our

communities has become a central goal of land-grant institutions and
cooperative extension programs. This is coupled with the expectation
that youth be equipped for a global workforce where they appreciate
different world cultures, be able to evaluate global issues and
challenges and understand the inter-connectedness of global systems.
Given these points, a Global Education Curriculum developed by the
WVU Extension Global Education & Engagement Team is presented as a
tool to instill a deeper understanding of and appreciation for cultures,
people and global issues by youth and the adults who support them.
Introduction
Communities across the U.S. have become increasingly more diverse in the last 25 years.
Recognizing and celebrating this diversity has become paramount in our land-grant institutions and
cooperative extension programs. With no comprehensive Global Education Curriculum with age-
appropriate lesson plans, Extension educators and youth development practitioners are left to
search the Internet and other resources for ideas, programs or activities to celebrate diversity and
to help bridge our understanding of different cultures and global issues. This article describes a
promising curriculum being developed by the WVU Extension Global Education Team for use by
extension educators and youth development professionals.
The Need
The USDAs National Institute for Food & Agriculture (National Institute of Food & Agriculture,
2012) recognizes the need of an international perspective. It notes that the success of the U.S.
farm sector is increasingly dependent on our ability to trade and compete with other nations. It
points to the importance of international research partnerships to address issues of food safety,
sustainability, resource management, biotechnology and crop and livestock disease prevention.
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This means that youth today must develop a general acquaintance with the major geographical
and cultural areas of the world, studying at least one other culture in some depth, and learning
how to evaluate global issues (Etling, et al 2003). The curriculum holds promise in that it
recognizes that our youth are entering a global workforce and expected to have a skill set that:
Appreciates differences in food, geography, language, traditions, values, and the priorities
of different countries,
Evaluates global issues and challenges and problem-solve for possible solutions (examples:
climate change and poverty),
Understands the interconnectedness of global systems i.e. economic, social, cultural, racial,
technological and ecological.
Given that U.S. youth are considered less geographically and culturally literate than their equals in
other industrialized nations (Carano and Berson, 2007), it is the WVU Extension Global Education &
Engagement Teams intent that this curriculum will inspire, motivate and encourage youth to learn
about world cultures, people and the issues that impact them.
Presentation of the Curriculum
The curriculum is designed around five categories that include: agriculture and food; arts and
history; communication, media and technology; geography and global issues. The following list
provides more detail on each category.
1. Agriculture & Food

Todays agriculture is dependent on the ability to trade and compete with other nations.
International research in agriculture helps address national issues of food safety, resource
management as well as crop and livestock disease prevention.
2. Arts & History

Art and history encompasses a wide range of topics that allows the participant to learn of
important periods and customs concerning a country or area which culminates in a
comprehensive insight of the culture.
3. Communication, Media & Technology

Advances in communication with respect to media and technology aids in making the world
smaller and more connected. However, in order to become culturally savvy, it is
imperative to note that communication encompasses a variety of ways such as body
language, gestures and road signs.
4. Geography
With over 190 independent countries around the world, it is important to recognize that
geography assists in cultural understanding and appreciation by not only identifying
geographic links between countries, but historic relationships as well.
5. Global Issues
Awareness of current issues enables us to compare cultures, economic systems and social
environments. Focusing on similarities encourages a connection between societies. It also
emphasizes that diversity should be recognized and celebrated.
These categories were designed to place broad parameters for the curriculum as a whole. They
support and compliment subjects taught in school as well as those subjects that are given less
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attention (or none at all) due to limited time and resources. The categories are also based on
feedback secured from WVU Extension faculty.
The curriculum is comprised of skill-a-thons, which is a method of learning and is an approved

