Manual For Safety in Road Design

Government of India
Ministry of Surface Transport

(Roads Wing)
MANUAL FOR SAFETY IN

ROAD DESIGN
A Guide for Highway Engineers
SEPTEMBER 1998
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
The road accident scenario in the country is a matter of great concern. Despite low rate of vehicle
ownership, we have a very high accident rate . Around 60,000 lives are lost and about 3 lakh persons are
being injured on Indian roads every year . This is causing a huge economic loss to the country apart from the
pain, grief and suffering to the families of the victims.
Analysis of the accident data indicates that the driver's fault is responsible for the majority of the
accidents and fatalities . Whereas, human factor is a major contributor to the accidents, the behaviour of drivers
is also governed by the limitation of the vehicle and the condition of the road.
Reduction in accidents to the extent of 20% is possible by taking recourse to proper engineering
measures through planning, design, construction and maintenance of roads. Towards this end, the Ministry has
taken up the preparation of Manual on Safety in Road Design through a loan assistance from the World Bank .
The Manual as prepared highlights appropriate design principles for promoting safety conscious road
design and will go along way in guiding the highway engineers and the planners to make our road more safe . I
recommend this Manual as a very useful guide to the highway engineers dealing with the problems ofroad safety
and fervently hope that they will, based on their experience, give appropriate feedback so as to enable the
Manual to be revised/improved from time to time .
(A .D. NARAIN)
Director General (Road Development) &
Additional Secretary
New Delhi
August 28,1998
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silcock

CONTENTS
MANUAL FOR SAFETY IN ROAD DESIGN

SEPTEMBER 1998
These guidelines have been prepared by Ross Silcock Limited in association with Transport Research
Laboratory Limited (TRL) UK and the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) of India. They have been
prepared for and on behalf of the Ministry of Surface Transport (MOST), Government of India.
The Document was produced with inputs and contributions from the following project team.
Mr. NirmalJitSingh MOST

Mr. S.K. Marwah MOST
Dr . Alan Ross (Project Director) Ross Silcock

Mr. Mike Yeadon (Project Manager) Ross Silcock
Mr. Mike Goodge Ross Silcock
Mr . Chris Robson Ross Silcock
Dr. S.M . Sarin

Mr. B .L . Suri CRRI
Mr. R._ Bajpai CRRI
Dr . (Mrs .) Nishi Mittal
Dr. GoffJacobs TRL

Dr . Brian Hills TRL
Mr. Chris Baguley TRL
Prepared by
Ross Silcock Ltd, 156 Sandyford Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK NE2 1 XG
Tel: +441912618101-Fax : +441912618340
e mail : rslnewcastle@compuserve .com
With the assistance of

CRRI, Mathura Road. PO CRRI, New Delhi 110020
Tel : 0 11684 6976-Fax : 011684 5943 -e mail : crri@simetd .met.in
and
TRL, Old Wokmgham Road, Crowthome, Berkshire, UK, RG45 6AU
Tel : +441344 773131-Fax : +441344 770356-e mail : enq@bdu.trl.co .uk
CRRI, TRL . : Manualfor Safety in Road Design

CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This document was based on the highly successful guidelines Towards Safer Roads produced earlier by Ross
Silcock and TRL . That document has been very substantially revised, updated and expanded to address the
specific needs and problems in India. Contributions and comments were received on early drafts from a number
of external specialists . The project team is particularly indebted for comments and contributions received from
the following groups and individuals
Steering Committee
Mr . Nirmal Jit Singh, Mr. J.B . Mathur, Dr. L.R . Kadiyali, Dr . Dinesh Mohan, Mr. A.P . Bahadur,
Mr. SK Marwah .
2. World Bank
Mr . Stein Lundebye and Mr . Anil Bhandari .
3. Participants at the Safety Seminar at Claridges Hotel, Delhi (31 July-01 August)
The team would like to thank the 60-70 participants from different States and the Ministry of
Surface Transport who attended the above Seminar to discuss/comment upon the draft manual .
Their comments and suggestions on the draft has helped to refine and improve the Manual so
that it will be of practical use to potential users throughout India.
DISTRIBUTION
Copies of this document can be obtained from the following address
Chief Engineer (Traffic & Transportation)

Ministry of Surface Transport (Roads Wing)
Transport Bhawan, I Parliament Street
New Delhi 110001, India
Tel : 0113718568- Fax 0113710236-Cable : "TRANSPORT"

Telex : 03161157,61158,61159, VAHN.IN

CONTENTS
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Annual Average Daily Traffic
Asian Development Bank
Central Business District
Central Road Research Institute, India
Equivalent Accident Number
Gross National Product
Heavy Goods Vehicle
Her Majesty's Stationary Office
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
Microcomputer Accident Analysis Package
Ministry of Surface Transport, India
National Road Safety Council
Non-Motorised Vehicle
UK Government Overseas Development Administration

(now Department for International Development)
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Public Service Vehicle
Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents
Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation and Measurement
Slow Moving Vehicle
State Road Safety Council
Transport Research Laboratory Limited, UK
United Kingdom
United Nations
United Nations Development Programme
United States of America
Vulnerable Road Users
World Health Organisation
. Manualfor Safety in Road Design

CONTENTS
MANUAL FOR SAFETY IN ROAD DESIGN
Chapter Contents Page
Preface
1 Introduction
1 .1 Scale and Nature of the Problem of Road Accidents in India 12

12 Aims and Philosophy of the Manual 1.6
13 Lessons to be Learned from Overseas 1.7
1 .4 How to Use the Manual 1 .8
2 Institutional Framework
2.1 Introduction 22
22 Road Safety Practices in Road Authorities in Other Countries 23
2.3 Road Safety Practices in Road Authorities in India 2.3
2.4 Areas of Influence for Engineers and Planners 25
25 Opportunities for Intervention to Improve Road Safety 2.6
2.6 Safety Conscious Planning, Design and Operation 2.6
of the Road Network
2.7 Possible Institutional Framework 2.9
3 Planning for Safety
3.1 introduction 32
32 Land-use Planning and Zoning 3.4
33 Network Design 3.6
3.4 Route Planning through Communities 3.8
3.5 Traffic Planning for Different Land Uses 3.10
3.6 Access Control 3.12
3.7 Roads in the Hierarchy 3.14
3.8 Traffic Segregation 3.22
3.9 Wayside Amenities 324
3.10 Traffic Calming 326
3.11 Development Control and Encroachment 330
3.12 Public Transport 332
3.13 Traffic Aid Posts 334
3.14 Checklist for Land-Use and Physical Planning 336
3.15 Checklist for Network Planning 338
4 Designing for Safety: Road Link Design
4.1 Introduction 42
42 Design Parameters and Speed 4.4
4.3 Sight Distances 4.6
4.4 Horizontal Curvature 4.8
4.5 Transition Curves, Superelevation and Pavement Widening 4.10
4.6 Vertical Curves 4.12

CONTENTS
4.7 Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Curves 4.14

4.8 Overtaking Lanes, Gradients, Climbing Lanes and Fscape Lanes 4.16
4.9 Cross Sections 4.18
4.10 Shoulders 422
4 .11 Surface Treatment 424
4.12 Road Signs 426
4.13 Road Markings and Studs 428
4.14 Delineators and Chevron Signs 430
4.15 Drainage 432
4 .16 Safety Fences and Barriers 434
4 .17 Median Barriers 4.36
4.18 Lighting 438
4.19 Urban Foorways 4.40
420 Rural Footways 4.42
421 Vulnerable Road Users 4.44
422 Providing for Public Transport 4.48
423 Heavy Goods Vehicles 4.52
424 On-street Parking 4.54
425 Speed Zoning 4.56
426 Road side Furniture 458
427 Plantation 4.60
428 Lay-byes, Bus Stops, Taxi Stands and Service Roads 4.62
429 Median Gaps 4.64
4 .30 At-gradeRoad-Rail Crossings 4.68
431 Checklist for Road-Rail Link Design 4.70
5 Designing for Safety : Junction Design
5.1 Introduction 52
52 Selection of Junction Type 5.4
53 Priority Junctions 5.6
5.4 Roundabouts 5.8
5.5 Signal Controlled Junctions 5.12
5 .6 Visibility 5.14
5 .7 Junction Signs and Markings 5.16
5.8 Channelisation 520
5.9 Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes 522
5 .10 Pedestrian Crossing Facilities 524
5 .11 Provision for Cyclists and Slow Moving Vehicles 526
5.12 Checklist for Junction Design 530
6 SafetyAudits
6.1 Principles and Issues 62

62 Procedures and Practice 63
6.3 Code of Good Practice 6.7
6.4 Checklists 6.10
CRRI, TRL Draft Manualfor Safely in Road Design

CONTENTS
7 Management of Road Networks
7.1 Introduction 72
72 Maintenance and Safety 7.4
73 Traffic Management 7.6
7.4 Enforcement of Traffic Laws 7.8
7.5 Safety Practices during Road Works 7.10
8 Countermeasures at Hazardous Locations
&1 Introduction to Accident Investigation and Prevention 82

82 Accident Data 8.6
&3 Accident Investigation 8 .9
&4 Problem Diagnosis &13
8.5 Selection and Implementation of Countermeasures 8 .15
&6 Monitoring and Evaluation 821
8.7 Development of Countermeasures 825
&8 Problems and Remedies 827
8.9 Junction Layout: Channelisation 830
8.10 Junction Layout : Roundabouts 832
8.11 Junction Conspicuity 8.34
8.12 Driver Expectancy 836
8.13 Overtaking Zones 838
8.14 Road Markings 8.40
&15 Lane Dividers and Median Barriers &42
8.16 Delineators 8.44
8.17 Speed Reduction Devices &46
8.18 Limiting Access and Street Closures 8 .48
8.19 Banning Turns and Cross Movements 8.50
820 Countermeasures for Pedestrian Accidents 852
821 Pedestrian Crossings 8.54
822 Pedestrian Refuges 8.56
823 Pedestrian Barriers and Fences 858
824 Pedestrian Footbridges and Underpasses &60
825 Checklists for Countermeasures 8.62
Technical Annexes
Appendices
Index

INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Ministry of Stuface nansport MSilcock

