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Understanding Karst Leakage at the Kowsar

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 Understanding Karst Leakage at the Kowsar Dam,
Iran, by Hydrogeological Analysis
MORTEZA MOZAFARI1

EZZATOLLAH RAEISI2
Department of Earth Sciences, College of Sciences, Shiraz University, 71454,
Shiraz, Iran

Key Terms: Dam, Reservoir, Karst Aquifer, Leakage
Problem, Grout Curtain
ABSTRACT
The Kowsar Dam is constructed on the Kheyrabad River
at the northern limb of the Duck Anticline, close to its NW
plunge, SW Iran. The dam is built on the karstic Asmari
Formation, and the reservoir is in direct contact with this
formation from the dam body to the upstream impermeable
Gachsaran Formation. After reservoir impounding, several
new springs emerged from the Asmari Formation, adjacent
to the old small springs at the southern limb of the Duck
Anticline. The discharge of these downstream springs was
not reduced despite grout curtain treatment works. The
main water leakage route is not below or through the grout
curtain, as shown by considering rock permeability in pilot
and check holes, cement consumption in grouting bore-
holes, borehole water levels, spring locations, and discharge
of the dam galleries. The Duck Anticline is hydrogeologi-
cally connected to the adjacent Dill and Pahn Anticlines,
comprising the Asmari Karst Aquifer, which is divided into
three karst sub-aquifers. The general flow direction of karst
water in each sub-aquifer was determined using hydro-
geological analysis and water balance calculations. Two
alternative models are proposed for water flow at the
northern limb of the Duck Anticline. The main leakage
route toward the downstream springs is most probably
through a relict karst conduit system, developed along
bedding planes of the Asmari Formation at the NW plunge
of the anticline, according to the first proposed model. In
this case, the water leakage can be significantly reduced by
extension of the grout curtain further into the upstream
impermeable Gachsaran Formation.
INTRODUCTION
Karst is defined as a terrain with distinctive
landforms and hydrology that is developed on
1
Email address: mmozafari@shirazu.ac.ir.
2
Corresponding author email: e_raeisi@yahoo.com.
especially soluble rocks such as limestone, marble,
dolomite, halite, and gypsum (Ford and Williams,
2007). Karst covers approximately 20 percent of
Earths surface and is characterized by fluted and
pitted rock surfaces, sinking streams, enclosed depres-
sions, caves, sinkholes, shafts, springs, and subsurface
drainage systems (White, 1988; Ford and Williams,
2007). Karst aquifers are characterized by three types
of porosity: matrix (or inter-granular) porosity,
fracture porosity, and conduits (White, 1969, 1977;
Ford and Williams, 2007). Depending on whether the
flow path is through matrix, fractures, conduits, or
a combination, there are different types of flow
systems in karst aquifers (Martin and Screaton, 2001).
Diffuse flow systems occur predominantly within
matrix and fracture porosity, while conduit flow
occurs within conduits (Pitty, 1968; Paterson, 1979).
Development of conduits within karst aquifers results
in high permeability and allows rapid transfer of
groundwater (Martin and Screaton, 2001). Due to
a variety of intrinsic geological and hydrological
features, karst systems are among the most vulnerable
settings in the world for design and development of
engineering projects, including dams (Gutierrez et al.,
2014; Parise et al., 2014).
Leakage from karst dam sites has been reported all
over the world. The difficulties involved in construct-
ing a dam on a karstified bedrock were first
documented at the Hales Bar Dam, which was built
on the Tennessee River between 1905 and 1913
(Donnelly et al., 2009). Milanovic (2004) reviewed
in detail the leakage problems of several dams
constructed on karst regions all over the world; most
of them work successfully, but a few have problems
with unacceptably heavy leakage from the reservoir.
In many dams, huge leakages were reduced after
complicated sealing programs. Leakage appears at
preexisting springs or as new resurgences. Leakage
routes are often karst conduits developed along
bedding planes, joints, and/or their intersections.
The leakage rate can vary from a few liters to several
cubic meters per second. Even with extensive grout-
ing, sometimes leakage is serious from the beginning