WVU Extension curriculum design. A skill-a-thon is an educational lesson plan that is non-
competitive yet provides opportunities for the development of life skills to include: subject matter
knowledge, self-awareness, decision-making, social interaction, and physical skills. Each skill-a-
thon is designed around nine elements that include:
Use Explains what educational event(s) the skill-a-thon will be most

appropriate for (ex. 4-H club meeting, camp setting, after school, in-
school programs, etc)
Goal(s) Describes the overall goal(s) of the skill-a-thon
Time-frame Describes how long the skill-a-thon will take to the complete
Target age Describes the target age the skill-a-thon is most applicable to
National Lists national content standards which provide credibility for instructors
Content who want to use the curriculum in the school
Standards
Safety Describes any potential harm that may come to youth as a result of
precautions doing the skill-a-thon (ex. food allergies)
Activity Identifies the activity youth will do; this serves as the title for the skill-
a-thon
Procedure Describes in detail what steps are needed to complete the activity
Activity Identifies several questions to help facilitate learning once the activity is
discussion completed
questions
The curriculum in its entirety is comprised of 19 skill-a-thons (approximately four skill-a-thons per
category). It was approved by the WVU Extension Office of Communication and the WVU
Extension 4-H Curriculum Specialist. Pre and post test evaluations were developed to measure the
learning impacts of five skill-a-thons with plans underway to have evaluations developed for the
remaining 14 skill-a-thons.
Curriculum Impacts
The interconnectedness of all aspects of life food, entertainment, business, the economy,
warrants that youth have an understanding of how these systems work in the United States and
worldwide. Global education is no longer something that is an add-on or a luxury to be studied
when time allows after academic subjects. Rather, it is a necessity that can be seamlessly
integrated into lessons already being taught.
With only 1.1%, West Virginia has the lowest number per capita of foreign-born citizens in the
United States (U.S. Census Data, 2003). Therefore, one has very few opportunities to be exposed
119
to a different culture on a daily basis. While much attention has been paid to global education at
the tertiary level, less emphasis has been placed on giving younger youth a global perspective.
Most youth do not have the means to travel extensively, but a curriculum offers the potential to
bring the world to them.
Five skill-a-thons were piloted with youth in five counties and at four state events and
disseminated with 4-H educators and youth professionals at seven workshops from state to
international levels. The tables below delineates where the curriculum was piloted and with whom.
Piloting of Global Education Curriculum

County State
Youth Marion, Morgan, 2011 4-H Teen Leader Weekend (WV)
Audiences Preston, Putnam, 2011 Alpha State 4-H Camp (WV)
Tyler, Wayne (WV) 2011 & 2012 State TRiO Youth Leadership Conference
Dissemination of Global Education Curriculum