CHAPTER I
1 INTRODUCTION
1 .1 Scale and Nature of the Problem of Road Accidents in India
It has been estimated that at least 500,000 people die in road accidents in developing countries each year . This
represents 70 per cent of those killed on the roads throughout the world. The latest published recorded annual
number of road accidents for India is 315,657 in 1994 (Ministry of Surface Transport, 1996) - though, due to
relatively low levels of reporting, this is likely to be only a fraction of the actual number of collisions involving
road users on the whole nation's network. For example for the city of Delhi during the three year period from 1993
to 1996, road accident fatalities have increased by 28 .2% (that is, from 1,783 to 2,286 fatalities) and the number of
road accidents has increased by 33 .6% (from 8503 in 1993 to 11,315 in 1996). The published number of road
accident fatalities in the country in 1994 is 64,002 with 312,080 injured in this single year. Using partial MOST data
for later years, CRRI have estimated the 1995 and 1996 fatalities to be 71,338 and 79,898 respectively. Ifcorrect this
latter figure represents a nearly 25% increase in accidents over a three year period . This means that about 1
person in every 2,400 of the country will suffer injury or death in a road accident each year . In India 1% of the
worlds vehicle population exists but 6% of the worlds reported road traffic accidents occur. Owing to the likely
under-reporting of accidents, the real situation is probably much worse.
Under-reporting can occur for a number of reasons ; for example, when accidents (even those involving injury)
are settled on the spot by those involved or victims treated in hospital without ever being reported to the police.
Even when reported at local police stations, many accidents may not appear in the national statistics perhaps due
to a lack of police time to complete reports, clerical errors, poor system procedures at local stations or for many
other reasons . The extent of under-reporting, nationally is unknown, but some sample studies between hospital
and police records are being undertaken at present to determine an estimate for this level.
What is certain is that even on the basis of the above figures alone, the number of people being affected both
physically and mentally by road accidents is extremely high: a very grave situation indeed which needs to be
addressed .
Direct, simple comparisons of the relative safety between India and other countries of the world is difficult owing
to several factors : -
differing levels of the quality of accident data recorded ;
different definitions of the types of accident which are to be reported; and
availability of standard measures and data reflecting exposure of road users to risk.
However, a widely quoted measure, which is probably the most reliable, available due to the generally more
comprehensive reporting of fatal accidents, is the number ofroad accident fatalities per year per 10,000 registered
motor vehicles.
Figure 1 .1 .1 shows a comparison of the values of this measure for selected countries of the world. Although
India is by no means the worst country, with a current figure of 23 .9 deaths per 10,000registered vehicles, it is a
cause of grave concern as this still indicates a very hazardous road network, being at least fifteen times the level
of more industrialised countries such as the UK and Sweden .
-WI, TRL Manualfor Safety in Road Design

1 .2
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.1 .1 Fatality Rates of Selected Countries
The situation in India is also a rapidly worsening one as shown in Figure 1 .1 .2 . Road accident fatalities and
casualties have been increasing dramatically over the past twenty years . This is partly due to the way in which
the number of vehicles on the road is increasing . There is little doubt that accidents are related to traffic flow
levels (i.e . exposure) although the nature of this relationship has been the source of much debate. The rate of
growth of registered vehicles in India has consistently been over 10% for the past few years (see Figure 1 .1 .3)
which is a much higher rate than experienced nowadays in developed countries.
600
s -+ Fataliries
0
0
80 -4-- thjured
N
400 z
m O
0
m 60
S
ò `c'
300
0
Z a
40 m
2_10 0
O
7
X
20 O
>(} 72 74 76 76 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 9s 96
Figure 1.1 .2 Road Accident Fatalities and Injuries in India.

Source MOST and CRRI

1 .3
CHAPTER I
35 -- - _- , 140
w
e
0 30 = Vehicles - Fatalities 120
E z
m 25 too c
d 0
v
t 20 80 m
m
15 60 Gi
N
d
w
10 40 O
01
O
`0 5 20
0
z
0 n IIIIIIIII11 0
70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96
Figure 1 .1 .3 Road Accident Fatalities and Vehicle Growth in India.
Source MOST and CRRI.
It is against this background of rapid growth in motorisation that India should be able to learn from the bitter
experience of many developed countries which have already passed through similar stages in their development .
There is obviously a need to focus effort where it is most needed and can provide maximum benefit. For example,
in towns and cities it is generally the vulnerable road users such as pedestrians, cyclists and two-wheeler riders
that constitute the majority of road accident injuries and deaths (Figure 1 .1 .4). In Mumbai, 75% of road fatalities
are pedestrians with the figure in Calcutta as high as 89%. Cyclists generally form between 12 to 20% of the road
accident fatalities in the majority of Indian cities . Additionally, a rise in night time accidents in urban areas has
also occurred .
POLITIES
NAGPUR I
0PEDESTRIANS
INCYCLISTS
VIZAG
PUNE
AHMEDABAD
BANGALORE
CALCUTTA
DELHI
MUMBAI
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
I%) NMT FATALITIES
Figure 1.1.4 Non-motorised Traffic Fatalities in Metropolitan Cities of India Data obtained
from Individual Cities by CRRI
CRRI, TRL Manaal for Safety in Road Design

1 .4
INTRODUCTION
In the rural areas reported road accidents cluster

along the National and State Highways . The Na-
tional Highways which represent less than 2% of
the total road system account for about one fourth
of the total road fatalities occurring in India. Here
the most serious road accidents tend to involve ei-
ther an overtaking manoeuvre or a loss of control at
a bend or bridge, or a combination of both these
factors. The road accidents in these areas also in-
volve a high proportion of vulnerable road users.
Poor driver behaviour is certainly a strong contribu-
tor to such road accidents and better education and
training of both drivers and pedestrians is much
needed . Indeed it could be argued that there is a
Figure 1.15 Result of crashes on National
general lack of safety culture throughout India. Fur-
Highway
ther, it is unfortunate that it is the most productive
age group (15 - 30 years) that are most involved in
road traffic accidents.
However, engineers and planners can certainly contribute greatly to improving road safety by adopting proven
techniques for safety management . For example, they can help to prevent road accidents by introducing a
standard road safety audit procedure for all new or rehabilitation road schemes. They can also treat the road
accident problem on the existing road network by forming accident investigation units who work full time
towards an agreed casualty reduction target within an appropriate annual budget . By generally making the road
environment more 'forgiving' and avoiding the construction of new hazardous features, much of the human
suffering and cost of road accidents can be avoided.
Figure 1.1.6 Result of crashes on National Highway ( problem of shade

trees next to road)

1 .5
CHAPTER I
1.2 Aims and Philosophy of the Manual
There is a financial resource problem in the highway sector. It is essential that the scarce resources that are
available are carefully directed and not wasted. Whilst the quality of Indian Engineers is high, there may be an
absence of technical resources and expertise to ensure that only safe roads are built. The absence of systematic
checking of the road safety implications ofnew or rehabilitated roads may be worsening the existing situation by
increasing the occurrence of unsafe roads because additional specific safeguards to overcome the types of
operational deficiencies are rarely incorporated in the design process .
As well as the trauma to victims and the families of road accidents, the costs of such accidents to the community
are high. If road accidents can be reduced, the whole community will benefit from decreased costs, and the
monies saved may be utilised for education, health services and elsewhere. In India, where the number of
vehicles is increasing rapidly and the road infrastructure is being extended and improved, accidents are likely to
increase.
This Manual introduces safety conscious design principles so that professionals in India can be given some
practical guidance on how to make the road network safer. It outlines the ways in which "Accident Prevention"
can be included in the design and operation of road networks . It also advises on "Accident Reduction" by
showing how hazardous locations can be analysed and what types of countermeasures can be used to reduce
accidents at such locations.
Specifically, this Manual aims:
to bring safety further to the forefront in the minds of practising engineers throughout India, and to bring
to their attention, important details of design affecting road safety which might otherwise be overlooked
or considered insignificant ;
to combine the experience of overseas and Indian professionals in road safety and traffic engineering,
together with relevant material from standards, guidelines and design guides from developed countries
adapted for Indian conditions, in order to act as a fast source of information for engineering professionals
throughout India;
to act as a source for ideas applicable to, India for new designs and countermeasures so that hazardous
locations on Indian roads can be made safer; and
to stimulate evaluation of and research into road safety countermeasures in India so that the most
effective can be identified
Whilst this Manual is geared towards the practising engineer, it should not be forgotten that accident prevention
and safer design begins at the planning stage. Planning for Safety, which includes Land-use/Physical Planning
and Network Planning Checklists is contained in Chapter 3 . It is not, of course, practical to include in a single
document all the design information an engineer will need, but this manual aims to refer readers to relevant
standards, useful advice and documents appropriate to India. Finally, the Manual can act as an introduction to
policy-makers on the wide range of issues in road design (and planning) that can affect road accident rates and
the mitigating actions which can be taken to reduce the number and severity of road accidents.
CRRI, TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

1 .6
INTRODUCTION
1 .3 Lessons to be Learned from Overseas
Industrialised countries have achieved considerable success over the last 30 year, in tackling their road safety
problems. Although these improvements have been achieved through the application of measures in various
sectors, one of the most consistently successful and cost-effective areas of investment has been in the field of
road planning and traffic engineering . The gradual elimination ofthe mosthazardous locations and the adoption
of a safety conscious approach to the design and planning of new road networks have contributed greatly
towards improving traffic safety . Even though the eventual solutions may differ, the approaches and systematic
methods used in industrialised countries are readily applicable to India.
Adoption of proven strategies, such as "accident blackspot" elimination, safety audits and more safety-con-
scious design and planning of road networks, offer a major opportunity to make a significant and lasting im-
provement to road safety. It would be sad if the mistakes of the industrialised countries were repeated and the
lessons they have learned were not implemented.
Of major importance in improving safety is good, accurate and comprehensive accident data. This enables the
problem to be properly defined and suitable remedial measures devised. This needs to be established on a
common nation-wide basis.
The impact that engineering can have upon safety problems can be maximised by applying measures at various
stages in the development of road networks. When good design principles are applied, it is possible to avoid
many problems by planning and designing new or rehabilitating existing roads in a safety conscious manner.
Where this has not been done, it is possible, even if more expensive, to improve existing roads by the subsequent
introduction of safety or environment related measures, for example, selective road closures or road humps to
reduce speeds.
Finally, it is possible to identify hazardous sections of the road network so that appropriate remedial measures
can be undertaken to reduce the likelihood and severity of road accidents at those locations. This has proven to
be one of the most cost-effective ways of improving road safety .
These measures offer scope to improve safety through their influence on driver behaviour, traffic speeds, route
choices and so on. These methods are discussed in depth in later sections of this Manual . However, differences
in behaviour and traffic type tray make the measures that are applicable for industrialised countries less effective
in India. Where possible, the measures have been amended in the light of Indian conditions but it should be
stressed that there is still the need for evaluative research whenever methods new to India are introduced .
Finally, industrialised countries have accepted the multi-disciplinary nature of the problem and each organisa-
tion takes the necessary actions within its respective area of responsibility . In contrast in India, the road safety
responsibilities are, despite a significant amount of goodwill by concerned people and organisations and the
Road Safety Cell within the Ministry of Surface Transport, still fragmented and with little overall co-ordination .
It is essential that them is an increased effort to get the key agencies to work together (engineering, education,
enforcement, political will) so that they reinforce each other's efforts .