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339 325
 Mozafari and Raeisi
Figure 1. Location of the Kowsar Dam site, hydrogeological map of the study area, and the conceptual model of general flow direction in
three sub-aquifer areas, SP, NDD, and SPNDD.
of impoundment and may increase greatly with time
(Palmer, 1988).
Most papers on the topic focus on remediation
methods. An overview of the articles shows that one
or several of the following techniques have been used
to identify the source(s) and route(s) of leakage:
response of spring discharge and borehole water level
to reservoir water-level changes (Sahuquillo, 1985;
Pantzartzis et al., 1993; Turkmen, 2003; Unal et al.,
2007; Bonacci and Rubinic, 2009; and Bonacci and
Bonacci, 2013), tracing tests (Quinlan, 1985; Turkmen
et al., 2002; and Mozafari et al., 2011), isotopic
studies (Hansen and Teter, 1970; Gunay et al., 1995;
Crilley and Torak, 2002; and Laksiri, 2007), hydro-
chemistry (Gunay et al., 1995; Qingzhi et al., 1998;
Montoroi et al., 2001; Ghobadi et al., 2005; Torak et
al., 2006; and Al-Omosh et al., 2008), exploratory
drilling, rock permeability, and grout curtain charac-
terization (Zogovic, 1993; Jarvis, 2003; Turkmen,
2003; Milanovic, 2004; Schaefer, 2009; Milanovic
et al., 2010; and Mozafari et al., 2011), and geo-
physical methods (Al-Saigh et al., 1993; Ginther and
Charlton, 2009; and Bedrosian et al., 2012). Moham-
madi et al. (2007) proposed three steps for leakage
study at a karst dam site, including: (1) preparation of
the hydrogeological map; (2) delineation and func-
326 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339
tional analysis of the karst system by means of
structure and functioning approaches; and (3) assess-
ment of the leakage potential using the results of steps
1 and 2 and determination of the most probable
leakage zones.
The concrete gravity Kowsar Dam, with a height of
144 m and a reservoir capacity of 580 million cubic
meters (MCM), was constructed by the Iranian
Ministry of Power in SW Iran (Figure 1) to annually
supply 200 and 300 MCM of drinking and irrigation
water, respectively. The dam is built on the Kheyr-
abad River, on the karstified Asmari Formation at
the northern limb of the Duck Anticline (Figure 1).
Here, the Kheyrabad River, with an average dis-
charge of 21.5 m3/s, flows almost perpendicular to
the anticline axis near NW plunge, developing the
V-shape Kheyrabad Valley in the Asmari Formation.
The reservoir normal water level (RNWL) is 625 m
above sea level (a.s.l.), about 125 m above the
Kheyrabad River floodplain. The reservoir is in direct
contact with the Asmari Formation vertically from
the riverbed to the RNWL, and on the sides from the
dam body to the upstream impermeable Gachsaran
Formation. Soon after impounding, leakage occurred
in the downstream preexisting springs and at several
new springs, located on the Asmari Formation at the
 Understanding Karst Leakage, Kowsar Dam, Iran
southern limb of the Duck Anticline. The maximum
total leakage stabilized at 5.61 m3/s at the RNWL.
The main objective of this paper is to identify the
main leakage route of the reservoir by means of
hydrogeological analysis of the Asmari Karst Aquifer
(AKA), rock permeability tests in pilot and check
holes, cement consumptions in grouting boreholes,
borehole water levels, springs locations, and discharge
of the dam galleries. The paper explains the role of a
general hydrogeological study and evaluation of relict
karst development mechanisms in delineation of the
reservoir leakage route. The results would be useful
to determine potential leakage routes in other karst
dam sites in Iran and elsewhere.
HYDROGEOLOGICAL SETTING
The study area is located in the Simply Folded
Zone of the Zagros Orogenic System in SW Iran,
where the sedimentary rocks have been folded into
parallel NW-SE anticlines and synclines since the
Miocene (Falcon, 1961). In the Simply Folded Zone,
most of the karst formations are sandwiched between
two impervious formations, forming independent
karst aquifers (Raeisi, 2008). The study area is
composed of five anticlines parallel to the general
structure of the Simply Folded Zone, namely, the
Duck, Dill, Pahn, Mish, and Khami Anticlines
(Figure 1). The structural characteristics and stratig-
raphy of the Zagros sedimentary sequence have been
described in detail by Stocklin and Setudehnia (1977)
and Alavi (2004). The geological formations in the
study area in decreasing order of age are (Figure 1):
Khami Group carbonates and marls (Jurassic to
Lower Cretaceous), Bangestan Group carbonates and
shale (Upper Cretaceous), Pabdeh-Gurpi shale and
marl (CretaceousTertiary), Asmari Formation, mar-
ly limestone and marl (OligoceneMiocene), Gach-
saran marl and evaporites (Tertiary), and Quaternary
alluvium. The distribution of the geological forma-
tions in the Dill, Duck, Pahn, Mish, and Khami
Anticlines is presented in Figure 2. Due to action of
thrust on the Mountain Front Fault (MFF) (Fig-
ure 1), the older geological formations of the Mish
and Khami Anticlines are located next to the younger
formation of the Dill Anticline. The Khami Group
constitutes the core of the Mish and Khami Anticli-
nes, overlain by the exposed Bangestan Group. The
Pabdeh-Gurpi Formation outcrops only at the Mish
Anticline and makes an important aquiclude unit
beneath the Asmari Formation in the core of the
Duck, Dill, and Pahn Anticlines. The Asmari
Formation outcrops at the top of the Dill, Duck,
and Pahn Anticlines where the impermeable overlying
Gachsaran Formation has been eroded, and it is
Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339
mostly exposed at the foot of the anticlines or buried
under a thin alluvium on the adjacent plains. The
Gachsaran Formation is divided into salt and non-
salt equivalents (Bahrudi and Koyi, 2004). The Salt
Gachsaran Formation outcrops at the study area.
Stocklin and Setudehnia (1977) divided it into seven
members based on a type section from wells in the
Gachsaran oil field. Member 1, which consists of
about 40 m of inter-bedded anhydrite and limestone
associated with shale, is known as an important
sealing unit over the Asmari Formation oil reservoirs.
The Kowsar Dam is built on the Asmari Formation
at the northern limb of the Duck Anticline (Figure 3).
Here, the Asmari Formation is classified into three
members: Lower Asmari (LAs), Middle Asmari
(MAs), and Upper Asmari (UAs) (Figure 3), based
on detailed geological mapping and borehole logs
(Fars Regional Water Authority, 1997b). The LAs
unit, which extends vertically from 70 m above and to
at least 100 m below the valley floor, based on
borehole log data, consists of 4- to 8-m-thick beds of
dense crystalline massive limestone with rare marly
limestone inter-beds. The MAs unit is composed of
more than 100 m of 1.5- to 3-m-thick beds of
crystalline limestone inter-bedded with marl and marly
limestone layers (marls represent about 7 to 8 percent
of the MAs unit). A 1.5-m-thick marly layer is located
near the lower boundary of the MAs unit (Figure 3).
The UAs unit consists of 150 m of medium- to thin-
bedded, crystalline limestone with relatively more
inter-bedded marly limestone and marls. Caves up to
0.8 m were observed in the exposed LAs and MAs
units, filled partly with clay materials. In addition,
a few open caverns were discovered in the Asmari
Formation during borehole drilling and gallery
excavation. At the dam axis, the lithologic beds dip
very gently from the left abutment to the right
abutment, but in the right abutment, they have
a sleeper slope. In addition, by moving from the dam
axis toward the reservoir, lithologic beds dip upstream.
Before the dam construction, the groundwater level
measured in the six pilot holes along the dam axis was
located about 6 to 10 m below the riverbed (Figure 4).
There was no spring at the northern limb of the Duck
Anticline, and just a few small springs emerged on
both the banks of the Kheyrabad River, from the
MAs unit in the southern limb of the anticline, about
1.2 km downstream of the dam body (Figure 3).
There, a near-vertical minor fault (F1 fault in
Figure 3) extended from the springs toward the
UAs unit. Unfortunately, there are no data for
discharge of the springs before the dam construction,
but a few measurements indicated that in addition to
the springs, there was about 0.5 m3/s direct seepage
327
 Mozafari and Raeisi