State Regional National International
4-H 2011 WV 2012 Tri-State 2012 Public Issues 2010 Delegation
Educators & Association of Diversity Leadership from University of
Youth Extension 4-H Conference Development Guanajuato,
Professionals Agents Spring (OH) (Washington DC) Mexico
Conference (WV)
2012 National
2011 Volunteer Camping Institute
Leader Weekend (WV)
(Jacksons Mill,
WV) 2010 National
Association of
Extension 4-H Agents
Conference (AZ)
The pre and post tests conducted with the youth audiences illustrate that over 60% of participants
reported increases in knowledge. Evaluation comments from youth demonstrate what they learned
as a result of these skill-a-thons,
I learned how to budget a trip around the world
I learned how other countries live without some of the luxuries we have.
I learned that 65% of the worlds population does not have electricity.
Evaluations from 4-H educators and youth professionals indicate an enthusiasm to have
educational resources available on the topic of global education. They also show how practical and
useful the curriculum is as noted by some of the comments,
Great activities to share with 4-H Agents
Skill-a-thons that I can also implement in my work!
I love the interactive experiences!
Overall, the evaluation data illustrates the potential this curriculum has in bringing the world to
thousands of youth in West Virginia who may otherwise not have the opportunity to travel outside
the United States. It also illustrates an interest by youth educators to teach global education and
instill a deeper understanding of and appreciation for cultures, people, and global issues.
120
Program Replication
Program replication helps to demonstrate the effectiveness of a program and under what
circumstances. In this regard, The WVU Extension Global Education and Engagement Team seek
Extension educators and youth development professionals interested in piloting for one year. The
curriculum will be made available by contacting the authors. We plan to finalize the skill-a-thons
through the National 4-H Curriculum process in order to offer them as a resource on the national
level.
Our strategy to encourage replication is based on the Seven Activities for Enhancing the
Replicability of Evidence-Based Practices (Metz, Bowie, and Blase, 2007). The authors of this
article describe the essential role of core components in the replication process, focusing on the
most essential and indispensable components for implementing the curriculum and achieving
participant outcomes. Our evaluation goal is to achieve and document impacts that last, thus
enhancing sustainability and efficacy for replication.
While our perspective emanates from 4-H youth development practices, other youth organizations
such as Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Boys and Girls Clubs, parks and recreation program and others
can benefit from use of this curriculum. The skill-a-thons are a fun, active, and challenging
learning tool for a youth group of almost any size, age, or ability. This teaching method helps
youth develop both life and project skills. A skill-a-thon can work well in most youth development
learning environments such as classes, group meetings, afterschool sessions, club gatherings,
fairs, and field trips. Learning-by-doing, the experiential learning process is a cornerstone of youth
development educational practices. The litmus test will be that we provide sufficient detail so that
others can replicates our approach.
Conclusion
The W.K. Kellogg Commissions concept of the engaged institution requires land-grant educators
to see community in the context of the global village. Extensions responsibility is to help our
citizens to become globally aware. This means seeing and understanding that the U.S and our
citizens are part of the global dimension and not separate from it.
Our mission needs to incorporate the requirements of a changing environment, one that is now
characterized by global interrelationships and increasing cultural diversity. One of the lessons
learned since the turn of the century is the work that Extension does and the information we
provide must achieve the excellence necessary to be competitive in a global community.
It is imperative to see and understand that the United States and its citizens are part of the global
dimension and not separate from it. In order to accomplish these ideals, and increase global
awareness and global leadership skills, the Global Education Curriculum aims to reach youth
through a variety of programs and initiatives.
121
References
Etling, A., Reaman, K., & El Sawi, G. (1993). Overcoming barriers to a global outlook in 4-H.
Journal of Extension, 31: 2. http://www.joe.org/joe/1993summer/intl2.php
Carano, K.T., & Berson, M.J. (2007). Breaking stereotypes: Constructing geographic literacy
and cultural awareness through technology. The Social Studies, 65-70.
Metz, A.J.R., Bowie, L., & Blase, K. (2007). Seven activities for enhancing the replicability of
evidence-based practices. Research-to-results brief. Child Trends, 1-6.
National Institute of Food & Agriculture. (2007).

http://www.csrees.usda.gov/nea/international/international.cfm
National Institute of Food & Agriculture. (2012).

http://www.csrees.usda.gov/globalengagement.cfm
U.S. Census Bureau. (2003). The Foreign Born Population: 2000, Census 2000 Brief. Retrieved
February 15, 2011 from http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-34.pdf
122
Defining Effective Programs: How to Navigate
Through the Diverse Definitions
Brian Brandt
College of Ag, Human& Natural Resource Sciences
Washington State University, Pierce County Extension 4-H
Pullman, WA
bbrandt@wsu.edu
123
Volume 7, Number 4, Winter 2012 Article 120704RR001
Defining Effective Programs: How to Navigate