1 .7
CHAPTER I
1 .4 How to Use the Manual
This Manual has been written as a number of free-standing sections which have been internally cross-referenced .
It covers the following elements of road safety :-
Institutional Framework
Planning for Safety
Designing for Safety : Road Link Design
Designing for Safety : Junction Design
Safety Audits
Management of Road Networks
Accident Reduction by Countermeasures at Hazardous Locations
It is recommended that the whole book is read in its entirety at least onbe before being used as a reference
document .
Chapters typically comprise a short introductory overview, followed by a series of 2 page sections describing
key elements of road safety planning, design and operation. A standard format is used for the 2 page sections
comprising the following:-
Title
Overview
Problems
SaferPractice
References
VE
Checklists have also been included at the end of the main chapters .
To aid identification of standards and guidelines from overseas and Indian practice sources are acknowledged .
Photographs and sketches illustrating poor and safer practice are captioned and also indicated by or
m respectively. The source reference is also indicated following sketches and tables e.g . A 1 means reference
A 1 `Towards Safer Roads in Developing Countries' . Where extra material is available this has been included in
Technical Annexes at the end of the Manual .
CM 7RL Manual for Safety in Road Design

1 .8
TITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
CHAPTER 2
INSTITUTIONAL
FRAMEWORK
Ministry of Surface Ttansport Ross Silcock

2.1
2 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Introduction
This chapter sets out the context within which road safety operates in more industrialised countries to provide
a model that could be applied within India, and it therefore introduces the concept of road safety action plans,
which have been adopted in a number of countries. It may take some tune forIndia to implement such plans and
in order for the road safety practitioner to appreciate the constraints within which he is working, a section is also
included on road safety practices currently prevalent in the country . These aspects are under review and are
discussed in a companion document, but are briefly outlined below.
Land-use and transport planning can have fundamental effects upon road safety, both in the short and long
term. These not only create the conditions and environment for today's traffic but often impose the framework
within which future traffic (which may become very much higher) has to operate. It is therefore essential to
ensure that those involved are fully aware of the road safety consequences and implications of their proposals,
and that efforts are made to ensure that insensitive planning does not create additional road safety problems or
hazards for future years .
Advertisers, developers and builders often wear unconstrained in placing advertising hoardings, accesses and
even buildings very close to the road with little or no reference to those responsible for that road. Such hazards
and the informal markets which also often spring up on sections of the road can cause road safety problems
when traffic levels increase. Land-use planning, traffic planning and operations require control and coordina-
tion if they are to contribute to the development of safe transport systems. In the industrialised countries, efforts
are made to achieve this through development control and by circulating planning proposals to other relevant
departments for comment.
It is essential that land-use planners understand the traffic and safety implications of their proposals before
schemes are finalised . This should be done by circulating the plans for comment to fellow professionals re-
sponsible for traffic and road safety (perhaps via a coordinating Tmffc Committee) . Planners should also use
checklists (see Chapter 3) to ensure that there are no major aspects affecting road safety which have been
missed inadvertently during the planning stages.
I
It is now widely recognised that there is an interdependence between enforcement, environment and education
and also of the muhi-disciplinary nature of the road safety problem . A large number of organisations are in-
volved in the efforts to improve road safety with each taking the necessary actions within its respective area of
responsibility . Police seek to influence driver's behaviour through enforcement of traffic regulations whilst
engineers try to create safer roads and educationalists try to train and inform road users about potential dangers
on the road and on the ways to avoid diem. Such efforts in industrialised countries are normally coordinated so
that they can have maximum effect.
Without enforcement, many traffic schemes may become unworkable or unsafe but conversely, .tf those same
traffic schemes are not designed to be as `self-enforcing' as possible (e.g. raised channelising islands at junc-
tions to force drivers along particular pa*s) the enforcement demands may become too high and impossible,to
police. This will make the schemes unworkable and unsafe . Others by their nature, such as speed limits or red
traffic signals, will require enforcement by the traffic police and/or suitable publicity campaigns . The police
should be recoguised as an important component of the scheme and the scheme designed to reduce the enforce-
ment burden and to provide a safe environment for the traffic police to work in, for example, by providing
guidance for drivers with road signs, markings and traffic islands . It is important therefore that the traffic police
are aware of new safety schemes and are sympathetic to their aims. In some cases, they may have a role to play
in suggesting problem areas and in commenting upon solutions.
Education, information and training can teach drivers better and safer road behaviour and it is important that
drivers understand the meaning of road signs and the necessity for obeying speed limits . If drivers are
unaware ofthe meanings of road-signs and markings, they are unlikely to obey them. Conversely, if there is no
CRRI, TRL Manual for Safety in Road Derlgn

2.2
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
guidance to drivers through road markings, signs or traffic islands it may be more difficult or even dangerous for
than to carry out the required manoeuvres and the police may find it more difficult to enforce them. Whilst a
better road environment will not guarantee safe behaviour, it is even less likely to occur if inadequate gnidance
and information is available to the driver and if the road itselfis not designed to minimise risks ofaccidents to road
users (e.g. through channelisation).
Consequently, very strong inter-relationships exist between enforcement, environment and education . Although
deficiencies in one can sometimes be compensated for by additional strengthening of the others, the general aim
should be to have each contributing fully to the improvement of road safety.
2.2 Road Safety Practices in Roads Authorities in Other Countries
Road safety is now seen as an important responsibility of roads authorities in most industrialised countries and
many countries now require their roads authorities to be pro-active inreducing the number of deaths and injuries
on their road networks . This is often done as part of wider ranging effort to achieve National targets in casualty
or death reduction .
The UK, for example, places statutory responsibility on all its roads authorities (National, County (State) and
Municipal level) to improve road safety on their road networks. This requires them to analyse accident data, to
identify trends, roads users at risks, accident blackspots etc . at each level and to then develop and implement
appropriate countermeasures to improve safety on their networks. In each UK road engineering department (at
National, County and Municipal level) there are small road safety units who work full time in road safety issues .
They usually have their own staff and earmarked budgets (typically USE 0.4-i .0 million per year) for
implementing safety improvements and are required to produce an annual road safety plan indicating how they
intend to improve safety. Central Government offers incentives by part financing some improvement schemes
to encourage activity in this area.
Central Governments also commission and finance extensive research programmes from research institutes and
consultants on important safety issues and topics to create a framework of knowledge and information to enable
better policy making and decision making. Some of this research eventually is used to update design standards
and to design better countermeasures .
Governments of Australia, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, USA and many other industrialised countries also finance
full-time specialists to address safety engineering issues . The specific arrangements vary slightly country by
country but basically all industrialised countries now recognise the need to have small specialist teams of
professionals fully resourced and working full time within road authorities on road safety issues .
The existence of this cadre of safety engineering in road authorities and the need to train replacement staff as the
staff move on has resulted in the development and establishment of specialist training course on safety issues .
These provide a steady stream of new specialists and offer opportunities for staff to be updated periodically .
This approach of specialist safety units at each level of roads authority has proved highly effective in reducing
road deaths in industrialised countries and is well worth considering in India.
2 .3 Road Safety and Highway Design Practices in India
Unlike the more industrialised countries, the different agencies in India involved in road safety management
have limited coordination . This lack of co-operation is not only confined to the planning and development
stages, but is also conspicuously reflected in the day-to-day execution .
Road accidents are a matter of great personal tragedy, tremendous social and economic costs in terms of
valuable lives lost, medical treatment, insurance and damage to public and private property. Although,
acknowledgement of the problem has existed for some time, the attempts to improve road safety have been half
Ross Silcock
2.3
CHAPTER 2
hearted and not focussed on the problem . As early as the 1970's, the Planning Commission had accepted road
safety as a Plan subject and allocated specific funds to Delhi. This was followed slowly by some other States
who also made attempts to secure funds for their road safety plans. For the fast time, specific funds are being
earmarked for each State for road safety works on National Highways in the Draft Ninth Five Year Plan. It covers
broad items like engineering improvements, traffic control devices and wayside amenities. In order to make
judicious and full use of these funds, it is essential to have a co-ordinated institutional framework.
There are number of central ministries involved, to varying degrees in road safety work, reflecting the many
aspects of this field ; engineering, education, enforcement, emergency medical services and finances . However,
there is a lack of coordination among all the different aspects of road safety work among the ministries and
government bodies . The main responsibility of the Ministry of Surface Transport (MOST), carried through its
Road Wing, is the planning, construction and maintenance of national highways as well as for formulating
overall policies and guidelines for general road development in the country. The Transport Wing of the
MOST has a small Road Safety Cell manned by an Under Secretary who is responsible to the Joint Secretary of
the Wing looking after many other responsibilities besides road safety. The Road Safety Cell, also functions as
the Secretariat of the National Road Safety Council, whose ex-officio Chairman is the Minister for Surface
Transport .
The Ministry of Urban Development which is supposed to be responsible for road safety aspects in urban areas
does not seem to have any special arrangements for planning or implementing road safety actions . Some
limited work on traffic safety is also being done by Bureau of Police Research & Development .
The National Road Safety Council (NRSC) mandatory annual meetings have not been regularly held . Prior to
meetings, agenda items are sought from members which are discussed in the meeting . NRSC does not have the
backup of any expert or specialist division for technical support on a permanent basis, nor a special work gfoup
that can undertake scientific analyses of the issues and formulate plan of action for consideration and approval
of the NRSC. There are some State Road Safety Councils, which function more or less on a similar pattern to
the national council .
The NRSC declared in 1994, as part of its National Road Safety Policy, to reduce the number of fatalities by
half by the end of century . The same was, however, revised in 1997 to the target of reducing the total number
of fatalities in road accidents to 10-12 per 10,000 vehicles by the year 2001 and the total number of accidents to
0.2 million within the same period . Without a comprehensive strategy this would be a difficult task, especially
when the fatality rate is tending to stabilise, around 24 fatalities per 10,000 vehicles over last few years . Besides
NRSC there is another forum, the Transport Development Council under MOST, which also frames policies,
from time to time, directed towards the interest of road safety . In the mid 80's G.O.1 had set up a high-powered
National Transport Safety Board to cover roads, railways, aviation and shipping . Unfortunately the same was
winded after a period of two years .
At metropolitan or city level no institution really seems to be primarily responsible for status and development of
traffic safety . The responsibility for road safety is either undefined or split among so many individuals, groups
and institutions that no one body has overall responsibility . Such a large and confusing distribution of
responsibility for safety on the road is a natural result of complicated and largely decentralised decision-making
structure for road traffic, which in turn is a result of the diversity of components which constitute road traffic
safer},. There is a town planning department, public works department; municipal corporation, state transport
department, traffic police, local legislators and administrators, different kind of road users, etc . and all these
exercise some power over the affairs relating to road safety . In many cities official safety committees exist to
coordinate the various road safety functions. In addition citizen's advisory committees have been formed to
gain public support and participation in the road safety programmes of the official agencies.
The role of highway community towards road safety is not defined . Safety is still considered an exterior
control system rather than an integral part of design and operating processes . Although some lip service is
being given to the importance of highway safety, this activity typically has not been organisationally integrated
CRRI,, TRL Manualfor Safety in Road Design

