Heavy Industries Taxila

1. Introduction:
Heavy Industries Taxila (HIT) is a major defense, military contractor, engineering conglomerate,
and military corporation located in Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan.
HIT is noted as being one of the largest defense contractor. The HIT promotes, markets, engineers,
develops, and undertakes heavy engineering works for Pakistan's military and for the
civilian law enforcement agencies. Leadership in HIT is provided through the appointments
made in the GHQ by the chief of army staff who approves the appointment to its chairmanship.
Besides developing the heavy works, HIT also provides military gears for Pakistan's military,
building krytron and developing technology involving the solid-state lighting.

a. Background:
Heavy Industries Taxila was envisaged in the early 70's and its first production unit i.e. Heavy Rebuild
Factory (T-series) went into production in 1980. This was followed in the early 90's by a
number of other factories and today HIT has grown into a military industrial complex which
consists of Six Major Production Units, Support Facilities and Administrative Establishment.

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 b. Mission:
Manufacture, Rebuild, Upgrade & Develop Tanks, Tank Guns & APCs.
Utilize surplus capacity of factories to meet requirements of civil sector and friendly countries.
c. Organization:
HIT is governed through a Board, headed by Chairman HITB. The Board comprising of five members,
Member Production Control, Member Project Planning, Member Finance, Member Ministerial
Coordination and Member Private. HIT Board runs HIT on sound administrative and
management techniques to efficiently meet the requirements of defense production. HIT
Headquarters comprise of following three Main Directorates, Rebuild Facilities/Factories,
Manufacturing Facilities/Factories and Allied Facilities: -
i. Three Main Directorates:
a. Budget Marketing and Procurement Directorate
b. Administration Directorate
c. Technical Directorate
ii. Rebuild Facilities/Factories:
a. Heavy Rebuild Factory (T-Series)
b. Heavy Rebuild Factory (M-Series)
c. Advance Systems Rebuild Factory (ASRF)
iii. Manufacturing Facilities/Factories:
a. APC Factory
b. Gun Factory
c. Tank Factory
iv. Allied Facilities:
a. Advanced Research, Development and Information Centre (ARDIC)
b. Development, Engineering Support and Components Manufacture (DESCOM)

a. Budget Marketing & Procurement Directorate

There is separate directorate of Heavy Industries Taxila which exclusively looks after Budget,
Marketing and Procurement activities. Budget department allocates fund for execution of various
manufacturing projects. Marketing and Export department work exclusively for developing new
strategies to improve organizations image internationally and nationally; focuses on achieving
different market segment around the world to promote our products line. Procurement department
facilitates to procure materials and necessary items for the smooth functioning of the organization and
its project.

Our effort has lead us to penetrate into different regions of the world as a leading competitor in
defense product manufacturer.

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 b. Administration Directorate / Security Directorate
This Directorate controls the Administrative facilities, Personnel Management and Security of HIT.
c. Technical Directorate
Technical Directorate is responsible for industrial output, Training, Quality Assurance and Internship
programme. Industrial units are divided into Manufacturing Factories, Armoured Rebuild Facilities,
Engineering Support Facilities, AARDIC (Advance Armour Systems Research and Development,
Information and Integration Centre.

A. Heavy Rebuild Factory (T-Series)

HRF (T) rebuilds, upgrades and modernizes Armoured Vehicles of Russian / Chinese origin.
HRF (T) has always played a pivotal role in providing technical support to Pakistan Army for the
last many decades. In view of the technical and professional skills of its qualified and dedicated
manpower HRF (T) had the unique honour of transforming the originally established set up into a
number of rebuild, manufacture and development enterprises. Resultantly HRF (T) became the mother
project to serve as the foundation stone for the establishment of Heavy Industries Taxila. HRF (T) over
the years has enriched itself with the technical skills which are evident from the versatility of its
products being produced for its users. The latest product to roll out is tank Al-Zarrar. HRF (T)
supports the Pakistan's Armoured Formations technically and on ground in the field and at the base
repair level.

It is designed to rebuild and modernize tanks/ARV's of Chinese/East European origin with its
vast experience and expertise, the factory has contributed immensely in achieving self-reliance with
high quality and cost-effective products exceeding productivity beyond its designed capacity.