Through the Diverse Definitions
Brian Brandt
Washington State University, Pierce County Extension 4-H
Abstract: There are many organizations that use shared terms to

describe effective programs but dont agree on the definition of
these terms. Terms such as evidence based, research-based, proven
practices, and promising practices have multiple definitions amongst
practitioners. Exploring the different definitions of these shared
terms, by yourself or with your peers, is one way to discover how
programs are defined by others. This article and links will lead you
through a process to understand the variety of youth development
definitions used by practitioners and challenge you to create
common definitions that will lead to better discussions with others
regarding the effectiveness of programs.
Introduction
Many stakeholders want assurance that they are supporting effective programs. There are
currently many labels, which various groups use to describe effectiveness. Some labels, such as,
Evidence Based Practice (EBP) or evidence based program, are used to get funding for many
programs. Programs labeled as evidence based are being selected more frequently by agencies,
funders, politicians, and government agencies that want to select the most effective programs for
support and implementation (Embry & Biglan 2008; McCall, 2009; Slavin, 2008; Strode, et al.,
2003; Williams-Taylor, 2007). Since there are no commonly agreed upon definitions, practitioners
need to be well versed in different groups definitions and their own personal definitions. After
acquiring a stronger understanding professionals will have improved communication and reduced
misunderstandings. Professionals will be better able to clarify to funders, stakeholders, and other
agencies what definition they use to describe the effectiveness of their program. If your program
does not meet one groups definition of evidence based, you will be able to use other terms that
describe your programs effectiveness.
In order to assist you with building your programs, the following worksheet was developed. The
team may work to create common answers to some of the questions in the Exploring your New
Understanding section. Or, a team may use this as a staff development option by splitting up the
124
research section and reporting back what individuals learned. This worksheet will take about 20-30
minutes. You must be connected to the internet to complete the research section.
This interactive internet guide will help you:

1. have a better understanding of the diversity of terms used to describe effective
programs and practices;
2. understand others definitions of terms such as, evidence based program, evidence
based practice, science based practices, research based, proven practices, promising
practices, or others;
3. explain how your program is defined by yourself and others;
4. to be able to have better networking and collaboration discussions;
5. engage in the material through research and writing;
6. increase your engagement in the material;
7. increase reflection on learning;
8. prepare to apply your learning in future stakeholder discussions and networking.
Write your definitions below before reading further.
Evidence based program:
Evidence based practice:
Science based practice:
Research based:
Proven practice:
Promising practice:
125
Negative Impacts and a Solution
Think about discussions
Youth professionals work and collaborate in many professional you have had with other
fields such as schools, afterschool programs, drug and alcohol
treatment facilities, juvenile justice centers, violence prevention professionals around what
programs and social work programs. When youth professionals evidence shows that a
are collaborating, they use many terms to describe why their
programs are effective. They use terms such as: evidence based program is effective. Did
program, evidence based practice, science based practice, you share the same
research based, proven practices and promising practices.
definitions?
Currently, many different terms are used. Even when the same
term, evidence based, is used within a field, there is no agreed
upon definition of what the term means (Slavin, 2008). In
February 2011, definition searches using Merriam-Websters on-line dictionary and the Cambridge
on-line dictionary all produced no results when searching for evidence based. Dictionary.com
produced only a medical field specific definition.
This lack of consistency has consequences, there is no consensus regarding the definition and
what criterion makes a program evidence based. This of course leads us to the problem of
miscommunication (Williams-Taylor, 2007). The miscommunication around different definitions
can impede networking and collaboration building. Without good networks and collaboration, it can
negatively impact the youth we serve. A solution is to have a general understanding of others
definitions and some additional terms that are used to describe effective programs. Youth
professionals can then have a clear, articulate discussion with each other and work on stronger
networking and collaboration.
History
Evidence based practices originated in the medical field and have only been around the last 60
years (Williams-Taylor, 2007). In 1972, Archie Cochrane published Effectiveness and Efficiency:
Random Reflections on Health Services, in which he criticized the medical establishment for not
basing decisions on sound research and advocated for strong research to drive practice in health
services. The medical field has since seen many improvements and lives saved as a result of
adopting evidence based practices (Williams-Taylor, 2007). The fields of medicine and welfare
policy show that practice guided by rigor and evidence can produce remarkable advances
(Whitehurst, 2003).
Attempt to Have a Common Definition
There are many different definitions of evidence based within the varied professions that work
with youth. However, there is a growing movement to define and clarify evidence based programs
among these different professions, agencies, funders and politicians (McCall, 2009). One attempt
at a general definition is, A practice is defined as a habitual or customary performance or
operation action or something that a professional does in order to achieve a positive outcome
(Salvin, 2008). Another is, In its simplest and most direct form, evidence based practice often
consists of identifying service programs that have been evaluated and found effective in one
location and replicated those service programs in another (McCall, 2009).
126
Your Learning
Your task is to follow the links below and learn more about the definitions. The groups were
selected because during the literature search, they were cited frequently and by many authors.
These are not intended to be taken as a complete list, but do contain enough diversity for your
learning. How much time you spend is up to you. Spend as much time as you need to have a
stronger understanding of the differences and similarities of the definitions of evidence based. As
you do your research, notice that some sites use of levels to rank programs. Some add additional
labels, such as science based practice, research based, proven practice, and promising practice to
describe effective programs. Some use the term strong to define the evidence used and indicate
that a program is effective. You also will discover guides on how to select programs, based on that
groups definition, which may be helpful in future decisions. After you finish your research, you will
be asked to create your new definitions of evidence based program, evidence based practice,
science based practice, research based proven practice, and promising practice.
Your Turn Investigating
For each of the following groups, you will find a description, link and some questions. Discuss and
answer the questions in the box below each section.
Best Evidence Encyclopedia