2.4
and therefore has not been overly effective. Pavement failures get attention from the engineers but road fatalities
are not investigated from any engineering deficiency point of view . With regard to awareness, there is virtually
no formal training or formal on-the-job training in highway safety . The precepts of good safety in design and
operation fail to be implemented in the absence of an emphasis on the subject of road safety by the road and
highway agencies .
As road safety is considered to be a State responsibility, the Central Government does not become particularly
involved in it . Consequently, a variance in the design standards and specifications occurs between States,
which are not always consistent with national codes and which should apply to local traffic characteristics to
ensure optimum road safety. The lack of trained personnel at the local level and both institutional and financial
constraints can render the execution of road safety measures less effective than they should be . It is, therefore,
essential to develop a system to co-ordinate the efforts of various agencies involved in the field of transport
operations at the Central, State and Local levels for implementing road safety plans in an integrated and
efficient manner. As an example of what can be achieved and possibly a potential model for other States, road
safety, within the State of Tamil Nadu is co-ordinated by a State traffic council with support from the Chief
Ministers office . This has proved effective in implementing traffic and road safety schemes with broad support
in Chennai.
2.4 Areas of Influence for Engineers and Planners
Although, as earlier sections have shown, many organisations can influence road safety, engineers and planners
playa particularly important role . They create the road network and road environment which present and future
road users have to use. They can thus have a fundamental influence on driver behaviour. By adjusting the
design of the road and road networks to accommodate human characteristics and to be more `forgiving' if an
error is made they can make major contributions to road safety . When confronted with a traffic system, there are
three basic problems which the engineer/planner has to resolve. These are:
(i) Competing demands for space between "moving" and "access" traffic
The first problem of competing demands for the available road space occurs because of the need to allow for
faster, through traffic movement (movement function), while at the same time accommodating slower local
traffic on the road network (access function). The techniques used can range from segregation of functions and
parking controls (for through routes) to partial closures and the use of shared surfaces (for access roads) .
Engineers can reduce conflicts, particularly those between pedestrians and vehicles, by appropriate design of
road networks so that roads intended primarily for movement (e .g . motorways and expressways) are designed
for that purpose, while roads intended for access (e .g . residential roads) have an environment suited to that
function .
(ii) Accommodating human characteristics in system design
Drivers tend to overestimate their own ability and the capability of their vehicles to react in sufficient time to
avoid problems (e .g. they often drive too close to vehicles in front). It must also be understood that drivers
drive on "expectancy" and anything out of the ordinary must be clearly indicated whether it is roadworks or a
sudden bend after a long straight section. Decision points must also be simplified with confusing, and over-
crowded signs avoided by splitting the information into two or more signs to simplify the driving task.
There are many characteristics of road design which influence drivers and one of the primary functions of
traffic engineering is to impart information to the driver in a suitable format and in sufficient time for him to
take the necessary safe action. Road geometry and the many associated design variables, (such as width or
alignment) all influence how and what road users see, so again the engineer is in a position to influence road
users through appropriate design . Distant views and parallel features (kerbs, buildings, lamp columns etc .)
will tend to induce higher speeds than more random arrangements . Creating the appropriate environment can
therefore provide the necessary perceptual clues to modify driver behaviour and have significant beneficial
results, such as reduced vehicle-speeds. In industrialised countries, this is now often done deliberately in
residential areas (e.g. by decreasing road width, deliberately introducing sharp curves, building road humps or
Ministry of Surface 7ranspor Ross Silcock

2.5
CHAPTER 2
rumble strips) . It is not, however, always possible to influence drivers sufficiently by design alone . Other
measures also need to be applied and these can range from improving the information available to the driver (e.g.
through delineation ofthe road ahead) so that he is given advance warning of hazards ahead, to the provision of
"recovery zones" so that even if the driver makes an error ofjudgement, there are still possibilities for him to
regain control before an accident occurs .
(iii) Adjusting the traffic mix
Any measures which simplify traffic movement and interaction will improve traffic safety. Consequently, the
segregation of slow or vulnerable road users from faster vehicles will be beneficial and measures such as
pedestrian only streets, cycle routes and pedestrian segregation, can all improve traffic safety . Prohibition of
animal drawn vehicles from certain roads, exclusion of heavy goods vehicles or extraneous through traffic from
residential areas, banning street traders at locations where they displace pedestrians from the footway, banning
of cycle-rickshaw or auto-rickshaw, parking at key junctions and regulating taxi pickup-set down points, all
help to reduce the diversity of traffic and hence aid traffic safety .
2.5 Opportunities for Intervention to Improve Road Safety
In order to tackle safety problems effectively via engineering, it is necessary to apply measures at various
stages in the development of road networks. By incorporating good design principles from the start it is
possible to avoid many problems simply by planning new roads in a safety-conscious manner; for example,
widening through roads at T-junctions to permit protected turns. Furthermore, incorporation of safety features
(e.g. channelisation or guardrails) during the design and construction phases can usually be undertaken at
lower cost whilst roads are being built and can make the road environment more `forgiving', when a driver makes
an error.
Even where the opportunities to intervene at the planning and design stages have not been taken, it may still be
possible (although more expensive) to anticipate future problems and to improve existing roads by the intro-
duction of safety or environment related measures, such as road humps to reduce speeds or lorry gates to
prohibit heavy goods vehicles from residential areas. It is also essential to identify hazardous sections of the
existing road network so that appropriate remedial measures can be undertaken to reduce the likelihood and
severity of accidents at those locations .
The opportunities for intervention by engineers and planners can be summarised as:
Safety conscious planning of new road networks and new developments;

Incorporation of safety features in the design of road schemes ;
Managing existing roads safely ; and
Improvement of known hazardous locations on the road network .
On any network, because ofthe historic development of road systems, all four approaches will be necessary and
in use at any one time. They will need to be applied continuously because of the constant development of new
solutions and the fact that the road networks and traffic using them are, themselves, in a constant state of
development . This process can be termed "safety conscions planning, design and operation of roads" and is
outlined below and described in detail in the remainder of this Manual . The balance of resources devoted to
each will depend heavily upon local circumstances in terms of the types of problem, the availability of skilled
staff and budgetary constraints .
2.6 SAFETY CONSCIOUS PLANNING, DESIGN AND OPERATION OF THE

ROAD NETWORK
Various road safety strategies and countermeasures have been used in industrialised countries at different
CRRI, TRL Manual foos%fety in Road Design

2.6
stages of network development. This method of seeking to prevent road accidents has been termed by the
authors as safety conscious planning, design and operation of roads . The key features at each stage are
summarised below .
Planning has a profound effect upon the level of road safety and can have a major impact upon pedestrian
accidents in particular. Sensitive planning of residential areas and highway networks can ensure that through
traffic is rerouted to more suitable roads and that the right sort ofenvironment is created for the road users likely
to use each type of road. Guidance on how road network and developmenvland-use planning can influence
road safety is given in Chapter 3.
Geometric design normally seeks to ensure uniformity of alignment and maximum levels of safety and com-
fort for drivers using the road, within given economic constraints. Compromises are inevitable to achieve an
acceptable solution and not all objectives can be fully met . Often, however, it is possible markedly to improve
road safety characteristics at little or no extra cost, provided the road safety implications of design features are
considered at the design stage. Chapters 4 and 5 discuss the key safety related aspects which should be consid-
ered when detailed design of roads and junctions are being undertaken.
Traffic Management of the Network approaches have been developed in industrialised countries to tackle the
problems of road safety and congestion on existing road networks. Although many of these traffic management
measures are aimed primarily at reducing congestion or improving traffic circulation, there are often associated
benefits in terms of general traffic safety . In addition, potential future problems can often be avoided through
early application of such preventive measures. Guidance on how road safety can be improved by such meas-
ures on existing roads is given in Chapter 7.
Systematic Identification and Treatment of Hazardous Locations has proven to be successful in many
countries. Although the countermeasures used may need to be different to reflect the differing social, cultural
and economic circumstances of the country concerned, the systematic methods and techniques for identifying
blackspots and analysing the problem are directly transferable to the developing world. Chapter 8 outlines the
processes necessary to identify and analyse hazardous locations and provides some practical examples and
guidance on the types of approaches and countermeasures which may be applicable.
Unfortunately, in developing countries, the road environment is often inadequate to guide the driver safely
through the road network and in the past, roads were often constructed with little or no consideration given to
the traffic safety implications of alternative solutions . Engineers and planners in developing countries now
have considerable opportunities to intervene in improving road safety. Safety conscious planning, design and
operation of the road network as advocated in this Manual offers them the means to do this.
Incorporation of Safety Features in Design of Road Schemes
In order to focus the attention of central and local road authorities on road safety, many industrialised
countries have made the improvement of road safety a statutory duty. Under such legislation, each level of
local authority which acts as a road authority is required to undertake road safety activities on its road network .
This often includes the collection of accident dsta, accident analysis, the definition of "Blackspots" and the
design of remedial measures. In recent years, mandatory "Road Safety Audits" have also been added to the list
of responsibilities.
Road safety audit is a formal procedure for assessing accident potential and safety performance in the provision
of new road schemes, the improvement and the rehabilitation of existing roads and in the maintenance of
existing roads (some authorities also undertake safety audits retrospectively of existing roads) . They should be
an integral part of highway planning, design, construction and maintenance . The road safety audit process
requires an objective approach to the assessment of accident risk. A team which is independent of the design
team should undertake the safety audit. The principal method of ensuring this objectivity is through the
independent assessment of schemes by persons unconnected with the original design . Accordingly) the team
should have specialist expertise in the fields of road safety engineering, accident investigation and prevention.
In India, at present, there is no formal requirement for safety audits to be undertaken.

2.7
CHAPTER 2
Road safety audit has been undertaken in the UK since 1990 and the practice has been adopted elsewhere in
the world, notably New Zealand, Australia and Denmark. There exists, therefore, a wealth of experience in its
operation and in the benefits that it can bring. Whilst the potential benefits from safety audits are difficult to
quantify, both due to the uncertainty of estimating the number of accidents that would have occurred had there
been no audit, and the lack of control data to make comparison with unaudited schemes, evidence from
overseas countries is accumulating which suggests that the benefits can be high. Nevertheless, safety audit
should forth part of a broader road safety strategy, with priorities set within an overall programme of highway
schemes .
To be fully effective, the process requires commitment amongst politicians, both in central and state govern-
ment, top management and line managers in any road commissioning, design or construction organisation,
tcgether with an awareness of the role and benefits of safety audit.
Whatever the defined legal responsibilities, in India and elsewhere road authorities are implicitly responsible
for the safe operation of the roads they design or rehabilitate and for improving safety on existing roads . They
should thus apply safety principles in the provision, improvement and maintenance of roads as a means of
accident prevention through road safety audits as set out in Chapter 6.
Managing Existing Roads Safely
The statutory duty on road safety (noted above) often includes studies into road accidents on roads within the
area of the authority and implementation of engineering measures for the reduction and prevention of such
accidents. These include construction, improvement, maintenance or repair of roads and other measures for
controlling, protecting or assisting the movement of traffic.
Road authorities should be given statutory responsibility to promote and improve road safety on all roads in
their area and should be required to show an item in their annual budget for this purpose . They should be
required to show in annual reports what road safety countermeasures have been implemented during the previ-
ous year. Such obligations should extend to all roads in their area and funding for approved works on national
roads could be recovered from Central Government . Arrangements should be made for the Traffic Police to
supply accident data on a regular basis. An accident data storage, retrieval and analysis system such as the TRL
MAAP system should be established. Once accident data is available a comprehensive programme to identify
and improve the worst accident blackspots should be initiated as a matter of urgency . This is best done by
establishing a small full-time team to carry out such work.
Another problem often faced is that accident statistics and reports are normally held by the Traffic Police HQ
and are sometimes not available to the road department seeking to improve road safety . Sometimes even the
Police HQ itself receives only summary data and the actual accident reports are retained at the reporting station.
The problem of access to Police data can be overcome, for example by arranging for non-confidential items of
information, (e .g. site details, manoeuvres) to be supplied on a regular basis. Such information should be stored
in a way which allows it to be stored, retrieved and analysed easily . Manual storage systems or microcomputer-
based systems are now widely in use for such purposes . See Chapter 6 for details of the TRL system which is
available free to developing countries.
Improvement of Known Hazards
There is often insufficient money to cover routine and periodic maintenance so road safety and related matters
are usually low on the list of priorities . This is despite road safety improvements being cost effective with very
high savings (in reduced accidents) being achieved which are many times the cost of countermeasures
implemented. Hence the improvement of known hazards should form part of every road, authority's annual
programme.
CRRI, TRL Manualfor Safety in Road Design