Products List
We are offering three types of products:
1. Defence Products
2. Commercial Products
3. Joint Venture Products
Defence Products

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 Tank Al-Zarrar

B. Heavy Rebuild Factory (M-Series)

Heavy Rebuild Factory (M-Series) has the expertise of carrying out quality rebuild of tracked vehicles
of us origin. The experience acquired in last two decades is reflected in the standards achieved. The
factory specializes in M-Series vehicles which are given new life after rebuilding strictly in
accordance with OEM specifications. The rebuild process enhances the life of the vehicle by around 8
to 10 years. The factory has rebuilt thousands of Armoured Personnel Carriers (APC), APC Power
Packs and Self-Propelled Guns so far. Heavy Rebuild Factory (M-Series) is ISO 9001:2008 certified.
The factory is also extending has services to Punjab and Sindh Police for maintaining their fleet of
APCs.
C. Advance Systems Rebuild Factory (ASRF)
Mission:
Rebuild and integrate advance armour systems and support indigenous
development/production of high tech systems.
Manufacturing and assembling of advance armour systems required for AFV'S programmes of
HIT or for the army or any other customer.
Capabilities:
ASRF is currently undertaking the following task:
Repair/Rebuild of Fire Control System, Gun Control System, Optronics and Electrical /
Auxiliary system Tanks T-59, T-69, T-85IIAP and T-80UD.
Installation, integration and repair / rebuild of Thermal Imaging Systems in AFVs.
Repair/Rebuild of Hydraulic assemblies of AFVs and ARVs.
Environmental integrity testing facilities for electronic assemblies of AFVs.
Indigenous Development of AFV Assemblies.

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 Fol Advanced AFV assemblies are being indeg developed to move towards self-reliance: -
FCS, GCS, Fire Fighting Equipment and Engine Protection Systems of Tank Al Khalid
and Tank-80UD.
Gun control system (GCS)
AAMG Control System for Tank T-80UD.
Gunner Monitoring System for TI system.
SSAL for Tank AL-Khalid and Tank T-85II AP (Upgraded).
Various Electrical devices including motors, regulators and control components of AFVs.

a. Armoured Personal Carrier (APC)

The most M113 family of vehicles are manufactured in this factory using state of art CNC machines,
CAD/CAM system and manufacturing technology unique in the world on MIG and TIG aluminum
welding radiographic inspection chemical, coating and pointing accordance to military specifications.
b. Gun Factory
Gun Factory is an ISO certified factory which was established during 1992. Initially only 105 mm
rifled bore tank gun barrel was machined in the factory but with enhancement of skill and absorption
of modern state of the art technology Gun Factory is now capable to produce 125 mm smooth bore
autofrettaged chrome plated tank gun.
c. Tank Manufacturing Factory
Tank Manufacturing was established in Jan 1992 with a view to create indigenous tank manufacturing
capabilities in Pakistan. It consists of generic facilities i.e. Hull fabrication shop, turret manufacturing
shop, tank assembly shop, computer numerical control (CNC) shop and systems integration and
calibration (SIC laboratory; whereas discrete armouring of vehicles (DAV) shop has been established
during year 2009.
Over the period the factory progressively manufactured tanks T-69IIMP, T-85IIAP and armoured
recovery vehicle W-653. Presently the factory is manufacturing tank Al-Khalid, light armoured
personnel carriers Mohafiz and und-ertaking discrete armouring of vehicles.
1. Advanced Research, Development & Information Centre (ARDIC)
Advanced Research, Development and Information Centre (ARDIC) previously called Advanced
Armour Systems Research Development Integration & Information Centre (AARDIC), (renamed vide
Minutes of HIT Board - 27th May 2015) is the center of excellence for advance systems to handle
future challenges of manufacturing and applied Research and Development (R&D).
Mission:

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 Research, Design and integrate Advance Armour Systems.
Support indigenous development/production of High-Tech systems to achieve deletion of
assemblies and stand-alone systems through R&D, Reverse Engineering & Re-Engineering,
using in-house capabilities and collaboration with local/foreign industrial setups.
Act as resource centre for HIT technical requirements beyond factory level.
Major Objectives:
Carry out R&D in the field of advance armour systems.
Carry out prototype manufacture to support R&D effort and also support the factories in
manufacture of complex parts/systems.
To design and develop futuristic armour systems and technologies.
Carry out local development of high value systems.
Support Tank and Armoured Personal Carrier (APC) rebuild mission of HIT in the field of
following Advanced Armour Systems: -
Fire Control System (FCS) / Gun Control System (GCS), Thermal Imager (TI) / Night
Vision Devices (NVDs).
Mechatronics systems.
Hydraulic systems.
Optronics.
Electronics & Electrical sub systems.
Auxiliary systems (Nuclear Biological and Chemical (NBC), Fire Extinguishing
Suppression System (FESS), Auxiliary Power Unit (APU), Communication).
Support HIT in Integration & Standardization of Advance Armour Systems.
Research Facilities:
Design Sec: We are equipped with state of the art facilities for engineering analysis of
components and assemblies, using CAD tools such as PRO-E, MATLAB, RECURDYN, AUTO CAD
etc. The section also generates CAD models for rapid prototyping machines.
Mechanical System: Variety of mechanical system functions are performed and tested along
with, ballistic testing of bullet resistant glasses, armour plates, Spall liners and template making etc.
Rapid Prototype Lab (RP): Through RP we generate high quality physical scaled
model/prototype out of existing complex CAD data and verify its function/fitment. Produce PRO-E
CAD data (through laser scanning) of existing parts/assemblies for further prototyping.
Electronics: (Fire Control System/Gun Control System) facilities.
Printed Circuit Board (PCB): Undertake PCB designing, prototyping and Reverse Engineering,
trouble shooting and fault analysis of PCBs.
Surface Mount Technology (SMT): Through this technology components are mounted directly
onto the surface of Printed Circuit Board (PCB). It has largely replaced through-hole tech of fitting
components with wire leads into holes in circuit board.