The Best Evidence Encyclopedia is a free web site created by the Johns Hopkins University School
of Education's Center for Data-Driven Reform in Education (CDDRE) under funding from the
Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. It is intended to give educators and
researchers fair and useful information about the strength of the evidence supporting a variety of
programs available for students in grades K-12. The Best Evidence Encyclopedia provides
summaries of scientific reviews produced by many authors and organizations, as well as links to
the full texts of each review. (http://www.bestevidence.org/aboutBEE.htm, September 6, 2012).
Review the criteria at http://www.bestevidence.org/aboutBEE.htm

What stands out to you in their definition and/or criteria? Likes? Dislikes?
What works/or doesnt work well with your current partnerships and collaborations?
Notes:
What Works Clearinghouse Institute of Education Sciences

Our goal is to provide educators with the information they need to make evidence-based
decisions. We do this through a systematic review process which applies rigorous research
standards to identify high-quality research and summarize its findings.
(http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/ReviewProcess.aspx, September 6, 2012).
Review the criteria at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/findwhatworks.aspx

127
Notes:
Promising Practices Network

The Promising Practices Network (PPN) is a group of individuals and organizations who are
dedicated to providing quality evidence-based information about what works to improve the lives
of children, families, and communities. (http://www.promisingpractices.net/about_ppn.asp,
September 6, 2012)
Review the criteria at http://www.promisingpractices.net/programs.asp

Notes:
SAMHSA: Substance Abuse Mental Health Services Administration National Registry of

Evidence-based Program and Practices
The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's (SAMHSA) mission is to
reduce the impact of substance abuse and mental illness on America's communities.
(http://www.samhsa.gov/about, September 6, 2012).
Review the criteria at http://www.nrepp.samhsa.gov/Search.aspx

Notes:
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP)

OJJDP, a component of the Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice, accomplishes
its mission by supporting states, local communities, and tribal jurisdictions in their efforts to
develop and implement effective programs for juveniles. The Office strives to strengthen the
juvenile justice system's efforts to protect public safety, hold offenders accountable, and provide
services that address the needs of youth and their families.
(http://www.ojjdp.gov/about/about.html. September 6, 2012)
Review the criteria at http://www.ojjdp.gov/mpg/search.aspx