2.8
For example, the use of road signs and markings to channelise traffic through complex junctions, or to provide
safe waiting areas for turning vehicles, can often result in substantial reductions in accidents. Yet, because of a
lack of funds and poor maintenance capability, known hazardous locations are often left untreated and remain
the cause of accidents .
Drivers are often presented with misleading information or no advance warning, sight lines may be inadequate,
pedestrians may not be catered for, and accidents may occur because of a driver's inability to cope' with the
particular combination of circumstances and environment . By identifying and eliminating the features which
make sites hazardous, engineers can improve road safety. This often means reducing the complexity of a
junction or enabling manoeuvres to be made in stages . Reducing the number of decisions drivers must make at
any one time simplifies the driving task and helps drivers to progress in safety and comfort with a minimum of
conflict with other road users.
A guide entitled Àccident Investigation and Prevention Manual for Highway Engineers in India' (AIP
Manual, reference Cl), has been produced . This Guide is designed to be an easy-to-assimilate outline of
procedures that have been found to be effective in many countries of the world. Chapter 8 summarises the
contents of this Guide which includes a discussion on the accident database, a fundamental measure of safety
and a very necessary requirement for investigating and improving the situation . It also contains a step-by-step
approach (totalling 10 steps in all) to tackle the safety problems within a road authority's area.
Public Transport
Despite increasing car ownership, public transport is and will continue to be a key component of people's
mobility in fulfilling their needs for work, social and recreational travel . Public transport provides an efficient
use of road space and, by the correct planning oftransport and peoples' activities, the number of road accidents
can be reduced and the overall safety and efficiency of the road network increased. However, when accidents
with buses do occur they often incur many casualties, and the common perception is probably that there have
been too many bus accidents in recent years as they tend to make media headlines . Bus driver behaviour is not
exemplary with much speeding and frequent lane changing. In congested conditions, public transport accessi-
bility could be greatly improved through the use of segregated bus lanes, which would improve safety by
reducing the need for speeding and reduce the frequent lane changing seen.
Bus stops are also the source of many accident problems and the careful design of waiting areas for both
passengers and buses can greatly improve safety in both urban and rural areas.
Vulnerable Road Users
Currently there is insufficient consideration given to the needs of the more "Vulnerable Road Users" (VRUs)
by either drivers, planners or designers of the road network. These VRUs include pedestrians, cyclists, motor-
cyclists and moped-riders, auto-rickshaws, those riding or driving animals or with animal driven carts. Driver
behaviour towards those in smaller vehicles or on foot can generally be described as aggressive . Although
some segregated crossings are provided, facilities for pedestrians are still far from adequate, with few channelising
devices or traffic islands to break up the traffic flows and provide a safe refuge for pedestrians to cross several
streams of traffic . VRUs make up a substantial proportion of road accidents in urban areas and probably a high
proportion in rural areas where under reporting of accidents is considered to be most prevalent. This manual
places greater emphasis on these road users and reflects the concern shown towards them by the International
Road Safety Conference in Delhi 1991 .
2.7 Possible Institutional Framework
This section briefly sets out a philosophy for improving co-ordination in the road safety field in India. It is a
summary of a companion document . For road safety matters to be dealt with efficiently and effectively it is
necessary for there to be adequate funds and organisations capable of carrying out and coordinating such

2 .9
CHAPTER 2
activities so that the impact of individual efforts is maximised . Hence road safety should, wherever feasible, have
its own protected budgets. In the engineering area for example, this could be three to five per cent of the highway
budget. This would ensure that there is no delay or interference in implementing urgently needed road safety
improvements and would allow the establishment ofprocedures for consultstion and checking proposed schemes
to ensure that they will not be unsafe .
In some of the more industrialised countries, road safety activity is encouraged by having statutory responsibil-
ity placed upon each highway authority to improve road safety on its road network, by having a specialist traffic
police force and by having continuous road safety publicity/propaganda campaigns and activities undertaken
by full-time road safety officers (sometimes employed by the highway authority). Co-ordination can exist by
having traffic committees at local level to discuss all new proposals so that all key parties have an opportunity
to consider the implications and problems from their own point of view.
Experience in other countries indicates that to improve road safety in particular, it is often beneficial to have a
National Road Safety Council (NRSC) to coordinate and promote road safety matters nationally and State Road
Safety Committees (SRSC) to carry out similar activities at a local level. All key government and relevant non-
government organisations should be represented on the NRSC and members should meet regularly (e .g. every
month) to discuss road safety activities. To be effective, such NRSC requires its own small operating budget
and a small (perhaps 2 or 3 persons) permanent secretariat to work full-time in following up and implementing
decisions of the Council .
Accident and injury prevention at the State or the City level is not an easy task and requires specific institutions
involving all the potential participants in road safety action. The traditional organisation of any governmental
structure separates between sectors of activity .
Typical areas where improvements may be needed in developing countries include :
" Accident data collection and analysis

" Highway engineering improvements at accident blackspo~s
" Vehicle testing/inspection
" Driver training/testing
" Traffic education of children
" Publicity/propaganda
" Traffic Police enforcement
" Road safety research
" Traffic and highway design standards
" Emergency medical services
" ,Road safety legislation
They can be roughly classified into two categories:-
The pilot sectors for road safety, which participate in the design and structuring of the road and traffic system
and provide rules for its functioning are: road infrastructure, urban planning, transport management, traffic
regulations and management, laws, control and justice .
The sectors that may contribute to road safety by providing smoother functioning ofthe road and traffic system
are: public health, emergency rescue systems, professional education and training .
There are three types of structures required for dealing with road safety work:-

2 .10
(i) The Decision Making Structure
In order for a State or City to carry out safety work in a rational way, a co-ordinating body of decision makers,
including representatives of all institutional or non-govemmental organisations active in road safety, is neces-
sary . In order to be able to function properly, such a body should meet the following basic requirements :-
have a legal existence, enabling it to enforce decisions and to manage a budget .

come under the highest possible authority (Prime Minister in a country, Mayor in a city), in order to
have priority over individual govemmental sectors.
include only high ranking decision-makers able to impose the decisions taken into their own sector of
responsibility.
include only permanent members, personally nominated for a length of time sufficient to ensure
continuity of action .
have the means to provide adequate training in road safety management to its members.
be able to commission studies or research from competent partners in order to get the right
information to sustain decisions.
have financing powers or secure funding in order to implement safety measures that may not be
included in the usual structure of sectorial budgets .
be allocated appropriate resources to meet, work, and publicise and promote actions to reduce
accidents and injuries, in order to obtain public and govemment attention and generate greater
interest and motivation for road safety .
(ii) The Study and Research Structure
Diagnosis and evaluation studies and the behavioural research necessary to design educational and information
safety measures cannot be carried out by the decision makers . They would neither have the time, nor the
scientific training to perform those tasks. Therefore, the decision-making structure needs to rely on a special-
ised group of people able to define scientific methods and to apply them .
A minimum safety study group should include people with qualifications in road and vehicle engineering,
statistics, psychology, computer software and economics . The group should also have a secretariat and be able
to call upon a team of field investigators to carry out interviews and road-side surveys. The study group should
have access to all the necessary data needed for accident and risk analyses . It may centralise relevant safety
knowledge and know-how and therefore develop contacts with partners in other parts of the country or the
world. It may also be used by decision-makers as a specialised body for road safety teaching or professional
training .
(iii) The Implementation Structure
Most of the safety measures adopted will be implemented within each of the governmental sectors concerned,
under the co-ordination of the decision making body . The operational specifications of each measure must
usually be defined by specialists and light yet adequate structures have to be designed, case by case . This may
require further training of some of the professionals concerned. The involvement in safety work of non-gov-
emmental organisations may have to be facilitated.
In recent years, the World Bank and other aid agencies have recognised the importance of such activities and
are now increasingly more willing to finance improvements and to assist governments to tackle their road
safety problems . Such improvements are normally undertaken as part of comprehensive road safety improve-
ment programmes coordinated and perhaps even initiated by the Ministry responsible for road safety in a
country. Advice on such comprehensive programmes is, however, outside the scope of this Manual which
relates only to safer planning, design and operation of roads.
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silcac

2.1L
PLANNING
CHAPTER 3
PLANNING FOR SAFETY
-Miaistryof Surface ltansport RossSikock

3 .1
CHAPTER 3
3 PLANNING FOR SAFETY
3 .1 Introduction
Urban areas contain a complex interaction of land-uses and activities. Newer cities with strong planning controls
may have fairly well defined residential, shopping or industrial areas. Elsewhere a great mix of land-uses may
exist side-by-side, sometimes in conditions of extreme conflict. Different land-uses place differing demands
upon the highway network . Therefore, it follows that any transportation policy or action must take account of
land use patterns, economic and social activity, and will depend on the physical, social and economic character-
istics of a given area for success. Account must also be taken of the regional and national transport framework
within which local plans must operate since travel in any given area will include some proportion of longer
distance journeys.
This section examines how the careful planning of different types of roads and their environments can create
safer conditions for all users whilst at the same time, creating more efficient networks . Roads can be classified
according to the function they serve . For example, arterial roads are the main strategic arteries for moving traffic
between different parts of a country, region or city and these are fed by district collectors/distributors which are
in turn fed by local collectors/distributors . These, in turn, serve as links to access roads. In urban areas the
function of the road often depends largely upon its traffic volume and width. Hence the arterial roads are
normally primary distributors and local distributors are normally `collector' roads in urban areas (see Figure
3.1 .11
It is important that the status of a road, that is