Figure 2. Distribution of geological formations at the: (a) Pahn, Dill, and Mish Anticlines; b) Dill and Mish Anticlines, and (c) Duck
Anticline (modified after NIOC, 1959). Cross sections A-A9, B-B9, and C-C9 are illustrated in Figure 1.

from the AKA into the riverbed at the southern limb
of the anticline.
Grout Curtain
The water-tightness system of the Kowsar Dam
includes a hanging grout curtain in the LAs and lower
parts of the MAs units at both abutments (Figures 3
and 5). The hanging grout curtain was designed using
the results of a FILTER software model based on
measured rock permeabilities obtained from the eight
pilot boreholes (Gidrosproekt, 1996) (Figure 4). The
model predicted seepage less than 0.4 m3/s at the
RNWL, by considering a 65- to 150-m-deep grout
curtain with 280 and 230 m extensions into the right
and left abutments, respectively. The as-built grout
curtain is 100 m longer in the right abutment and
30 m deeper than the pre-built model (Tuzhikhin and
Kolichko, 2001). The grout curtain was constructed
in one, two, or three rows with a distance interval of
1.7 m and by a three-level gallery system. The final
grouting borehole spacing was in average 1.5 m, but it
was reduced at the zones with high cement consump-
tion. The diameter of the grouting boreholes was
0.076 m, and grouting was carried out in 5-m-long
sections. A two-level drainage gallery system was
designed and built parallel and 25 m downstream of
the grout curtain. The water transport gallery was
designed and built at the right abutment.
METHODOLOGY
The geologic map of the dam site (Figure 1) is
based on 1:100,000 (National Iranian Oil Company
Exploration and Production [NIOC], 1959) and
1:5,000 (Fars Regional Water Authority, 1997a)
geologic maps. Reservoir and borehole water levels,
hydrochemistry, and discharge of springs were
measured by the Fars Regional Water Authority
(2010). Reservoir and boreholes water levels were