128
Notes:
Blue Prints for Violence Prevention

In an effort to establish more complete and valuable information to impact violence-related
policies, programs, and practices, CSPV works from a multi-disciplinary platform on the subject of
violence and facilitates the building of bridges between the research community and the
practitioners and policy makers. ( http://www.colorado.edu/cspv/aboutus/index.html, September
6, 2012)
Review the criteria at http://ibs.colorado.edu/cspv/blueprintsquery/

Notes:
Access Center Research Continuum

The mission of the Access Center is to provide technical assistance that strengthens State and
local capacity to help students with disabilities effectively learn in the general education
curriculum. (http://www.k8accesscenter.org/index.php/about/, September 6, 2012)
Review the criteria at (http://www.k8accesscenter.org/training_resources/reasearchapproach.asp)

Notes:
Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy

A nonprofit, nonpartisan organization, the Coalition seeks to increase government effectiveness
through the use of rigorous evidence about what works.The Coalition advocates many types of
research to identify the most promising social interventions.
(http://coalition4evidence.org/wordpress/?page_id=6, September 6, 2012)
Review the criteria at http://coalition4evidence.org/wordpress/?page_id=1488

129
Notes:
Child Trends
Child Trends is a nonprofit, nonpartisan research center that studies children at all stages of
development. We seek to improve the lives of children and youth by conducting high-quality
research and sharing it with the people and institutions whose decisions and actions affect
children. (http://childtrends.org/_catdisp_page.cfm?LID=124, September 6, 2012)
Review the criteria at http://childtrends.org/_catdisp_page.cfm?LID=CD56B3D7-2F05-4F8E-

BCC99B05A4CAEA04 )
Notes:
Internet Search by Key Words Option
You may also just do an internet search by searching any of the terms and your field.
Example: Evidence Based Programs and [insert your professional field].
Group:
Internet Address:
Notes:
Exploring Your New Understanding
Upon completion of your research, these next steps are designed to guide you through a process
that solidifies your understanding of youth development terminology. After completing the sheet,
you will be able to have clearer and more in-depth discussions with your peers and collaborators.
130
Step One: Write your definition of the terms below. Has it changed from your definitions above?
Evidence based program:
Evidence based practice:
Science based practice:
Research based:
Proven practice:
Promising practice:
Step Two: What are good ways to have discussions around EBP with other professionals?
(Example: You used evidence basis in your discussion/presentation. Understanding that there are
many different definitions, what is yours? Is it connected to any organizations definition?
Step Three:
Is there a group with which you align your practice?
131
Step Four:
Are you engaged in any collaborations or partnerships that it would be advantageous to have a
discussion clarifying the definitions used?
Step Five:
Select a current program for which you are seeking funding or stakeholder support. How would
you describe it? What definition would you use and by what group?
Summary
The purpose of your exploring this topic and the writing activities is to support your understanding
of the issues around the language we use to talk about effective programs. In summary you
should now have a better understanding of:
1. the diversity of terms used to describe effective programs and practices;
2. others definitions of terms such as evidence based program, evidence based practice,
science based practices, research based, proven practices, promising practices, or others;
3. how your program is defined by yourself and others;
4. the importance of having the same definition when discussing networking and
collaboration discussions around effective programs.
References
Cochrane, A. (1972). Effectiveness and Efficiency. Random Reflections on Health Services.
Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust.
Embry D.D., & Biglan A. (2008). Evidence-based kernels: fundamental units of behavioral
influence. Clinical Child Family Psychology. 11:77113.
McCall, R.B. (2009). Evidence-based programming in the context of practice and policy. SRCD
Social Policy Report, 23 (No. 3). 318.
Slavin, R.E. (2008). What works? Issues in synthesizing educational program evaluations.
Educational Researcher, 37 (1), 5-14.
Strode, A., Aisenberg, G., Behan, K., Blodgett, C., Botzer, M., Brave Heart, S., et al. (2003).
Resource Guide and Literature Review for Best and Promising Mental Health Practices. The
132
Washington Institute for Mental Illness Research and Training. Washington State University
Spokane. 1-294.
Whitehurst, G.J. (2003). Identifying and implementing educational practices supported by rigorous
evidence: A user-friendly guide. Washington, D C.: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of
Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. Retrieved
February, 2012. On-line: http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/rigorousevid/rigorousevid.pdf
Williams-Taylor, L. (2007). Research Review Evidence Based Programs and Practice: What Does it
All Mean? Childrens Services Council of Palm Beach County. Research-to-Results Brief.
Washington, DC: Child Trends.
133

