A review of automation and computer control in dyeing machinery MR Shamey and JH Nobbs Department of Colour Chemis ry, The University, Leeds, LS2 9JT,UK. INTRODUCTION Coloration is a key factor in the commercial success of textile products, particularly those with a high fashion content, such as garments, furnishings and upholstery. Many textile products go through some form of color ation to enhance their visual characteristics and their final value. This process may be carried out at various stages of textile production such as fibre, tow, yarn and fabric usi immersion, pad-fiation and printing, methods of applica tion Dyeing in theearly stages of textile production is least costly and requires low levelof control; additionally, problems such as unlevelness which may occur during coloration can be corrected during the later stages of the textile production sequence by means of subsequent processing, such as fibre blending. However, fashion demands and market change often necessitate rapid delivery of specifi- cally dyed material which, in the case of this particular production system, may prove difficult. Fabric dyeing on the other hand has levelness control problems since the process is carried out at the last stage of production and unleveiness problems at this stage cannot be corrected easily. Yarn dyeing lies between these two coloration approaches and, as a result, has attracted a considerable degree of attention and is growing rapidly. Yarn package dyeing can meet the fast response which is demanded by the fashion market and can also avoid the uneconomical storage of large quantities of dyed material, Several fully automated dyeing systems have been introduced; the review by Thornton [1] states that of these are capable of loading and unloading the dyeing vessel with the package material ata very high speed. This paper examines package dyeing which is currently witnessing considerable growth. A review has been con- ducted of dyeing methods which have been used and also of recentattempis todevelopa computerised dyeingsystem. YARN PACKAGE DYEING MACHINES The first yam dyeing machine was built in 1882 by Bermaier who used an open dyebath and employed fluid flow only from inside to the outside of the package [2]. Later in the design of the machinery, a reversal of the pump was used to change the direction of the fluid flow and the dyebath was enclosed. The change in the fluid flow direction as well as uniform circulation of the liquor and the rate of the fluid are contributory factors to the levelness of the material obtained. Fluid circulation is achieved by forcing the liquor through a perforated spindle and the package. The two-way direction of the fluid flow is considered to increase the levelness of dyeing [3] ‘Yam package dyeing machinery requires a few essential parts (Figure 1).These have been considered by various authors (3, ] and can be summarized as follows [3]: + the dyeing vessel; the package carrier; + pumps (circulation and secondary); + heating devices; + liquor flow and flow reversal devices. 1 Mixing Tank 3 pit Meter “4 Reversing Valve 5: Dysing Autoclave 6 Dosing Pamps 7 Colocimeter 8 Flow Mater 9. Preseure Meter Water Figure 1 Schematic view of a package dyeing machine 46 Advances in Colour Science | Technology Number 2 July 1998Some package dyeing machines are fitted with an exter- nal sampling tank which is used to identify the problems that may occurduring dyeing, However, as itis extremely difficult to reproduce the exact conditions within the dyeing vessel externally, the diagnosties are not necessar- ily always correct, Other methods of diagnosis have been used and are described elsewhere [3]. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE OUTCOME OF ‘THE DYEING PROCESS Achieving a successful level dyeing in a package dyeing system is highly dependent on the care taken during the preparation stage. The density of the package and its uniformity are, therefore, crucial factors in the outcome of the dyeing process. The yarn needs to be wound into a suitable form, such as a cheese, cake, cone or rocket. Both metal and plastic formers have found use in the dyeing industry. Levelness is a very important aspect of the dyeing, system, As high dye uptake occurs at surfaces which are mostavailable to the flowing liquor, localised over-dyeing can occur which can prove to be time-consuming to correct For a given dye-fibre combination, the important factors influencing, the degree of an level dyeing have been suggested to be [5h + the rate of dye liquor circulation and its reversal; + the package density and the shape of the package; + the rate of dye uptake in relation to temperature, time, pH and other factors. Bauer [6] proposes. different approach based on twosets of factors, namely formula side factors such as dye recipe, type of fibre, etc., and production side factors such as liquor circulation rate, the package dyeing machine and the form of the textile material ‘The reversal of the direction of the fluid flow has been the subject of discussion of many authors. This process is. made possible by using either axial flow pumps in which the entire system of pumping is reversed or by using centrifugal pumps in conjunction with four-way valves Figure 2 showsa schematic view of the type of fluid flow