National Highway, State Highway, Village Road etc.
is not confused with the function the road is un-
dertaking. In many cases of existing roads in In-
dia, poor access (or development) control (Chap-
ter 3 .6) has meant that roads designed, for exam-
ple, as National Highways with a strategic traffic
movement function have, through uncontrolled de-
velopment, begun to fulfill a number of other func-
tions . Where a hierarchy of roads has not been
designed correctly at the planning stage (Chap-
ters 3.2 and 3.3), a National or State Highway may,
for example, also have to function as a district dis-
tributor, local distributor or even a pedestrian route .
This leads to a greater mix of road users than is
desirable, often travelling at different speeds or
needing to cross the road (if pedestrians). Such a
mix in results in a reduction in safety . A subse- ft
quent chapter of this Manual (Chapter 3 .7), sets

out the function of each element of an ideal road Figure 3.1 .1 Road Hierarchy and function m A12
hierarchy and how those functions should be cor-
rectly accommodated. These are not directly comparable with the status of Indian roads, but there is some
correlation in that for example, a Primary Distributor is likely to be a National or State Highway, whereas a Village
Road equates more to an Access or Local Road.
The safety aspects of networks and new proposals can be checked by submitting them to a safety audit, which
is a systematic procedure for safety checking of proposed schemes (see Chapter 6). The features of most
influence on road safety when planning networks are: road hierarchy, access control and land use planning . The
key safety principles associated with each of these are included in the following list.
CRRI, TRL Manor!forSafety in Road Design

3.2
PLANNING
Road hierarchy
The roads in a network should be clearly categorised into those which are primarily for movement and
those which are primarily for local access .
There should be clear, unambiguous priority indicated at each junction so that the traffic on the more
important road is always given precedence over that from the less important road.
Land-use
Traffic and safety implications of all development proposals should be thoroughly examined before approval
is given.
Land-uses should be distributed to minimise road traffic and pedestrian conflicts .
The need for travel by vehicle should be minimised by locating shops and schools within walking distance
ofhomes .
Access control
On new roads of district distributor level or higher, direct frontage access should only be permitted in
exceptional circumstances .
0 The number of direct accesses onto main roads should be minimised and service roads or collector roads
used to bring traffic to a single T -junction at the main road.
No accesses should be permitted at potentially dangerous locations (e.g. at road junctions or on bends
with poor visibility) .
Ideally, in all cases each class ofroad should intersect only with roads in the same class or one immediately
above or below it in the hierarchy.
Adoption of such basic principles enables safety to be incorporated at the planning stage. Checklists for road
safety in planning are included at the rear of this chapter .
~~/ /
i .Padestrtan & cycle way .

~ Rawdenee, schoolc etc.
Figure3 .1.2Schematic hierarchy ofroads r71 Al
Ministry of Surface TMnssart Ross Silcock

3 .3
CHAPTER 3
3 .2 Land-use Planning and Zoning
Overview :
Traffic patterns are primarily determined by the location of dwellings in relation to places of employment, serv-
ices and recreational areas. They are also influenced by the general affluence of the population and the availabil-
ity of motorised transport.
In developed countries the freedom of movement that motorisation has produced has resulted in a broadening of
choice of where to live or work while, at the same time, encouraging concentration of economic activities in towns
and cities.
Land use in urban areas changes continuously . Consistent control of such changes is an effective way to
promote the basic aims of traffic planning and to achieve improvements inroad safety. In many countries zoning
is used to designate different areas for different land uses in order to segregate incompatible or conflicting uses
and the types of traffic they generate .
Problems :
Each type of land use has its own traffic characteristics and
allowing them to develop side by side can lead to problems .
In terms of vehicular traffic, industrial, manufacturing and

commercial premises will require access by heavy goods ve-
hicles . Shops and offices also require access by delivery
and service vehicles but in terms of volume, most of their
demand is from workers and customers. In residential areas
the motor cycle and private car will be the dominant vehicle
types . In all environments there will also be pedestrians who
will need to be catered for.
A road will affect the environment through which it passes

Figure 3.2 .1 Residential area separated from
and will attract activity . If a road is provided to satisfy a
school and working place by major road leading
given set of circumstances and inadequate development
to crossing problems. This situation could be
control is applied to its surroundings, it is likely that a whole
improved by the provision of a segregated cycle
new set of circumstances will gradually develop. This will
create conflicting demands which are incompatible or which and pedestrian crossing using a subway or
cannot be accommodated easily on the road in question . footbridge with ramped approaches on a
pedestrian operated traffic signal. A1
In India particular problems are occurring due to lack of
development control and inadequate enforcement with
vendors, squatter areas and shanty-towns developing around
industrial areas and along busy major routes. These can
often encroach rightup to the road edge, creating hazardous
conditions for pedestrians and passing traffic.
CM FRL Manualfor Safely in Road Design

3.4
PLANNING
Safer Practice :
Planning and design for traffic needs depends ultimately upon the land uses which are being served. Therefore,
the control of both is vital . Wherever possible, incompatible uses should be segregated so that techniques can
be applied to direct major traffic flows onto the most suitable routes . A city street will differ from a rural road both
functionally and in scale. However, the same principles of segregating, minimising and clearly defining conflicting
uses apply throughout .
However, as many areas in India do not exhibit this degree of delineation in zoning patterns, Industrial commercial
areas and residential community are mixed together. It is necessary, therefore, to segregate the traffic circulation
by different modes i.e . pedestrian (walk), cycle and motorised vehicles, to ensure the safety of the different road
users. This may mean different networks for pedestrians, cyclists and motorised vehicles .
In terms of land-use planning the key principles to adopt are:
Development and implementation of a zoning plan to separate out incompatible and conflicting land uses
and the traffic they generate ;
Strong planning regulation and enforcement to influence the location of new development and to control
access arrangements and parking;
0 Land uses should be planned with the aim of minimising travel and maximising accessibility to public
transport;
0 Residential development should be separated from heavy industry and major commercial uses ;
Activities which generate substantial traffic should be located adjacent to roads most suited to the types
of traffic expected (e .g . if a primary school generates many cycle or pedestrian trips, then it should be
capable of being reached directly via a network of cycle ways/footpaths);
Light industry and service establishments can he sited adjacent to residential areas but vehicular access
should not be via the residential streets .
Occasional access for large vehicles for purposes

such as removals, deliveries, refuse collection and
emergencies, public buildings result in a variety of
significant vehicle movements. Sport and recrea-
tional facilities also attract significant traffic but this
tends to be characterised by fluctuations and peaked
demands. All of these land uses require access to
appropriate facilities by public transport and pedes-
trians .
Figure3.2.2 All development on same sided main

road reduces conflicts and improves safety m Al
Outer relevant stactlott : 3 .3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.7

Indian references: C29
Key external references: At, A31, A43, A58
Ministry of Surface nansport Ross Silcock

3 .5
CHAPTER 3
3.3 Network Design
Overview:
It is now generally acknowledged in developed countries that road planning and design can have a profound
effect on the level of road safety in a country. The main purpose for classification is whether the road is to be used
primarily for movement or for access . Layouts of roads in residential areas can have a major impact on pedestrian
accidents . Grid layouts, because of the large numbers of crossroads, are less safe than those networks based on
principles of segregating functions of movement and access and keeping extraneous traffic away from pedestri-
ans. Accidents have been reduced, for example, by building bypasses, by providing service roads between
buildings and the major roads or by providing parking and servicing facilities at the rear of buildings via minor
roads. This reduces the number of accesses and enhances safety.
Problems :
Whilst an urban road provides the prime means of linking settlements and individuals, by its very existence it can
present a barrier to local communication . It defines a series of compartments or zones that become more self-
contained as the size of the bounded area increases. This is particularly so for cities on river Deltas, as they often
have a very underdeveloped secondary network as crossing points on canals and rivers are expensive to con-
struct . In such cases, many accesses have to be taken off the primary roads.
It is unlikely that any new road plan to be undertaken without there being some form of network, however
unsuitable, already in existence. Consideration often has to be given to modifying or improving an existing
network by applying modem standards and approaches .
The adoption of a road hierarchy in an urban area that later expands beyond its bounding roads can mean that the
main distributor roads initially designed to surround an area and offer external access no longer do so . This can
have expensive consequences in trying to maintain segregated routes across the major distributors as travel
patterns expand across what was previously a boundary road.
Through traffic passing through residential and shopping areas incur economic losses due to delays, accidents
and create hazards on the roads.
Figure 33.1 Grid networks do not separate Figure 33.2 Chaotic environment with urban
access and movement functions p A1 development expanded across main distributor U3
CRRI, TYZL Manual for Safety in Road Design

3 .6
PLANNING
Safer Practice:
The most important considerations in network design Externally fed Internally fed
Network Network
ate:
Routes and networks should be planned such

that areas are separated into self-contained
zones (often referred to as neighbourhoods,
cells or environmental areas) . The size and scale
of these zones will depend upon the
importance of the road bounding them . Within
these areas all non-essential traffic should be
excluded . It should be possible to carry out
most daily trips to shops and schools wholly
within the area .
The natural barrier of main routes can therefore

be used positively to segregate and contain
incompatible uses and to reinforce localities . Figure 3.3 .3 Externally and internally fed network
The network can be such that traffic can enter which separate access and movement
zones from an external or internal system. The functions O Al
external system reinforces this natural barrier
and offers the safest network when well
planned.
Each class of road should clearly convey to the

road user its role in the hierarchy in respect of
both traffic volume and speeds attainable . This
can be achieved by appearance and related
design standards (Figure 3.1 .1).
Each road should intersect only with roads in

the same class or one immediately above or
below it in the hierarchy. In that way anyone Figure 3.3 .4 Well planned local network around
using the network has a clear impression of the self- contained residential areas 0
graduated change in conditions between the
low speed access roads and the aggregated,
higher speed "through routes" at the top of
the hierarchy.
The modern hierachical layouts which utilise the natural barriers formed by major roads to contain well planned
community activities can significantly reduce accidents.
In designing a new highway network or planning a new route, it is important to :
Plan land use and road networks together to create self-contained zones;
Differentiate between movement and access functions, and segregate as necessary ;
Modify the existing roads to accord with the desired hierarchy as necessary and provide new links
accordingly ; and
Bypass all towns/villages along the route and serve them via spur roads .
Ministrpaf Surface Transport Ross Silcock