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Journal of Youth Development

Bridging Research & Practice

Sponsored by: National Association of Extension 4-H Agents (NAE4HA)

ISSN 2325-4009 (Print)

Elijah Wilson Michelle Alberti Gambone Christina Theokas

Mothers Satisfaction with Youth Out-of-School-Time Programs

Youth Voice: Developing Future Leaders [Article 120704FA003]..Page 37

Parental Attachment and Eating Behaviors in Late Adolescent Females

Building the Capacity of 4-H/Youth Development in Iraq [Article 120704FA006]Page 74

Teen Ambassador Leadership Kit (TALK) [Article 120704PA002] ..Page 109

Pamela Larson Nippolt

4-H Science: Evaluating Across Sites to Critically

Pamela Larson Nippolt

Abstract: As 4-H Youth Development focuses on developing and

The replication of training models through train-the-trainer approaches can be a challenging

Application of the Training Model

Overview of Supporting Literature

Non-formal STEM education for youth

If non-formal learning is so important, then what constitutes a quality non-formal learning

In a review of research and evaluation studies of inquiry-based science instruction in formal,

Status of Evaluation of Non-formal STEM Programs

Evaluations of non-formal STEM-related programs primarily have been conducted at the

Reasons lead trainers were involved in the project (n=10):

Lead Trainer Self-Assessment of Readiness

How would you rate

How would you rate Uncomfortable Somewhat Somewhat Comfortable

Guiding youth as they 0% 8% (8) 39% (42) 53% (57)

Guiding youth as they 0% 4% (4) 45% (47) 51% (54)

Finding ways to embed 0% 11% (12) 49% (52) 40% (43)

Adult Facilitators Assessment of Project with Youth

Disagree Disagree a Agree a Agree

4-H Power of the wind 3% 7% (2) 30% (9) 60%

Because of Power of the 3% 13% 57% 27% (8)

Because of Power of the 3% 20% 47% 27% (8)

Because of Power of the 3% 10% 50% 37%

Three Trainings: Compare and Contrast

Training Description Length Audience Follow up

Adult Facilitators in Three Trainings

How would you rate Uncomfortable Somewhat Somewhat Comfortable

How would you rate All 3 Trainings Training 1 Training 2 Training 3

Uncomfortable Uncomfortable Uncomfortable Uncomfortable

Narrative from Three Trainings

Narrative devoted to Training 1 Training 2 Training 3

Videotape Evidence for Key Training 1 Training 2 Training 3

Colburn, A. (2000). An inquiry primer. Science Scope, March, 4244.

The Exploratorium Institute for Inquiry. (2010). Fundamentals of inquiry: A professional

Mothers Satisfaction with Youth

Juyoung Jang and Jodi Dworkin

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors

Parental Satisfaction with OST Programs

Mothers perception about out-of-school-time (OST) program opportunities. Mothers

Demographic characteristics. Mothers reported annual household income, current working

Note. OR = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval.

Note. OR = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval.

Youth Voice: Developing Future Leaders

Charla Bading and Chris Boleman

David Lawver and Jon Ulmer

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine youths

Introduction and Theoretical Framework

Why is Youth Voice Important?

Youth-Adult Relationships within Programs

Youth Perceptions of Adults

Purpose and Objectives

Population and Sample