through a package. Several authors have studied the effect of the rate of liquor circulation in dyeing. Vickerstaft [7] pointed out that because of a lower concentration of the dye in the liquor which is near to the surface of the fibre or which is, trapped in the spaces of the yarn compared to the exter nal dyebath, the rate of dyeing is dependent upon the efficieney with which the dye is transported to the material being dyed, either by the liquor circulating through the material or by the material's movement with respect to the dye liquor. McGregor and Peters [8] exam- ined the mass transport process in relation to dyeing and, defined two boundary layers: + the hydrodynamic boundary layer was defined as a layer within which the velocity o to 99% of the main stream velocity; + the diffusional boundary layer was defined as the layer within which the concentration of the dye rises from Advances im Colour Science ¥ Technology Number 2 July 1998 Perforated Spindle Yam Package Material Casrier Four-way Valve Figure 2 Schematic view of fluid flow in the dyeing vessel that at the fibre surface to 99% of the main stream. The latter was regarded as a layer of liquid which hindered, the passage of dye from the bulk of the dyebath to the fibre surface. These workers [8] demonstrated that an, increase in the main fluid velocity or an increase in the efficiency of liquor circulation decreased the thickness of the diffusional boundary layer and hence increased the rate of dyeing. Beckmann and Hoffmann [9] studied the relationship between rate of liquor flow and rate of dye exhaustion. These authors showed that the relative dye concentration in the liquor within a yarn package changed with the rate at which the liquor flowed through the package. The difference in liquor concentration across the package was, related to thatat the surface of the fibre by the adsorption isotherm involved while the rate of dye exhaustion at a particular position inside the package was proportional to the local liquor concentration at the surface of the fibre ‘Thus, the overall rate of dye exhaustion and the levelness, of the dyeing were related to the rate of dye exhaustion, within the package. Fora given overall rate of flow, there sa maximum permissible rate of dye exhaustion beyond which the degree of unlevelness would no longer be acceptable. These workers [9] also demonstrated that, the difference in a local rate of liquor flow caused by factors such as the structure of the material being dyed, ‘would lead to a degree of unlevelness, Hasler [10] found that the levelness of dyeing de- pended on the frequency of contact between the dye liquor and the material. Bolton and Crank [11] developed a relationship between the rate of dye exhaustion and the liquor flow rate and concluded that, provided the pack- age of the fibre is not damaged or distorted, the higher the flow rate the better the resulting dyeing, Heane et al, [5] also made similar observations. Whittaker [12] concluded that in a one-directional fluid flow, the out-to-in flow direction was preferable as the radius of the package decreased and, therefore, the liquor passed through a smaller surface area. However, for a7unstable packages, because of shrinkage and distortion, the in-to-out flow is preferred The effect of the reversal of fluid flow on the quality of the resulting dyeing has also been discussed by several workers, Cliiford [13] studied the effect of high fluid flow on dyeing levelness and also package distortion and concluded that especially soft packages in a one direc- tional flow are more likely to be deformed. This worker also proposed that a reversal of flow on each circulation resulted in superior levelness. Carbonell [14] further studied the effects of the frequency of flow reversal and highlighted that a high rate of flow reversal contributed to unlevelness as the centre of the package was never thoroughly flooded with dye liquor. Hasler |10] claimed that if low was reversed at the end. of each complete circulation a four fold increase can be observed in dye exhaustion rate. However, Beckman and Hoffmann [9] concluded that one reversal per four to eight circulations provide optimum levelness. Ren and lett [15,16] suggested that levelness was inversely proportionalto the frequency of fluid flow reversal. These ‘workers also attempted to model the effect of fluid flow rate and flow reversal on dyeing levelness. Discussion raised by Bohrer [17] point out that fluid flow in one direction does not necessarily result innegative effects on. the quality of the dyeing Interest has attended the effects of bulk and dispersive flow in package dyeing. When fluid flows in a packed bed, two flow phenomena come into play, namely bulk flow and dispersive flow. These two types of flow create rate-determining steps in the sequence that determines the overall rate of transfer of dye to a given point on the fibre surface at a particular time. Burley [18,19,20] has developed a model of the dyeing process which included these two flow types. As packages are subject to various mechanical, hydro- static and hydraulic forces and, therefore, should be capable of withstanding not only those forces encoun- tered during handling but also those forces generated during the flow of hot dye liquor. The density of the