328 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339
 Understanding Karst Leakage, Kowsar Dam, Iran

Figure 3. Hydrogeological map of the Kowsar Dam site and the proposed main leakage route.

measured monthly during a 7 year period. The
discharge of every spring was measured individually
by volumetric and weir methods for about 2 years.
Leakage from the dam galleries was measured using
weirs monthly for 7 years. A hydrometric station was
constructed at the end of Kheyrabad valley, down-
stream of the springs (Figure 3). Here, the total
discharge of springs and dam galleries, and the AKA
direct seepage into the riverbed were measured when
all of the dam outlets were closed. The water electrical
conductivity (EC) was measured monthly in the
reservoir and largest springs on both banks of the
Kheyrabad River during the spring to summer 2009.
The following equation was used to determine the

Figure 4. Longitudinal section along the dam axis and measured rock permeabilities and groundwater level in the pilot holes.

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339 329
 Mozafari and Raeisi
Figure 5. Plan view of the dam body, galleries, and grout curtain, and the layout of the as-built grout curtain.
mean annual recharge of each aquifer during one
hydrological year (Q) in m3/s:
Q 5 API/t,
where A is the aquifer area (m2), P is the 20 year mean
annual rainfall (m), I is the recharge coefficient, and t
is the 1 year period in seconds. The mean rainfall over
the aquifer surface was calculated based on the
relationship between the elevations and 20 year mean
rainfall from adjacent climatologic stations.
ANALYSIS
The AKA includes the Asmari Formation at the
Duck, Dill and Pahn Anticlines, which is underlain by
the impermeable Pabdeh-Gurpi Formation, sur-
rounded by the impermeable Gachsaran Formation
and thin alluvial deposits; it is limited to the NE by
the MFF thrust fault (Figures 1 and 2). The AKA
and the Bangestan Group are separated by the 800-
m-thick impermeable Pabdeh-Gurpi Formation
(Figure 2A and B). The impermeable Member 1 of
the Gachsaran Formation prevents any hydraulic
communication between the AKA and the adjacent
Mish and Khami Anticlines. The Gachsaran Forma-
tion is covered by alluvial deposits in some parts
330 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339
around the AKA. With the exception of the Lishter
alluvium at the southwest of the Pahn Anticline,
which was exploited by more than twenty 30- to 75-
(1) m-deep pumping wells (Figure 1), the other overlying
alluvium deposits are thin. The water level in the
AKA is most probably lower than the contact of the
Gachsaran Formation and those alluvium deposits
(Figure 2); therefore, karst water cannot flow into
them. In addition, since alluvial aquifers are often
exploited by pumping wells in Iran, the lack of
pumping wells in those alluviums suggests that there
is no water recharge from the AKA.
The AKA recharge source is direct rainfall on the
karst aquifer body. There is no recharge from the
surrounding impermeable Gachsaran Formation or
alluvium because those are located at lower elevations
than the AKA outcrops (Figure 2). Recharge from
the southern limbs of the Mish and Khami Anticlines
to the AKA is unlikely because they are structurally
and hydraulically disconnected by the impermeable
Gachsaran Formation and fractured zone of the
MFF thrust fault (Figure 2A and B). In addition, the
infiltrated water of the southern limb of the Mish
Anticline discharges into the downstream Emamza-
deh Jafar Aquifer, located about 10 km to the SE of
the study area (Sharifi, 2009). The AKA water
discharge zones are the Kheyrabad River and the
 Understanding Karst Leakage, Kowsar Dam, Iran
Table 1. Annual recharge of the AKA sub-aquifers and Lishter Aquifer, calculated based on Eq. 1.
Aquifer or Recharge
Sub-Aquifer Area (km2) Coefficient
SP 25 0.4
NPSDD 69 0.4
NDD 49 0.4
Lishter1 36 0.2
Lishter alluvium, controlling general flow direction in
the karst aquifer. The proposed discharge zones are
confirmed based on the following reasons: (1) There
are no springs at the contact of the AKA and the
surrounding Gachsaran Formation and alluviums. (2)
Before the dam construction, there were a few springs
on both banks of the Kheyrabad River at the
southern limb of the Duck Anticline. In addition,
a few measurements indicated that there was about
0.5 m3/s of direct seepage from the AKA into the
Kheyrabad River at the southern limb of the Duck
Anticline. (3) The underlying impermeable Pabdeh-
Gurpi Formation prevents any downward water flow
from the AKA into the Bangestan Group. (4) The
surrounding impermeable Gachsaran Formation and
the fractured zone of the thrust MFF prevents any
water flow from the AKA to the adjacent anticlines.
(5) The contact elevations of the Asmari Formation
and the Gachsaran Formation are located about 150
to 800 m above the riverbed all around the AKA,
except at the Kheyrabad Valley inlet and outlet. The
transverse Kheyrabad River is the main base level of
erosion and the main discharge zone of the AKA
because it has the lowest elevation within the AKA.
Based on the hydrogeological setting and the
catchment areas of the discharge zones, the AKA is
divided into three sub-aquifer areas (Figure 1): the
southern limb of the Pahn Anticline sub-aquifer (SP
sub-aquifer), which discharges into the Lishter
Aquifer; the northern limbs of the Dill and Duck
Anticlines sub-aquifer (NDD sub-aquifer), which
discharges into the Kheyrabad River; and the
northern limb of the Pahn and southern limb of the
Dill and Duck Anticlines sub-aquifer (NPSDD sub-
aquifer), which discharges into the Kheyrabad River.
Since there is no spring discharge measurement and
therefore no exact data on discharge of the AKA
before the dam construction, the discharge of the
AKA sub-aquifers during one hydrological year was
estimated based on Eq. 1 and using the estimated
recharge coefficient according to previous studies on