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 Material & Metal Casting: Facility of material specifications/composition analysis is being
provided spectrometer, ultrasonic flaw detector, roughness tester and portable hardness tester.
Sophisticated objects having intricate design are being produced through vacuum investment casting
system.
Reverse Engineering (RE): Reverse engineering of different components/assemblies /systems of
Armoured Fighting Vehicles (AFVs) is performed to understand technological principles through
analysis of its structure, function and operation.
2. Development, Engineering Support and Components Manufacturing (DESCOM)
The Development, Engineering Support and Components Manufacturing Project commonly known
as DESCOM", provides general engineering support to all factories of HIT, engaged in rebuild and
manufacture of Tanks, Armored Personal Carriers, Armored Recovery Vehicles and Guns. This Hi-
tech organization, equipped with CNC machines a standard laboratory and material testing equipment
is the backbone of HIT and encompasses following: -
In-house manufacture and specialized treatment of components and spare parts with stringent
quality control measures.
Development of components, spare parts and various assemblies through vendor industry.
Design and manufacture of tools, dies, gauges, jigs and fixtures.
Repair and maintenance of equipment and machinery installed in HIT.
Manufacturing Facilities:
DESCOM is well equipped with versatile manufacturing facilities to produce components within very
close tolerance for sister factories of HIT. Some Spare capacity available for
manufacturing of components is also meeting the requirement of private sector.

Heavy Rebuild Factory (T-Series)

In HRF(T), tanks and armored recovery vehicles are being repaired and rebuilt. For that purpose, a
setup of workshops is established where tanks and armored recovery vehicles are disassembled,
inspected, repaired, and finally reassembled in a proper pattern or layout. This layout is given in detail:

SHOP-1
Shop 1 is the shop in which the vehicle to be rebuild, disassembled and the assemblies are sent to the
respective workshops for repairing and at final stage those parts are again sent back to this shop to
assemble them again.

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Working plan:
Whenever a tank is brought to this shop, it is divided into parts at the very initial stage
First part is hull and the other is turret.

Sections:
This shop has two sections
1. Turret Section
2. Hull Section

Turret Section:
Turret is the upper part of the tank that contains barrel, rotation and levitation mechanism. Once a
turret is brought, it is completely disassembled and the parts are sent to respective workshops and after
repairing they again sent to this section and in this way turret is rebuild. The following chart will
elaborate it.
Dis assembly:
All parts of turret are dis assembled and sent to stripping chamber.
Stripping Chamber:
In this chamber oil parts are washed.
Repairing:
Broken parts are joined by welding and other maintenance jobs are performed.
Recoil Section:
In this section recoil cylinder & the counter recoil cylinders are repaired.
ASRF:
All the electric equipment's and sights of the turret are taken out and sent to ASRF for repair & testing
purpose. Following parts are sent here
Fire Control System (FCS)
Gun Control System (GCS)

Shop-7:
Following parts are sent here:
Seats

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 Shell racks
Assembly-1:
At this stage, the turret assembling starts and at the Assembly-1 the doors are fitted.
Assembly-2:
Barrel is fitted at the assembly-2
Final:
Now the final touch is given to the turret, after that it is ready to be installed on the tank:
1. Turret section
2. Dis-assembly
3. Stripping chamber
4. Repairing
5. Recoil Section
6. ASRF & S-7
7. A-1
8. A-2
9. Final

Hull Section:
Hull is lower part of the tank & it consists of engine, fuel system, cooling system, planetary steering
mechanism & other important parts. Similarly, to the turret section, in hull section, hull is
disassembled into parts and these parts are sent to other departments and sections for repair purpose.
For hull section sequence is:
1. Hull section
2. Dis assembly
3. Stripping Chamber
4. S-9 & S-7
5. Painting
6. A-1
7. A-2
8. A-3 and Final

Stripping Chamber:

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After disassembling the hull is washed in the stripping section to remove the oil and grease.
Shop-7:
Shop No 7 is given the following parts for repair purpose
Fuel tanks
Fuel pipes
Hydraulic pipes of engine and all sheet metal
Shop-9:
Shop No 9 is given the following parts for repair purpose.
Speed up gear box
Gear box
Final drive
Engine control mechanism &other parts
Painting:
When the required parts came back from the above-mentioned shops, they are painted in the hull
section and now these parts are ready to be installed in the tank ARV
Assembly-1:
It is the stage from where tank starts to take its original shape. At this stage, the following parts are
installed:
Suspension system
Hydraulic system
Gear system
Control system
Final drive
Oil tanks
Cooling system

Assembly-2:
After assembly-1 the hull is sent to assembly-2 where following important parts are installed in the
hull:
Engine
Gear box
Speed up gear box
External fuel group
Interconnection of accessories

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Assembly-3 & Final:
The following parts are installed in hull at assembly-3 and final stage:
Air cleaners
Oil coolers
Water coolers
Top plate
Ammo racks
Seats
Bottom plate
Track chain
Rack

SHOP-3
Introduction:
Like all the shops in HRF (T) shop no 3 is a repair shop. It repairs engine & its assemblies and
machine the hull parts sent by the shop no 9. It is highly equipped with multifunctional machines,
milling machines and many mores.

Sections:
It has two main sections:
1. Engine section
2. Hull parts machining section

1. Engine section:
Engine is the heart of vehicles. One can say that it is the main power production unit in a vehicle,
without which nobody can drive a vehicle.
Shop-3 is provided with very special unique and high precision machines. Shop-3 provides engine in
the form of small inspected before assembling and installation in the tank
Following are the main parts of engine which are repaired and are made ready for reuse in the shop:
Crank case
Cylinders
Pistons
Fuel injection pumps
Water pump

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 Oil pump
Crank shaft
Connecting rods
Fuel injection pump(FIP):
Fuel injection pump is a very important part that provides fuel to the cylinders during
combustion according to their fire timings at very high pressure. There is a separate section in shop-3,
where FIP is repaired, assembled and then tested. For repair purpose, highly precised machines are
used.

2.Hull parts machining section:

All types of hull parts machining are done in the shop-3. At the inspection stage in shop 9,
some repairable parts are welded and sent to shop-3 for the manufacturing work so that these parts can
be standardized. This section is provided with many powerful machines and very skilled labor so its
easy to bring the parts in standard. It is the beauty of this shop that rejected parts are also utilized to
make new parts by machining e.g. coupling of ARVs is made from rejected crank shafts.
In this section following main parts of the hull are machined and standardized:
Road vehicles
Bogie arms
Final drive
Torsion bar

SHOP-3(A)
Introduction:
Shop 3-A is the assembly shop. It assembles the engine parts and the transmission parts that are
repaired and made ready for use in shop 3. it assembles engines & transmission parts of all type of T-
series tanks (T-59, T-59M, T-69, Al-Zarrar, T-80UD) and ARVs.

Sections:
It has two main sections:
1. Transmission assembly section
2. Engine assembly section

1.Transmission assembly section:

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Transmission consists of all parts that form a chain which delivers the power from the engine to the
sprocket wheel. The main parts of the transmission are:

Speed up gear box

Clutch mechanism
Gear box
Planetary steering mechanism
Final drive
Sprocket wheel

Following is the working sequence in this section:

Parts receiving

Cleaning/inspection of parts

Preparation of sub-assemblies

Final assembly

Painting

Final inspection + testing

Assembly dispatched to shop 1

2.Engine assembly section:

In engine assembly section, repaired parts come from shop 3 or sometimes, new parts from the
store. First of all, sub-assemblies and then they are joined to rebuild the engine.

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 SHOP-7

Introduction:
This shop is basically, dual purpose shop. It not only rebuilds and repair the parts but also manufacture
the new parts as per requirement. This shop deals with all type of sheet metal parts of tanks and
ARVs. It also repairs and prepares pipes that are used in the engine or in the hydraulic mechanism.

Working sequence:
The working sequence in this shop is similar to other shops:

Parts from shop 1 & 9

cleaning

repairing

inspection

painting

shop 1 & 3-A

Receiving parts
Cleaning
Repairing
Inspection
Painting
Parts returning

Sections:

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As mentioned earlier that it is a dual process shop so it is categorized into two main sections that are
further divided into sub sections:
1. Repair section
2. Manufacturing section

1.Repair section:
As the name reflects, in this shop parts are repaired. The repairing work is done in the sub-
shops. Following is the detail of these shops:
Cleaning section
Shot blasting section
Water radiator section
Fuel tank section
Brake band section
Painting section
Seat repair section

Repair section is divided into above seven sub-sections.