package should be as uniform as possible as this has a direct bearing on the quality of the dyeing. The density of the package needs to be optimum so as to obtain an appropriate flow of dye liquor and prevent channelling. ‘The permeability of packages within the a given batch should be identical to ensure the uniform treatment of yarn across the dyeing vessel. McGregor [21] has studied the physical chemistry of dye package permeability and has developed equations that enable an estimate to be ‘made of the amount of fluid flow that passed through the yarn, as opposed to that which passed around them. ‘Vosoughi [22] has studied the influence of the permeabil- ity of the package and included these effects in the Burley model of the dyeing process The effect of package density on the degree of unlevelness was also studied by Heane et af [5] who stressed that the degree of unlevelness was directly related to the density of the package. Denton [23] has investigated the effect of the shape of 48 the package on the flow pattern inside individual pack ages. This worker advocated that cylindrical shaped packages have better flow charact than their conical shaped counterparts. This is a result of the shape of the flow in conical packages which contains both axial and radial vectors (Figure 3) Figure 3 Fluid flow across conical and cylindric & packages [3] Denton [24,25] showed that the ratio of the rates of fluid, flow in the areas where the flow was the highest to that in the areas where the flow was the lowest was 22:1 and in some cases 40:1. This researcher concluded that the first step to avoid such differences is to use cylindrical, shaped packages which are compressed together at the base and top. When the packages are wound onto compressible prings, the density Variation can be minimised. How- ever, it is important to point out that even small local variations in the density of the package directly influence the final levelness achieved in any dyeing system, OPTIMISATION OF THE EXHAUSTION PROCESS, ‘The concept of the optimum dye exhaustion curve has been investigated by several groups following the defini- tion of a critical dyeing rate which must not be exceeded to, obtain a level dyeing, Boulton and Crank [11] advocated a slow rate of initial dye exhaustion and thereafter an increasing rate of dyebath exhaustion. Carbonell [26] attempted to relate dyeing machinery conditions to the behaviour of individ ual dyes and used mathematically defined values that were dependent on dye concentration, auxiliaries and, fibre affinity. This particular approach was found applica ble only for disperse dyeing systems. ay _& z 1 at tm @ Cegarra [27] suggested thata linear exhaustion curve results in a level dyeing and he defined isoreactive dyeing as one with a constant sorption rate, where over a small change in time (a) there would be a proportional change of concentration in the dyebath (aC, ), as shown in Eqn. ‘where C,,js the amount of dye absorbed by the fibre at Advances in Colour Science 4 Technology Number 2 July 1998the end of a sorption process time, t,. A modified Cegarra-Puente [28] equation, with the inclusion of the Arrhenius equation, resulted in a method to calculate a target exhaustion rate at any given time t, Ruttiger et al, [29-31] showed that for each ma- chine/goods system there was a. significant dyeing parameter, Vj, also known as the critical rate of dyeing These workers concluded that this critical dyeing rate occurred at a particular time at which dyeing was just level, irrespective of the dyeing mechanisms involved and the heating rate used. It therefore appeared that to achieve level dyeing, the dyeing rate should always be lower than the critical dyeing rate and, if the shortest possible time is desired, then the optimum exhaustion profile is a linear function of the dyeing time. These workers claimed that V,, increases withan increase in the flow rate of the liquor. Hasler [10] proposed that an even rate of dye absorption would result in level dyeing and, to achieve this, the quantity of dye extracted per circula~ tion must remain constant, thus also generating a linear exhaustion profile. This author {10] stated that the ratio of the difference in dye concentration between the inlet and the outlet of the package to the mean concentration of the dye liquor should be controlled to less than a limiting value if level dyeing was to be achieved. Beckmann and Hoffmann [9] recognised that the greater the ratio of the rate of dye exhaustion to that of liquor circulation, the greater the concentration difference between the different positions within the package. These researchers pointed out that for a constant rate of liquor circulation, in order to. minimise the concentration difference, a linear dye exhaustion profile should be employed. Attempts have been made by several research groups toachievea linear dye exhaustion curve usinga predicted. me-temperature variation. Brooks [32] showed that for a given liquor flow direction within a package, the difference in dye concentration across the radius was, found to be proportional to the overall rate of exhaustion of the dye used. For a constant rate of depletion of dye, this difference must be constant throughout dyeing. This, conelusion has east serious doubts on the linear