the karst regions of Iran (Pezeshkpour, 1991; Karst
Research Centre of Iran, 1993; Karimi, 2003; and
Karimi et al., 2005) (Table 1).
A conceptual model of the general flow direction is
proposed for the three AKA sub-aquifers (Figure 1).
Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339
Recharge by Discharge by Springs,
Rainfall (MCM) Seepage, or Wells (MCM)
6.3
21.2 17
15.3 46
4 9.1
The elevation of the impermeable Pabdeh-Gurpi
Formation under the crest of the Pahn and Dill
Anticlines is higher than the contact of the Asmari
Formation and the surrounding Gachsaran Forma-
tion or alluvium at the foot of anticlines (Figure 2B),
disconnecting the hydraulic connectivity of both
limbs. Therefore, every limb becomes an independent
sub-aquifer with catchment area limited to the crest of
the anticline. In each sub-aquifer, the water flows
initially along bedding planes until it reaches the foot
of the limb, where it flows parallel to the strike of the
folds. This hypothetical general flow direction along
the fold strike has been demonstrated by Ashjari and
Raeisi (2006) in most of the Zagros anticlines.
In the SP sub-aquifer, water initially flows along
bedding planes and finally discharges into the
adjacent Lishter Aquifer (Figure 1). The Lishter
Aquifer annual recharge by rainfall is about 4
MCM, while its annual discharge by pumping wells
is 9.1 MCM (Table 1). Therefore, the missing 5.1
MCM/yr must be supplied by inflow from the
adjacent SP sub-aquifer, because: (1) the Lishter
alluvium is surrounded by the impermeable Gach-
saran Formation in all directions except adjacent to
the Pahn Anticline; and (2) the Pahn Anticline is the
nearest karstic limestone to the Lishter Aquifer, and
its elevation is higher than the Lishter alluvium.
Based on Eq. 1, the required karst catchment area for
providing 5.1 MCM/yr water is about 16.5 km2. The
southern limb of the Pahn Anticline (SP sub-aquifer)
is a feasible catchment area, since its exposed area is
about 25 km2.
The contact elevation of the Pabdeh-Gurpi For-
mation with the Asmari Formation in the SE plunge
of the Dill Anticline is about 650 m higher than in the
NW plunge of the Duck Anticline. Therefore, at the
NPSDD and NND sub-aquifers, a main conduit
system has probably developed parallel to the fold
strike, starting from the SE plunge of the Dill
Anticline and going toward the NW plunge of the
Duck Anticline. The NPSDD sub-aquifer collects
groundwater coming from the northern limb of the
Pahn Anticline and southern limb of the Dill
Anticline. This karst water flows along the anticline
strike toward the southern limb of the Duck Anticline
and finally emerges into the Kheyrabad River
331
 Mozafari and Raeisi
Figure 6. Proposed models of the general flow direction inside the Asmari Formation at the northern limb of the Duck Anticline.
through the springs on the left bank or direct seepage
into the riverbed. In the NDD sub-aquifer, ground-
water flows along the foot of the northern limb of the
Dill Anticline toward the northern limb of the Duck
Anticline. Two alternative schematic models are
proposed for the water flow route at the northern
limb of the Duck Anticline (Figure 6). In the first
model, water flows through a conduit system de-
veloped most probably along bedding planes at the
NW plunge and finally emerges into the Kheyrabad
River as the right bank springs. The NDD sub-
aquifer water may be flowing below the Kheyrabad
River and emerging at the right bank springs, since the
groundwater level in the dam site was 6 to 10 m lower
than riverbed before dam construction. The fact that
there were no springs in the Kheyrabad Valley at the
northern limb supports this model. Oberlander (1965)
analyzed the origin of drainages and streams at the
Zagros Range in detail and showed a model of Zagros
stream superposition. The Kheyrabad River was most
probably superimposed upon the newly exposed crest
of the Duck Anticline, eroding it and leading to the
formation of the Kheyrabad valley. Once river
incision started, and bearing in mind that the riverbed
at the southern limb was lower than at the northern
limb, part of the river water may have seeped into the
joints and bedding planes to develop a new karst
conduit system in the NW plunge, ending at the right
bank springs. As the river continued cutting down into
332 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339
the bedrock and water base level continued to drop,
new conduits formed, others enlarged, and the highest
relict conduits were dewatered and abandoned. The
impermeable Gachsaran Formation prevents emer-
gence of karst water from the plunge nose. At the
present time, the elevation of the downstream springs
is at least 140 m below the contact elevation of the
Asmari Formation and the Gachsaran Formation at
the NW plunge nose of the Duck Anticline. Two
cavities with a height of 3 m were observed in borehole
TD9 (Figure 3) at elevations of 508 and 561 m a.s.l.,
probably confirming the relict conduit development in
the proposed model route. In the alternative model,
the karst water flows perpendicular to the Duck
Anticline axis, parallel to the Kheyrabad River and
emerges through the downstream springs (Figure 6).
Hydraulic connection between the northern and
southern limbs of the Duck Anticline is possible since
the elevation of the downstream springs is higher than
the contact of the Asmari Formation and the Pabdeh-
Gurpi Formation at the anticline axis (Figure 2C).
This second flow route model seems to be unlikely
since water should flow perpendicular to the limestone
bedding planes, and marly inter-beds up to 1.5 m thick
(Figure 3) may create an impermeable barrier and
prevent conduit development perpendicular to the
bedding plane. In addition, some of the thick non-
karstified limestone layers of the LAs unit may
create an impermeable barrier to water and prevent
 Understanding Karst Leakage, Kowsar Dam, Iran