2.Manufacturing section:
This section is provided with many powerful and multitasking machines like lathe machine. It also has
a facility of welding. In this section, many operations can be done and many parts according to the
given drawing are manufactured.

SHOP-9

Mission and objectives:

The following are the main objectives of shop-9:

1. Disassembling and cleaning of the engine and hull assembly of tanks T-59, T-59M, T-69, T-
55, Al-Zarrar, Al-Khalid, T-80UD and ARVs.
2. Inspection of parts of hull assembly of tanks T-59, T-59M, T-69, T-55, Al-Zarrar, Al-Khalid,
T-80UD and ARVs.
3. Assembly of inspection system of tanks T-59, T-59M, T-69, T-55, Al-Zarrar, Al-Khalid, T-
80UD and ARVs.
4. Welding and machining of hull parts of above mentioned tanks.

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Working:
The chart will explain the working sequence at shop 9

Shop No 9

Dis assembly

Cleaning

Inspection

Assembly

1. Dis-assembly:
All the above-mentioned parts are first of all dis assembled into their sub parts up to the maximum
level
Engine is dis assembled into the following main parts:
Crank case
Cylinders
Pistons
Fuel injection parts
Water pump
Oil pump
Crank shaft
Crank rod

2. Cleaning:
Parts are full of paint, grease and oil. Before repairing it is necessary to clean all these parts. The
following procedure is adopted to clean the parts:

Hot water washing:

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 Very Hot water is sprayed on the part, this makes the paint, oil and grease to be removed easily.
Chemical:
After washing with hot water, the parts are dipped into the chemical tanks that contains chemical and
steam. At this stage paint, oil and grease is completely removed.
Kerosene oil:
When the parts are taken out from the chemical tanks, they are put into kerosene oil tanks in order to
dry them.

3. Inspection:
All washed parts are inspected by the inspection section and the parts are categorized according to the
given standards and accordingly they are painted and further action is done.
Inspection process is very detailed highly calibrated instruments are used to check the standards and
quality of each part. In shop no 9, engine is just dis assembled and then it is sent to shop no 3 for
further process when it is washed and inspected.
The following colors are painted on the parts and then they are further processed:
No. Process required color
01 passed blue
02 repairable orange
03 welding black
04 rejected red

4. Assembling:
After inspection, all parts are categorized into four groups and all the items that are declared passed
are reassembled so that they can be again installed at their respective positions.

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 SHOP-11
Engine Testing Lab:
In workshop 11 after the complete assembling of engine in shop 3-A & before the final assembling of
engine in shop1, engine is transferred to shop 11 for testing engines. After clearing engine test this
engine is further transferred to shop 1 for final assembling of engine within tank. If engine does not
clear the test it is transferred back to other shops for further maintenance.

Engine
An Internal Combustion Engine (IC Engine) is a type of combustion engine that converts chemical
energy into thermal energy, to produce useful mechanical work. In an IC engine, combustion chamber
is an integral part of the working fluid circuit.

Principle of operation:
Air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber (inside the cylinder) is ignited, either by a spark plug (in
case of Spark Ignition Engines) or by compression (in case of Compression Ignition engines). This
ignition produces tremendous amount of heat and pressure inside the cylinder. This induces
reciprocating motion in the piston.

Power of the piston is transmitted to a crankshaft which undergoes rotary motion. The rotary motion is
ultimately transmitted to the wheels of the vehicle, via a transmission system, to produce propulsion in
the vehicle.

As the combustion takes place internally inside the cylinder (a part of working fluid circuit), the
engine is called internal combustion.

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Engine components:

Air filter
Airfuel ratio meter
Block of engine
Camshaft
Cooler (oil)
Crankcase
Crankshaft
Connecting rod
Cylinder liner
Cylinder block
Cylinder head
Exhaust system
Fuel filter
Fuel injection
Fuel pump
Flywheel
Gudgeon pin
Ignition coil
Ignition system
Overhead camshaft
Oil pump
piston
Radiator (engine cooling)
Tappet cover
Throttle
Timing belt (camshaft)
Total-loss oiling system
Turbocharger
Valves
Water pump

Cylinder Block:
The cylinder block is an integrated structure comprising the cylinder(s) of a reciprocating
engine and often some or all of their associated surrounding structures (coolant passages, intake and
exhaust passages and ports, and crankcase). The term engine block is often used synonymously with
"cylinder block" (although technically distinctions can be made between block cylinders as a discrete
unit versus engine block designs with yet more integration that comprise the crankcase as well).