function, ion profile, Brooks [32] stated that neither linear exhaustion curves nor the time- ‘temperature profile recommended bydye manufacturers result in optimum level dyeing and showed that expo- nentialcurves and exhaustion curves which were propor tional to the square root of time gave superior levelness compared to previous models. Medley and Holdstock [33] developed a simple depletion theory which suggested that a non-linear profile, in which. the rate of dye uptake by a layer in the package was proportional to the concentration of dye in the liquor at that position, gave the most level dyeing. Nobbs [34-36] concluded, both theoretically and experimentally, that a quadratic dye exhaustion profile was more likely to result, in superior levelness than any other profile; Ren [15] later confirmed the results of this work which has been further investigated by other researchers [16,37,38]. Advancerin Colour Sciemce Technology Number 2 July 1998 AUTOMATION IN THE DYEHOUSE The technology of dyeing process control has evolved relatively rapidly from simple manual operations to sophisticated computer controlled machines in the past several decades. The high degree of precision required to achieve reproducible high standards of levelness necessi- tated the eventual introduction of rapid and reliable methods for the dyeing of textile material, Dyeing is one of the most complicated processes in any textile produe- tion sequence and combines the sciences of chemistry, physics, mechanics, physical chemistry, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics and others. There are probably some fty different machines that can be used for the dyeing of textile materials. Economic pressures as well as demands, for high standards of production in the shortest possible imes have resulted in the increased use of automation in this part of the dyeing industry. ‘The earliest systems used in the control of batch dyeing ‘machines had electronic devices that were controlled by punched cards. One of the earliest systems was devel- oped by Kilsunds AB in Sweden in 1950s [39] this used a single time-temperature profile for the dyeing ofdifferent types of fibres Bunting [40] in 1968 pointed out that automation in the dyehouse was essential. This author considered the control of loading and unloading of the material, auto- matic dye cycle corrections and recording of the dyeing cycle conditions as initial areas that could be automated [40]. Otherauthors also pointed out the importance oF the use of automation and the areas where automation in the dyehouse could be employed [41,42]. Bialik ef al claimed that a saving of 20% in energy consumption and an, increase of 30% in production could be achieved through, the employment of automatic systems [43]. Since the late 1970s, the international exhibition of textile machinery (ITMA) has displayed fully automated machines as well as robots. Chaplin et al [44] and also Park [42] have reviewed the economics of these machines and have proposed that as the savings introduced by the employ- ment of these machines were not, in some instances, significantly greater than the costs involved, not every automated machine could be justifiably installed in a dyehouse. Camp [45] discussed the automation of batch dyeing machinery and gave an analysis of time and energy savings that could be introduced with these systems [45]. VanDerJagt introduced the Taylor Adoanced Batch Lan- guage (TABL) and highlighted the advantages of such a system for the control of batch dyeing machinery [46] Machinery capable of exhaustion control were intro- duced at the ITMA exhibition of 1983 by Wira and Colorex [47]. These systems were again exhibited in 1987 and attracted some attention. Restrictions on the level of pollutants discharged to the environment meanwhile attracted designers to machinery that could reduce the level of waste; these were exhibited in ITMA 1991 [48} Other automated machines were reviewed by Thornton, and Bocus [1,49], one of these introducinga “Human Free Dychouse” where all the operations where carried out by 49robots and were controlled by computers [49] Despite the sophisticated level of automation currently existing for the dyeing machinery, little if any attention has been paid to the dyeing process itself. Most of the machinery still uses a simple time-temperature profile to control the rate of exhaustion of the dye on to the fibre. Recently, the real time analysis of dyebath components has been discussed by Beck et al and also by Lefeber et al [50,51]. Burley et al{52] presented a numerical simulation of an axial flow package dyeing machine and subs quently described [53] a model for the dynamiecontrol of dyeing machinery. An in-line analyser cell was used to monitor the dyeing process and so provide information for feedback control [15,16] and enabled dye exhaustion profiles to be determined. A control model based on achieving a dyeing that satisfied levelness criteria in the ‘minimum time was suggested by Nobbs [54] and subse- quently applied to dye-fibre systems [55-57]. It can be anticipated that the demands for reduced waste and higher reproducibility in the dyeing industry which stem, from environmental and financial considerations will result in the introduction of totally automated dyeing, processes