Figure 7. Time series of the reservoir water level and (a) discharges of the hydrometric station, springs, galleries, and the AKA direct
seepage into the riverbed through 2004; and (b) discharge at the hydrometric station through 2012.

conduit development perpendicular to bedding plane,
an idea supported by the lack of spring or seepage at
the LAs unit.
Leakage History and Remedial Efforts
Reservoir impounding started in November 2002.
By the time that the reservoir water level reached
546.1 m a.s.l. in February 2003, the discharge of the
downstream springs located in the southern limb of
the Duck Anticline started to increase, and several
new springs emerged adjacent to them. No new spring
or seepage was observed in the northern limb of
the anticline, and water just emerged from some of
the dam galleries, especially from those located at the
right abutment. As explained already, the total
discharge of the downstream springs, dam galleries,
and the AKA direct seepage into the riverbed was
measured at the hydrometric station when all of the
dam outlets were closed. In addition, the discharge of
every spring was measured individually until the end
of 2004. Figure 7A presents the time series of the total
discharge of the hydrometric station, right bank
springs, left bank springs, dam galleries, and the
AKA direct seepage into the riverbed until the end of
2004. The AKA direct seepage into the riverbed was
estimated by subtracting the discharges of the springs
and dam galleries from the discharge of the hydro-
metric station. Results show that the discharges of the
springs and dam galleries correlated with the reservoir
water-level changes, but the AKA direct seepage into
the riverbed was most affected by the seasonal
variations. At the reservoir water level of 613 m
a.s.l, the discharge of the hydrometric station was 3.4
m3/s, and the apportioning of the right bank springs,
left bank springs, galleries, and the AKA direct
seepage was 46, 20, 15, and 19 percent, respectively.
The time series of the reservoir water level and the
discharge of the hydrometric station for a period of
10 years are presented in Figure 7B. The figure shows