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Camshaft:
A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an integral part. In internal
combustion engines with pistons, the camshaft is used to operate poppet valves. It consists of a
cylindrical rod running the length of the cylinder bank with a number of oblong lobes protruding from
it, one for each valve. The cam lobes force the valves open by pressing on the valve, or on some
intermediate mechanism, as they rotate. Camshafts can be made out of several types of material. These
include Chilled iron castings: Commonly used in high volume production, chilled iron camshafts have
good wear resistance since the chilling process hardens them. Other elements are added to the iron
before casting to make the material more suitable for its application.

Crankshaft:
A crankshaftrelated to crankis a mechanical part able to perform a conversion
between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it
translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion; whereas in a reciprocating
compressor, it converts the rotational motion into reciprocating motion. In order to do the conversion
between two motions, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins", additional bearing surfaces

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whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each
cylinder attach.

Connecting Rod:
In a reciprocating piston engine, the connecting rod connects the piston to the crank or crankshaft.
Together with the crank, they form a simple mechanism that converts reciprocating motion into
rotating motion.
Connecting rods may also convert rotating motion into reciprocating motion. Historically, before the
development of engines, they were first used in this way.
As a connecting rod is rigid, it may transmit either a push or a pull and so the rod may rotate the crank
through both halves of a revolution, i.e. piston pushing and piston pulling. Earlier mechanisms, such as
chains, could only pull. In a few two-stroke engines the connecting rod is only required to push.

Cylinder liner, rings & head:

A cylinder liner is a thin-walled hard metal cylinder inserted into a cylinder block of an engine and in
which the piston runs.
The end cover of a cylinder in an internal combustion engine, against which the piston compresses the
cylinder's contents.

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Fuel injection pump:
An Injection Pump is the device that pumps diesel (as the fuel) into the cylinders of a diesel engine.
Traditionally, the injection pump is driven indirectly from the crankshaft by gears, chains or a toothed
belt (often the timing belt) that also drives the camshaft. It rotates at half crankshaft speed in a
conventional four-stroke diesel engine. Its timing is such that the fuel is injected only very slightly
before top dead centre of that cylinder's compression stroke. It is also common for the pump belt on
gasoline engines to be driven directly from the camshaft. In some systems injection pressures can be as
high as 200 MPa (30,000 PSI).

Piston:
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas
compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving component
that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to
transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting
rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for
the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts
as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall.

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Gudgeon pin:

In internal combustion engines, the gudgeon pin (UK, wrist pin US) connects the piston to the
connecting rod and provides a bearing for the connecting rod to pivot upon as the piston moves.[1] In
very early engine designs (including those driven by steam and also many very large stationary or
marine engines), the gudgeon pin is located in a sliding crosshead that connects to the piston via a rod.
A gudgeon is a pivot or journal.

Radiator:
Radiators are heat exchangers used to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for
the purpose of cooling and heating. The majority of radiators are constructed to function
in automobiles, buildings, and electronics. The radiator is always a source of heat to its environment,
although this may be for either the purpose of heating this environment, or for cooling the fluid
or coolant supplied to it, as for engine cooling.Despite the name,most radiators transfer the bulk of
their heat via convection instead of thermal radiation. Spacecraft radiators necessarily must use
radiation only to reject heat.

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Cooling fins:
Fins are surfaces that extend from an object to increase the rate of heat transfer to or from the
environment by increasing convection. The amount of conduction, convection, or radiation of an
object determines the amount of heat it transfers.

Turbocharger:
A turbocharger, or colloquially turbo, is a turbine-driven forced induction device that increases an
internal combustion engine's efficiency and power output by forcing extra air into the combustion
chamber.This improvement over a naturally aspirated engine's power output is due to the fact that the
compressor can force more air and proportionately more fuel into the combustion chamber than
atmospheric pressuralone.

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Exhaust manifold:
In automotive engineering, an exhaust manifold collects the exhaust gases from
multiple cylinders into one pipe. The word manifold comes from the Old English word manifold and
refers to the folding together of multiple inputs and outputs (in contrast, an inlet or intake
manifold supplies air to the cylinders).
Exhaust manifolds are generally simple cast iron or stainless steel units which collect engine exhaust
gas from multiple cylinders and deliver it to the exhaust pipe.

Combustion chamber:
A combustion chamber is that part of an internal combustion engine (ICE) in which
the fuel/air mix is burned an enclosed space in which combustion takes place, such as the space above
the piston in the cylinder head of an internal-combustion engine or the chambers in
a gas turbine or rocket engine in which fuel and oxidant burn.

Flywheel:
A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to efficiently store rotational
energy. Flywheels resist changes in rotational speed by their moment of inertia. The amount of energy
stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of its rotation.