3 .7
CHAPTER 3
3 .4 Route Planning Through Communities
Overview:
When roads are rehabilitated or new roads are being built in developed countries, specific efforts are made to
minimise the disbenefits to communities along the road so that through traffic as it passes through the commu-
nity, does not cause problems or dangers to pedestrians and local traffic. This can range from provision of
bypasses around communities to countermeasures aimed at reducing speeds of through traffic as it passes
through the community where a bypass cannot be justified.
Problems :
In India, little consideration is given to safety

implications when roads are rehabilitated. It is
commonplace to find existing rural roads upgraded to
permit higher speeds and for such roads to continue
along existing alignments straight through rural
communities and trading centres. Because of higher
speeds, this causes considerable additional danger to
local traffic and pedestrians in the area .
Even the construction of new roads with bypasses

around such small communities often does not solve
the problem . Inadequate access and development
control often result in the spread of commercial
activities to the new road, leading to conflicts between
through traffic and local traffic .
Figure 3.4 .1 Existing Interurban Road Results in
Considerable Conflict Between Through Traffic and
Local Traffic Al
Figure 3.4 .2 Existing main road divides the area and

community into 2 parts
CRRI,TRL Manua Safety in Road Design

3 .8
PLANNING
Safer Practice:
When planning new routes or rehabilitation schemes efforts should be made to remove through traffic onto
bypasses away from local traffic, thereby not only reducing delays and congestion to the through traffic but also
creating safer environments on the roads from which such traffic is removed. Where a bypass can be justified the
most important considerations are:
4 The reduced flows allow the opportunity to be taken to reinforce the road hierarchy by down-grading the
old road to discourage through traffic through, for example, the use of traffic calming measures and
footway widening .
4 Access to the bypass should be restricted to
only a few points where safe junctions (e .g ..
T junctions with local widening to permit
protected turns into and out of old road .) and
spur roads can be provided to link to the
existing network. Direct access from frontage
land should not be permitted .
Provision should be left for future expansion
or development of the community but such
developments should be served by service
roads and spur roads.
A greenbelt, rigorously enforced . between the
village and bypass would assist in reducing
encroachment on the bypass .
Where a bypass cannot be justified, countermeas-
ures should be implemented to slow down the speeds
of through traffic as it passes through the commu-
Figure 3.4.3 A bypass removes through traffic from a
nity or trading centre e.g .:
village. Note only limited access to new road Al
4 Warning signs and rumble strips can be used
to alert drivers about speed reducing devices
ahead.
4 A series of road humps increasing in height from 40 mm to around 80 nun can be used gradually to slow
down traffic in areas where pedestrians predominate .
4 Chicanes (see Glossary of Traffic Calming Terms, Technical Annex 3 .1) and road narrowing can be used to
give drivers better visual cues of a change in nature of the road and to induce lower speeds as traffic
passes through the community.
Village "gateways" with heavy planting at the entrance to villages will give drivers guidance that they
are entering an inhabitated area with greater pedestrian/vehicle conflict .
4.X
Solution 1: Main road changed to local streets via Solution 2: Existing main street partly
road closures pedestrianised and local traffic new bypass road
constructed
figure 3.4.4 Improving existing network 0
relevant sections: 3.2, 3.3, 3.5, 4.25

Indian references: C29
Key references : Al, A43, A5S

3.9
CHAPTER 3
3 .5 Traffic Planning for Different Land Uses
Overview :
Residential areas need to be designed to increase pedestrian safety. Unnecessary usage by heavy through
traffic, creates additional safety hazards. Ideally the road user should be able to identify the street function by
its appearance and layout . Non-essential, inappropriate and through traffic should be minimised in residential
areas. Overnight parking of commercial vehicles, especially those carrying hazardous material should be highly
discouraged.
In older areas, road traffic problems have gradually increased and many towns are currently affected by road
safety problems . While the car is increasingly necessary to gain access to the widest choice of surrounding
facilities, accommodating its movement and storage often takes up the majority of the road space, which inevita-
bly has to fulfil other functions for the majority of the times in residential areas.
Industrial areas are very important to the economy of India and it is necessary for them to be provided with safe,
efficient links to national and international markets both for raw products and finished goods. Industrial areas
have to cater for significant numbers of people and vehicles requiring substantial parking areas.
Industrial sites should have sufficient off road parking areas so that delays and danger to road traffic can be
minimized and should be given access directly from the district distributor network wherever possible .
In certain circumstances, it can be beneficial to avoid the congestion of a single Central Business District (CBD)
and develop specific commercial or retail parks at the edges of the town .
Problems:
There are rarely any attempts made to segregate residential

areas from other activities . It is not uncommon to see light
industry, workshops, overnight heavy vehicles parking all
occurring within residential areas.
Through traffic often passes through residential areas and

few efforts are made to create safer environment for
pedestrians . In industrial areas, large volumes of workers
may walk between home and work, despite the absence of
well planned and designed footways.
Commercial activities often overspill from adjacent stalls and

encroach onto the verge and even the road space, causing Figure 3.5 .1 Ribbon development along
more disruption and danger. rural highways create safety hazards.
In rural areas, bus stop locations and trading posts often create unexpected hazardous locations. Often with
several hundred metres of ribbon development along each side of the road, such places become accident black
spots as crossing pedestrians, parked vehicles, slowing and accelerating vehicles come into conflict with fast
moving through traffic.
Ribbon development on major roads and straight road alignments leads to high vehicle speeds and high VRU/
vehicle conflicts. Local residents may resolve this problem through the use of illegal and poorly designed
speed breakers which present a safety hazard.
Traffic and transportation studies have been undertaken for some metropolitan cities . Even though future land
use and a network hierarchy for the design years were assessed, the implementation of the recommendations
have proved inadequate .
On rural roads the frequent accesses for dhabas create increased accident risks.
CRRZ TRL Manual for Safety in Road DOW

3 .10
PLANNING
Safer Practice :
Residential Areas
Pedestrians must be given priority, especially close to buildings and in play areas.
Pedestrians should be segregated wherever possible and crossing of traffic routes should be convenient
and safe .
Inter-visibility between drivers and pedestrians should besufficient to minimize the risk of accidents .
Overnight parking of lorries, especially those with hazardous loads, should be actively discouraged .
Industrial Areas
0 Land marked for industrial purposes should have access directly from the industrial district distributor
(minor arterial) network wherever possible but individual premises must be accessed via an internal road
which then give access into the district distributor .
Each site should have sufficient off-road parking and loading areas to accommodate all its operational
staff and visitor requirements within the site boundary.
Roads and footpaths should provide safe access for workers with vehicle/pedestrian segregation .
Network of safe footpaths and cycle tracks should be created between the industrial areas and main areas
where employees live . The surface should be well maintained .
Commercial Areas
All commercial and trade areas should be away from the through traffic network.
Adequate parking and loading facilities for operational use should be provided within the site of individual
premises if possible .
Visitor and Customer parking should be provided off the road .
On street parking should be discouraged and only permitted where it does not obstruct the traffic and
pedestrians .
Good public transport provision to and within such areas can effectively reduce overall parking demands.
For rural roads when passing through commercial areas, speeds should be reduced by physical means
and protection of pedestrians by making pedestrian crossings.
Vehiclelpedestrian segregation by footbridges, pedestrian-underpasses or traffic-signalled pedestrian

crossings.

3 .11
CHAPTER3
3.6 Access Control
Overview :
It is essential that highway authorities have complete control over accesses and developments impinging upon
their roads and that they limit access as far as possible on roads which are primarily for through movement.
Effective development control procedures must he established to prevent people just adding accesses or roads
directly to join the network wherever they please as there is a great danger that future hazards will be created.
In developed countries, vehicular access onto roads, whether direct from a building or whether via a service road,
is strictly controlled by Highway and Planning authorities using "development control" powers . Through these
powers it is necessary for any developer or individual wishing to create an access onto a road, first to obtain
approval and authorisation to do so from the relevant highway authority. Where such access could he a danger
(e .g . on a comer, or near a junction) permission would not he granted and the developer would be required to
resubmit alternative access arrangements acceptable to the highway authority.
In many towns. cities and villages in India many individual accesses . both approved and unapproved, are
created directly onto the National or State Highway
network and other strategic roads .
Problems :
Uncontrolled access to premises fronting a major road can

substantially impede traffic flows and create severe road
safety hazards as vehicles attempt to leave, merge with or
cross traffic streams . For these reasons, attempts should be
made to limit or control frontage access on primary and dis-
trict distributors but, inevitably, there will he situations where
this is not always practical.
In India the road authorities rarely have an opportunity to Figure 3.6.1 Lower category roads
comment on the road traffic and road safety implications of opening into higher roads without any
proposed development, far less actually preventing it from control can lead to disruption
going ahead.
Information about development proposals is rarely available on a systematic basis and highway authorities often
learn of such proposals too late to influence them. The problem is particularly acute with new roads, which
attract adjacent development because of the potentially good access available.
Unauthorised accesses often become commonplace if the road authority have suitable powers of development
control and does not show sufficient vigilance and determination in preventing and removing them.
Villages along the route of a road often have unrestricted access to the road at any location, creating a hazardous
situation and causing accidents.
CM TRL Manual for Safety in RoadDesign

3 .12
PLANNING
Safer Practice:
The key points to consider are:
Careful planning of new developments should

ensure that the varying needs for access do
not conflict unnecessarily and are catered for
by suitable design, e.g. the provision for service
roads to prevent direct frontage access .
The number of intersections should be

minimised wherever feasible, e.g . crossroads
should be replaced with stagger or T-junctions .
Streets should intersect only with streets in
the same class or one class higher or lower in
Figure 3.6 .2 Individual houses have access via a
the road hierarchy . Traffic from access roads
side road with only a single T-Junction onto
and local distributors should be chagnelled
main road El Al
onto the district distributor road before joining
the primary rather than joining the primary
distributor directly from the local road .
Priority must be given to vehicles travelling on the higher classified road wherever there is an unsignahsed
intersection between streets of different class. This concept is reinforced by Give-Way (yield) markings
wherever a minor road joins the major road.
Road authorities, whether national or whether provincial or municipal should be given clearly defined
powers to prevent and control any development along their roads. All developers and others wishing to
place an access onto the road must be required to get written approval or a "no objection" certificate from
the highway authority concerned.
Road authorities must establish a small team to ensure development control along their roads to prevent
potential future hazards from being created. Furthermore, they should have powers to enforce the closure
and removal of any illegal access which has not been approved by them.
Vehicle access to parking areas of major facilities (hospitals, shopping centres, etc.) should be at least 60
metres from a junction.
Indian guidelines for National Highways, State Highways and Major District Roads of two-lane or divided
cross section state that the spacing of intersections with public roads should not be less than 750m . This
distance also applies to connections from parallel service (frontage) roads.
Petrol filling station should be sited away from junctions.
Ministry elWace Ttansport Ross Silcock

3 .13
CHAPTER 3
3 .7 Roads In The Hierarchy
The function of the Road Hierarchy is described in Chapter 3.1 (4th paragraph). It should be reiterated that when
planning for new roads, the functional road hierarchy and where the new road fits in that hierarchy should be
considered . To ensure better road safety it is important that each road functions in the correct manner. As noted
in Chapter 3.1, without strict development and access control it is easy for a road to be "down graded" in
function . This must be resisted and existing roads, where possible, returned to their correct function . This may
mean additional construction of say service roads to allow them to perform correctly.
3.7.1 Primary Distributors (Major Arterials)
Overview :
These roads are the longer distance transport routes for motorised traffic. They provide the main transportation
link between districts and regions as well as for intercity and main urban traffic. Therefore, they need to cover a
range of movement functions dependent upon the location of the road and its surroundings. Their primary
function, however, is movement, not access . These roads will generally be National and State Highways,
particularly in rural areas.
Problems:
By necessity primary distributors pass through

urbanised areas and link individual settlements of
varying size . Whilst their main role is to carry longer
distance motorised traffic, there will be situations
where these roads also provide the main route for
local traffic. This will often include slow moving
animals or pedestrians. In very isolated areas it may
be the only road available.
The need for certain vehicles to stop (e .g . buses) Figure 3.7 .1 .1 Severe conflict between pedestrians,
may be unavoidable and this constrains the traffic non-motorised vehicles and other traffic on
even further increasing the risk of accidents. a major too& 5D
Due to the ease of access, the growth of development along such roads is inevitable . This can increase road
safety problems when stopping, turning, or servicing, and pedestrian movements become more frequent.
In India the rate of expansion of isolated communities along a mad can rapidly reduce the effectiveness of a
nationally or regionally important route as a result of the local traffic activities overwhelming the road . Its overall
role in the road hierarchy then becomes confused . Once intense development has been allowed it is very difficult
to achieve improvements without major reconstruction on a new alignment.
CRRC7RL. Manu safety in Road Design