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339 333
 Mozafari and Raeisi
Figure 8. Rock permeabilities in the check holes.
a tight relationship between the reservoir water level
and the changes in the discharge of the hydrometric
station. The discharge of the hydrometric station
reached 5.61 m3/s, more than one fourth of the mean
annual discharge of the Kheyrabad River (21.5 m3/s),
at the RNWL in 2005.
In order to reduce reservoir water leakage, water-
tightness treatments were applied by constructing
a new 90-m-long and 100-m-deep grout curtain along
the transport gallery at the right abutment and
additional grouting in some parts of the as-built
grout curtain (Figure 5). The treatment works were
successful in reducing nearly 60 percent of discharge
from the dam galleries (Fars Regional Water Au-
thority, 2010), but they did not affect the discharge of
the downstream springs. The discharge of the
hydrometric station was about 4 m3/s at a reservoir
water level of 623.5 m a.s.l. (1.5 m below the RNWL),
in May 2012.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Water from the reservoir is leaking through the
downstream springs, mainly through those ones
located on the right bank of the Kheyrabad River.
The potential leakage route could be below and/or
through the grout curtain, or through a relict conduit
system at the NW plunge, based on the first proposed
model of the general flow direction in the northern
limb of the Duck Anticline. The grouting work
quality was evaluated based on the rock permeability
in the pilot and check holes (Figures 4 and 8) and
cement consumption in different stages of grouting.
Before grouting, rock permeability was more than
5 Lu in 92 percent of the measured sections in the
pilot holes, and it was even more than 100 Lu in 13
percent of sections. The permeability was reduced
334 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339
significantly by grouting, since after grouting, it was
less than 5 Lu, 5 to 10 Lu, and 10 to 18 Lu in 76, 21,
and 3 percent of the measured sections of the check
holes, respectively. The total cement consumption in
the grouted sections is presented on Figure 9. The
cement consumption decreased by stages of grouting;
the average cement take was more than 1000 kg/m at
the first stage, but it was decreased to less than 40 kg/m
at the last stage. In spite of high permeability before
grouting, the grouted sections in the middle part of the
left abutment had low total cement consumptions
(Figure 9) due to transfer of the grouting mix during
grouting of the upper sections. The grout curtain
works properly, based on the borehole water levels,
discharge of the dam galleries, and location of the
springs. The difference between boreholes water levels
upstream and downstream of the grout curtain was at
least 60 m at the RNWL (Figure 10). The linear
regression coefficient between the reservoir water level
and borehole water levels upstream of the grout
curtain was 0.99, while at the downstream, it was less
than 0.75, and mainly less than 0.74 at the left and
right banks, respectively. The total discharge of the
dam galleries was about 0.5 m3/s at the RNWL, which
is not far from the predicted leakage by the FILTER
modeling (0.4 m3/s). The Kheyrabad River is parallel
to the dam axis about 300 m downstream of the grout
curtain (Figure 3), but no spring or seepage was
observed on the river banks at this area. The dam
outlets were closed several times, and the main leakage
zone was at the downstream springs area. These
evidences confirm that the main leakage route is not
below or through the grout curtain.
The main leakage route is most probably from
a relict conduit system that developed along bedding
planes of the Asmari Formation at the NW plunge of
the Duck Anticline (Figure 3). The reservoir is in
 Understanding Karst Leakage, Kowsar Dam, Iran

Figure 9. Total cement consumption in the grouted sections of the grout curtain.

direct contact with the LAs, Mas, and UAs units.
However, since the hydraulic relation between the
reservoir and the underlying LAs unit is disconnected
by the grout curtain (Figures 3 and 5), reservoir water
can leak into the MAs and UAs units and then flow
through the relict conduit system and finally emerge
as the right bank springs. The karst water in the UAs
and MAs units could be directed toward the springs
by the F1 fault.
Borehole P38 is located 330 m from the reservoir, in
the UAs and MAs units and inside the proposed
leakage route (Figure 3). The water level of this
borehole has a similar response to reservoir water-
level variations (Figure 10). The linear regression
coefficient between the water levels of the reservoir
and borehole P38 is 0.99, indicating a tight correla-
tion and therefore a strong hydraulic connection
between the reservoir and the proposed leakage route.
The borehole P38 water level was 12.8 m lower than
RNWL, and the reservoir water flowed toward it with
a hydraulic gradient of 4 percent.
The water EC of the largest spring on the right
bank was about 80 to 115 ms/cm higher than the
reservoir during March to July 2009, when the
reservoir water level was near 595 m a.s.l. (Figure 11).
The EC of the reservoir water must be increased by
moving through the proposed leakage route toward
the downstream springs.

Figure 10. Borehole water levels upstream and downstream of the grout curtain.