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 High Fuel Consumption of the Engine

Fuel efficiency is a form of thermal efficiency, meaning the efficiency of a process that
converts chemical potential energy contained in a carrier fuel into kinetic energy or work. Overall fuel
efficiency may vary per device, which in turn may vary per application fuel efficiency,
especially fossil fuel power plants or industries dealing with combustion, such as ammonia production
during the Haber process.
The fuel economy of an automobile is the fuel efficiency relationship between the distance traveled
and the amount of fuel consumed by the vehicle. It is dependent on engine
efficiency, transmission design, and tire design.
Fuel consumption is a more accurate measure of a vehicles performance because it is a linear
relationship while fuel economy leads to distortions in efficiency improvements.
Fuel consumption is the amount of fuel used per unit distance; for example, liters per
100 kilometers (L/100 km). In this case, the lower the value, the more economical a vehicle is (the
less fuel it needs to travel a certain distance).
Fuel consumption rate:
The fuel consumption rate for many makes of Diesel Engines can be found in a range between 0.380
& 0.450 lbs/hp hour; 172 & 181 grams/hp hour; 231 & 243 grams/kW hour. This does not represent a
big difference in fuel consumption per power unit between most normal naturally aspirated diesel
engines, while turbocharged engines are not significantly better.
Turbocharged engines are more efficient
The aim of turbochargers and aftercoolers are to increase engine efficiency and they do just that. Some
of the new turbocharger technologies have resulted in almost unbelievable increases in power output
per cylinder of the engine, but this alas, is not a saving in fuel consumption per unit of power
produced.
.
Fuel Consumption units - conversion table

This table converts between the different units of fuel consumption one is most likely to encounter.
The choice of Specific Gravity of Diesel = 0.853 @ 15.5C is quite arbitrary and will vary from time
to time with different grades of diesel and in different countries; while some engine manufacturers
may even specify a different specific gravity for their own tests, presumably for very good reasons.
The ASTM for e.g. specify a density between 0.820 to 0.845 for EN590 diesel, while the European
standard for the same fuel is between 0.820 and 0.860 kg/m3.

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 Table Diesel Engine Fuel Consumption conversions
Basis: Specific Gravity of Diesel = 0.853 @ 15.5C

Unit Multiply by to get

lbs / hp hour 0.533 liter / hour

lbs / hp hour 0.1408 US gal / hour

US gal / hour 3.7854 liter / hour

liter / hour 0.2642 US gal / hour

kg / hour 1.175 liters / hour

grams / hour 0.001175 liters / hour

Regard all values as approximate

Causes of High Fuel Consumption

Following are the main causes of fuel consumptions.

Faulty engine
If an engine is not tuned properly or the maintenance service delayed, this will lead to a decline in the
engines fuel efficiency.
Faulty fuel injectors and air cleaner element

In a diesel engine, an increase of fuel consumption can result from faulty fuel injectors and dirty air
cleaner element as these two are crucial for prompt burning of the fuel during combustion.
Poor engine oil
The quality of engine oil can also affect fuel economy, if you use the wrong motor oil viscosity grade
in terms of being thicker than recommended, at certain temperatures or an inferior quality, the engine

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pistons and other moving parts move less freely. This adds a load onto the engine and hence a greater
demand for fuel energy.
Poor quality fuels
If you buy adulterated fuel from dodgy road side kiosks, it will not burn promptly and would require
larger amounts to move the vehicle.
Some legitimate fuel stations have fuels that are mixed with chemical additives that clean the intake
valves of petrol engines and injector nozzles of diesel engines to reduce accumulation of waste after
burn deposits. They add a chemical which lubricates the upper piston ring and helps the engine move
lighter with less fuel. This will improve fuel efficiency.

Poor maintenance and short distance

Poor maintenance includes elements of delayed servicing and poor servicing which leads to
overstretching of the service interval hence clogged air elements which lead to poor consumption
range which in turn leads to more fuel consumption.
Vehicles are least fuel efficient and most polluting at the start of trips and on short trips. One reason
for this is that catalytic converters (which reduce air pollution emissions) do not operate properly until
they have warmed up.
Trips of less than five kilometers generally do not allow the engine to reach its peak operating
temperature.
So, rather than shopping at different intervals, plan to do a number of errands in one trip rather than
several trips and save both time and fuel.
Wrong gears
This mostly applies to manual cars because automatic transmissions will shift up more quickly and
smoothly if you ease back slightly on the accelerator once the car gathers momentum. Certain speeds
are supposed to be driven in certain gears. If you are driving in gear number three, but are driving at
80km/hr, then you will need more energy to move the vehicle hence the vehicle consuming more fuel.