and dyebath re-use. A dyeing control strategy based on the sequential addition of dye and alkali during the dyeing process, Which has been referred to as dosing or integration dyeing, may reduce the degree of hydrolysis of reactive dyes during dyeing; this has been investigated by Shamey and Nobbs [58]. The minute-by-minute control of the dye exhaustion and dye fixation stages of the process are considered to minimise the amounts of dye and auxilia- ries that otherwise, because of dye hydrolysis, would have to be used to achieve a satisfactory depth of shade and levelness. The use of colorimetric match prediction programs during the dyeing process reduces the unneces- sary and often expensive processes of re-dyeing and/or stripping dye already applied. By using such systems, the dyer is able to change the conditions of the dyeing process according to the information that is monitored and analysed by a computer. In essence, it seems reason- able to suggest that computer control incorporating a process simulation of the dyeing. is a possible way of redirecting the dyeing industry along a more environ- mentally friendly route and, simultaneously, reducing the overall costs of dyeing, This would be of beneficial to both the dyer and to the consumer, COMPUTER CONTROL OF DYEING MACHINERY ‘The application of computer control in the dyeing industry has grown rapidly during recent decades, Dyeingautomation began with the introduction of simple systems that controlled temperature byswitching heaters, on or off [58]. Subsequently, these were replaced by systems that controlled the dyeing cycle according to a time/temperature sequence. The processes of dye and auxiliary addition as wells loading and unloading of the textile materials can also be automated to result in automated dyehouse management. Nobbs et al [59-61] developed a control model that 50 made use of a colorimetric match-predietion program to control the amount of dye in a dyebath using a closed feedback control system to achieve dye exhaustion profiles. A study [58] was undertaken to minimise process, pollutants by means of the development of a control system capable of introducing an economical process cycle as well as a reduced level of residual dye in the liquor at the end of the coloration stage. The general approach considered for this study could also be applied in other sectons such as finishing or continuous dyeing [58]. A pilot scale dyeing machine was used in this particular study to employ computer control algorithms in the control of dyeing machinery. At the core of this work was the use of reduced or simple mathematical models applied to the dyeing machines to relate the fluid phase concentration, of chemicals (e.g. dye), C, to their solid sorbed phase concentration, M, as fimetions of time for different positions in the package. These models have been devel- oped bya numberof workers 15,16,34-38,54,56-64].Itwas found that the simulation model can give a dye mas balance that can predict the concentration of dye and, other additives in the dyebath as a function of time. The physical link between measurement and target was made however, by incorporating these models into a computer based control system and a process monitor. Results of studies on the control of pH, dye concentration and dye exhaustion have been made (62,63Jas wellas the measure- ment and on-line control of dye concentration using computer match prediction and spectroscopic methods [64]. This work resulted in a lower dyeing time as well as, better reproducibility achieved. Itwas also demonstrated that the dyeing conditions could be altered to increase the evel of exhaustion maintaining the high degree of levelness expected. Gilchrist and Nobbs [56,57] also described a control system for the batch dyeing of acrylic yarn with basic dyes according to various dye exhaustion/time profiles. ‘This work resulted in a reduction in both the overall time and the energy necessary for dyeing. These workers nade use of an analyser cell attached to the dyeing machine that continuously monitored the concentration, of dye. CONCLUSIONS ‘The use of automated systems in the dyeing industry has increased sharply in recent years primarily due to market demands for right-first-time production of high quality goods and lower production eosts. These demands are achieved by consuming less water, dyes, auxiliaries, time and energy while maintaining (or even increasing) the levelness of dyeing and by reducing the level of pollu- tion This paper reviewed various factors that influence the ‘outcome of the dyeing process, the history of automation and the use of computer control in the dyeing industry. The use of controlled dyeing systems can result in high levels of production and lower costs while maintaining or increasing production standards. The lowerlevelof waste produced is also a step towards an environmentally Aduancerin Colour Science Tecknology Number 2 July 1998friendlier process. REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 5 6 29, 30, 31 32. 33, 35, AThomton, Dslernaional Dyer § (1984) 25 © Obermaier, Ger Pat. 23, 117 (6. 10.1882). DH Wykes in Enger in Tete Coloatin e€, C Ducoworth Dyor Co, Pub Trust Bradford, 158 R Flesning & JF Gaunt, Rev. Prog. 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