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339 335
 Mozafari and Raeisi
Figure 11. Water electrical conductivity (EC) of the reservoir and largest springs located on both the banks of the Kheyrabad River.
The total discharge of the right bank springs was 46
MCM during 2004 (Table 1), which is much more
than the expected annual discharge of the NDD sub-
aquifer (15.3 MCM). Even considering that all NDD
sub-aquifer water emerged at the right bank springs
after reservoir impoundment, the reservoir water
leakage through the right bank springs is calculated
to be 30.7 MCM.
The total annual discharge of the left bank springs
was 16.6 MCM during 2004 (Table 1). Two
assumptions can be proposed for the water source
of these springs. Based on the first assumption, the
spring water is completely supplied by the karst
water of the NPSDD sub-aquifer area. The expected
annual discharge of the NPSDD sub-aquifer is 21.2
MCM, i.e., 4.6 MCM higher than the annual
discharge of the left bank springs (16.6 MCM),
which can be seeping directly into the riverbed. The
lower water EC of the largest spring on the left bank
compared to the reservoir (Figure 11) supports this
assumption. Based on the second assumption, the
source of the springs could be mixing of the NPSDD
sub-aquifer karst water and the reservoir water.
At the springs area, the limestone layers are repeated
at both the banks of the Kheyrabad River, since
they are eroded almost perpendicular to the bedding
planes by the Kheyrabad River. Some reservoir
water could be transferred from the right bank to
the left bank of the river by a probable conduit
336 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339
system in the limestone layers below the riverbed.
The crossing of a karst conduit below a riverbed
without any hydrogeological relationship has been
proved by a dye tracing test at the Doosti Dam site
by Mozafari et al. (2011). The transferred reservoir
water could be mixed with the water of the NPSDD
sub-aquifer and emerge as the left bank springs. The
EC of the transferred reservoir water can be reduced
by mixing with the karst water of the NPSDD sub-
aquifer.
CONCLUSIONS
The reservoir water leakage route toward the
downstream springs is not below or through the
grout curtain. The proper function of the grout
curtain is evidenced by the evaluation of rock
permeability in the pilot and check holes, cement
consumptions of the grouting boreholes, borehole
water levels, springs locations, and discharge of
the dam galleries. Understanding the hydrogeology
of the AKA acts as an effective tool to determine
water leakage route toward the downstream springs.
The hydraulic relation between the AKA and
adjacent aquifers, except the Lishter Aquifer, is
disconnected from the underlying impermeable Pab-
deh-Gurpi Formation, surrounding impermeable
Gachsaran Formation, and function and fractured
zone of the MFF thrust fault. The AKA recharge
 Understanding Karst Leakage, Kowsar Dam, Iran
source is direct rainfall on the karst aquifer, and
there is no recharge from the surrounding alluvium,
impermeable Gachsaran Formation, and adjacent
Mish and Khami Anticlines. The AKA consists of
three sub-aquifer areas, SP, NPSDD, and NDD.
While the SP sub-aquifer area is discharged into the
Lishter alluvial aquifer, the Kheyrabad River is the
main discharge zone of the NPSDD and NDD sub-
aquifers, controlling the general flow direction in
these sub-aquifers. The proposed conceptual model of
general flow direction in the three AKA sub-aquifers
is in agreement with the general flow direction in most
of the anticlines of the Zagros Mountain Range in
Iran. A relict conduit system has likely been de-
veloped along bedding planes in the NW plunge of
the Duck Anticline by karst water flow of the NDD
sub-aquifer and action of the Kheyrabad River. The
reservoir water leakage route is mainly through this
relict conduit system. By raising the reservoir water
level, water seeps into the Asmari Formation at the
northern limb, converges into the relict conduit system
in the MAs and UAs units, flows along the plunge of
the anticline, and finally emerges through the right
bank springs at the southern limb. The as-built grout
curtain and the treatment works in the right abutment
were not able to disconnect the hydraulic relation
between the reservoir and the envisioned relict conduit
system.
The hydrometric station mean annual discharge is
about 95.6 MCM. Considering 37.5 MCM annual
discharge of the NDD and NPSDD sub-aquifers, the
annual water leakage of the reservoir is calculated to
be 58.1 MCM. This volume of water is about 20 and
30 percent of the proposed annual irrigation and
drinking water, respectively. The irrigation diversion
canal is a few kilometers downstream of the springs;
therefore, the leakage water is used for agricultural
purposes. The Kowsar Dam is located in an arid and
semiarid part of Iran, and it is the most reliable source
of drinking water for the downstream arid areas.
Because of low precipitation in the Kheyrabad River
catchment area, provision of proposed irrigation and
even drinking water could be associated with an
uncertainty during drought periods. Therefore, pre-
vention of the current reservoir leakage seems to be
reasonable. Construction of a new grout curtain
perpendicular to the bedding planes in the upper parts
of the MAs and UAs units and toward the upstream
impermeable Gachsaran Formation at the right
abutment would be effective in reducing of the water
leakage amount. Dye tracing test is recommended for
detection of specific leakage route and subsequently
the correct path for the probable additional grout
curtain.
Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. XXI, No. 4, November 2015, pp. 325339
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully appreciate the sincere co-
operation of the Fars Regional Water Authority of
Iran for providing useful data. The authors also
would like to thank Mr. Ahmadi for information and
Dr. J.P. Galve, Dr. J. Guerrero, and Prof. F.
Gutierrez for their reviews and comments.
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