Worn out clutch

Most cars dont need to be warmed up by idling before setting off. This simply wastes fuel. Start
your car when you are ready to go. Once on the road, minimize fuel wasted in idling by stopping the
engine whenever your car is stopped or held up for an extended period of time. By having the engine
switched off, even for a short period, you will save more fuel than is lost from the burst of fuel
involved in restarting the engine. The net increased wear and tear from this practice is negligible.
This causes wheel slippage especially when the car is starting or accelerating on wet or slippery road
as power is not fully converted hence using more energy to move the vehicle which amounts to using
more fuel. Slippage means insufficient contact between a clutch and pressure plate. Every driver of a
manual vehicle must slip the clutch to move off or to move very slowly such as in very slow-moving
traffic or when performing a slow man oeuvre such as parallel parking for example. Slipping the
clutch converts some of the engine power to be lost as friction.
Over Speeding
Vehicles are designed to be driven up to a certain speed, over speeding will lead to a higher fuel
consumption. The higher the speed especially if above 120km/h, the more fuel you will consume.

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 Air fuel ratio
If air or fuel mixture which is feed to the engine is of low quality then it will also result in high fuel
consumption.
Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency in internal combustion engine engineering is defined as the ratio of the mass
density of the air-fuel mixture drawn into the cylinder at atmospheric pressure (during the intake
stroke) to the mass density of the same volume of air in the intake manifold. The term is also used in
other engineering contexts, such as hydraulic pumps and electronic components.
Better volumetric efficiency can lead to better power output thus decreasing fuel consumption.
Advance Angle
The angle between the point of ignition and bottom dead-centre in a spark-ignition engine. If the
advance angle is not correct then it will increase load on engine thus causing high fuel consumption.
Different tanks have different advance angles. e.g.
T-59 = 34 to 35
T-69 = 33 to 34
T-85 = 28 to 29
Pump timing and advance angle are same parameters; according to pump timing advance angle is set.
For a diesel engine, fuel injection pressure (FIP) and injection timings are very important parameters,
which influence the engine performance, emissions, and combustion and thus cause increase or
decrease in fuel consumption.
Valve timing
In a piston engine, the valve timing is the precise timing of the opening and closing of the valves. In
an internal combustion engine those are usually poppet valves and in a steam engine they are
usually slide valves or piston valves. So proper valve timing is very important as it might increase or
decrease fuel consumption.
Phasing
Phasing can be defined as the time in the engine cycle, specifically the compression and expansion
strokes, where combustion occurs. A change in combustion phasing causes a change
in combustion duration. If phasing is not correct then fuel combustion will increase.
Calibration
The main activities pertaining to the tuning of electronic control system functions of multi-fractional
gasoline, diesel, natural compressed gas, LPG, alcohol and Flex fuel internal combustion engines are
carried out by highly qualified technical personnel at our laboratories.
The basic engine calibration, aimed at achieving the best consumption and performance targets by
optimizing control parameters, is carried out in Engine Testing Rooms equipped with the most modern
technologies, which allow dynamic automatic tests with in-depth analysis of the combustion cycle to
be carried out. If engine calibration is not proper then fuel consumption will increase.

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 Injector Atomization
It takes a lot to make an engine work, but none of it would be possible without the atomization of
automotive liquid fuels. In this process, fuel is forced through a small jet opening under extremely
high pressure to break it into a fine misted spray. From here, the mist is mixed with air (emulsified)
and then vaporized into a rarefied form appropriate for use by an internal combustion engine. All of
this takes place in an engine's carburetor.
From here, it moves through the fuel injector, where it combusts in the engine causing the pistons to
fire and propel the vehicle forward. This process, known as fuel combustion, is what literally makes
the mechanical world go around. If injector atomization is of poor quality then fuel consumption will
increase.
Fuel Leakage
Any sort of fuel leakage in the engine will cause in high fuel consumption.
Overloading
Overloading of vehicle will put more pressure on engine thus increasing fuel consumption.
Liner wearing
Piston liner wearing will also effect engine performance thus increasing fuel consumption and
decreasing engine efficiency.

Remedies to Control Fuel Consumption:

In order to decrease fuel consumption in vehicles, following processes can be considered.

Turbocharging, including turbo-compounding

Variable valve actuation
Advanced exhaust gas recirculation
Engine friction reduction
Alternative combustion cycles
Thermal insulation of ports and manifolds
Improved work extraction from combustion process
Electronic controller calibration management

Conclusion
The advantage of a diesel engine is its improved fuel consumption. Compare to gas turbine, the diesel
engine uses less fuel. Even though there have been improvements on fuel consumption for a gas
turbine, by improving cycle efficiency, material, digital electronic control systems and recuperated
design which provide 30-40% improvements in fuel use over older turbines. The diesel engine still has
the upper hand on the fuel consumption.

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