3 .14
PLANNING
Safer Practice:
Primary distributors need to be clearly identified as

the main transport routes within an overall hierarchy.
This needs to be done as soon as possible and once
the route is known, a road reserve should be made to
prevent buildings and development too close to the
line of the road . In highly urbanised areas such a road
is likely to be of a dual carriageway standard, but as
the road passes into a more rural setting and traffic
flows decrease, standards may be lowered. This will
depend upon traffic flows but emphasis should al-
ways be on maintaining through traffic. Local access
traffic should be accommodated off the primary dis-
tributor if at all possible. Figure 3.7 .1 .2 Urban Primary Distributor with
well set back frontage
The main elements to consider when planning primary
distributors include:
0 No frontage access .
Development set back from the highway.
All access to premises provided via district or local distributors.
Number of junctions to be minimised.
Suitable at-grade chamtelised junctions for minor flows.
Pedestrian and slow moving vehicles clearly segregated wherever possible .
On-road parking opportunities discouraged through regulation and enforcement .
Where necessary parking1stopping to be provided clear of main carriageway .
Bus-bays to be provided at regular intervals.
0 Grade separated junctions for extremely high flows.
6 Traffic measurements be carried out periodically to assess the prevailing traffic conditions.
If the road passes through an existing settlement where lack of control has allowed the road to become deficient
in any of the above elements, the risk of accidents increases . If these elements canna be re-established efficiently
through suitable countermeasures, then the creation of a new route may have to be considered, with suitable
controls (i .e. development control and road hierarchy standards) being enforced from the start to prevent a
recurrence of the problems .
CHAPTER3
3 .7.2 District Distributors (Minor Arterials)
Overview :
These roads form the next level of importance below Primary Distributors in a road hierarchy. The needs of
moving traffic still predominate but they also contribute to access requirements . Although they may carry a large
proportion of longer distance traffic this is only as one of the main distributors to and from the national network.
They will generally be Major District Roads/Other District Roads.
District distributor roads distribute traffic between residential areas, industrial areas, town centres and the
primary network. Such roads are established to channel large traffic movements off the local roads, therefore the
needs of moving traffic still predominates . They need to be planned and designed in a similar manner to primary
distributors but the standards can be lower, reflecting their reduced importance . Junctions and pedestrian and
cyclist crossing points need to be given careful consideration to improve standards of road safety. Safe stop-
ping/parking places for paratransit/intermediate transport (generally small public transport vehicles operated in
the more informal sector) vehicles often need to be established in urban areas along such roads. Parking on the
road should not be permitted or be necessary. Whenever possible, turning traffic should be separated out from
through traffic .
It is generally accepted that vehicle speeds will be lower (around 50-60 km/h) than on primary distributors and
that a relaxation of access control can be permitted.
However, they are still important traffic routes and
segregation should be maintained wherever possi-
ble.
Problems:
Whilst these roads should not generally form part of

the longer distance route network, they are neverthe-
less important links to it . Therefore, particularly in
urban areas, they can be subject to high concentra-
tions of commercial and/or commuter traffic. High
capacity requirements may be necessary for short pe-
riods.
As such roads are likely to form the boundaries be-

tween t' o di v idu al communities , ( see section 3 4) two Figure 3.7.2.1 Lack of proper bus-stops forces
problems arise for pedestrians . The first is .that of pedestrians on the carriageway
using the road as a main link, either on foot or by
public transport. Secondly, at some point, it will have
to be crossed. Frequently, this is at bus stops or road junctions where the main traffic flow already has to
contend with a number of conflicts and to react to a range of information. Pedestrians will tend to cross where
there is a concentration of local services or a particular attraction . Intermediate transport stopping places also
often cause disruption to other traffic on such routes.
District distributor roads, particularly in urban areas, tend to have the worst accident potential at junctions or
where parking and roadside development encroach upon the highway.
CM 7RL Manual for Safety in RoadDcs~

3 .16
PLANNING
Safer Practice:
District distributors need to be identified as main traf-

fic routes in much the same way as the primary, longer
distance routes . However, the standards to be applied
can be relaxed in recognition of their reduced impor-
tance as traffic routes .
The main elements to consider when planning district

distributors include:
. No frontage access .
. Development set back from the highway.

Figure 3.7.2.2 Protected footways for pedestrians
Most development to be given access via
in Bhopal 0
junctions with local distributor roads (Figure
3.1 .1 and Chapter 5y.
. In exceptional circumstances large individual

developments may have direct access,
provided ahigh standard of junction is
provided .
All junctions will normally be at-grade .
Turning traffic should be separated out from

the through traffic.
. Separated footpaths and cycle tracks

segregated from the carriageway.
Pedestrian crossing points should be clearly Figure 3.7 .2 .3 Arterial with raised medians.
defined and controlled. Calcutta, India. 0
Parking on the road should not be permitted.
Bus stops and other loading areas (only permitted in exceptional circumstances) should be in separate
well designed lay-byes .
. Safe intermediate transport stopping places should be identified and established.
Careful consideration of the design and frequency of junctions on these roads and the needs of pedestrians/
non-motorised traffic is particularly important if road safety is to be improved.
Ministry of Sudace 7hansport Ross Silcock

3.1 -j,
CHAPTER 3
3.7.3 Local Distributors (Collectors)
Overview :
Local distributors are the main `collector' roads within any zone or area . They serve to feed traffic onto and off
the main road network at the beginning and end ofjourneys. They include all the important link roads in an area
but will be characterised by an absence of through traffic. Local distributors are the level at which the needs of
moving traffic start to be of less importance than the needs of local traffic and access .
In urban areas they will serve residential and commercial property along their frontage. Street development will
be adapted to the existing building pattern, with non-motorised traffic moving parallel to motor routes, on
footways and along the slow lane . In rural areas where only scattered individual developments exist, the local
distributor may be the important local connection and have a mix of residential and light industrial/agricultural
traffic.
Problems:
Local distributor roads need to carry local traffic while providing for access to the busier commercial and
industrial areas. They will invariably have loading and parking taking place within the highway, particularly in
older areas. This can cause congestion at such locations and create a serious hazard, especially as these routes
can also concentrate pedestrian movements. Community buildings, schools and shops are often located on or
near local distributors . Such buildings need to provide for the local community which surrounds them, but they
also need to be serviced by traffic from outside the area . Public transport and intermediate transport vehicles
also use these roads to penetrate residential areas and this is essential if an adequate service is to be provided.
This, however, increases the likelihood of pedestrian movements and vehicle/pedestrian conflict .
Figure 3.7.3.1 Collector street traffic without adequate

control before joining higher category road
Figure 3.7.3.2 long straight collector encourages high speed 10

Source unknown.
-PM 7RI. Manual for Safety in Road Desiga

3.18
PLANNING
Safer Practice:
The main function of local distributors is access. Ve-

hicle speeds should be kept low (say 40-50 km/h).
Frontage access may be allowed but individual vehi-
cle accesses should be avoided from adjacent build-
ings, except where large traffic generators exist .
These roads will be within or close to residential areas

and traffic needs to be aware of pedestrians, espe-
cially young children. Adjacent areas alongside such
roads can become play areas unless careful consid-
eration is given to ensure that open areas between
routes do not develop in that way.
The main points to consider are:

Figure 3.7.3.3 Local Distributor in UK.Otganised
The mad is only for local traffic; through traffic parking and setback footway p
is adequately accommodated on an alternative,
more direct main road. Collector should not be more than 1 km long.
4 Where possible, an industrial traffic route should not pass through a residential area .
Vehicle speeds should be kept low (less than 50 km/h) so long straight roads should be avoided and
straight sections of more than 100 m should be avoided if possible .
4 Parking is allowed, but alternative off-road provision should be made if possible .
4 Non-motorised traffic is of equal importance as motor traffic and separate routes should be provided if
possible .
Where non-motorised traffic needs to use a local distributor it should be separated from motorised traffic.
4 Dependent upon traffic flows the road width can be varied to provide for parking or to give emphasis to
crossing points.
4 Bus stops can be located on the carriageway but should be near well defined crossings.
4 Through-movements should be made awkward and inconvenient to discourage them .
Flgure 3.7.3.4 Design collectors to keep speeds low m

Source unknowiL
Mrgiakyof Surface 7tensport Ross Sikocl

3 .19
CHAPTER 3
3.7.4 Access Roads (Local Roads)
Overview :
As the name implies, these roads are for access only

and are primarily for residential uses (industrial ac-
cess should normally occur from a road of at least
local distributor standard) . These are ultimately the
streets on which people live . Consequently, safety,
security, social and environmental concerns are of
primary importance . Access roads therefore need
to provide only for essential access and designs
should cater only for minimum traffic . It is far better
to have many, short access ways linked by local
distributor than a few long access roads.
On access roads, the needs of the non-motorised

user predominate and children will often play in the Figure 3.7.4 .1 Bad road design attracts through traffic
street . It should be clearly indicated that the vehicle on local streets Al
is an intruder into these areas and that low vehicle
speeds are demanded .
Problems :
Access roads are often used as unsupervised play areas by children . The risk of potential conflict with vehicles
is, therefore, at its greatest. The need for vehicles to give priority to pedestrians must be continually reinforced
within the street design .
In older, urban areas, where population density is high, existing streets are often long and straight and on-street
parking leads to danger for pedestrians (especially children) crossing the road.
Even in the least trafficked areas, provision will need to be made for large delivery or emergency vehicles, even
if only on an infrequent basis. This requires the road geometry to be capable of accommodating such vehicles.
These large vehicles require much greater clearances than general light traffic so there is often a tendency for the
speeds of cars on such roads to be higher than desired.
One-way traffic systems are often used in converting `grid-iron' streetpattems to access-only streets. However,
they should be used with care as drivers easily become accustomed to not having the risk of traffic opposing
them and thus increase speed, sometimes unwisely.
These roads often link directly to National or State Highways .
Figure 3.7.4.2 Controlling access by having different

times for access depending on the peak traffic flow. m
cm m Manual for Safety in Road Design

3.20
PLANNING
Safer Practice
Safety and a sense of security on access roads are

dependent upon the frequency and seriousness of
conflict, type and density of development and the
type of activities being pursued. As a consequence, .
design standards may vary but the important elements
to consider for access roads are:
Vehicle flows to be kept to a minimum as noted

in later chapters.
Ail unnecessary traffic eliminated .
Vehicle speeds to be kept low around 30 km/h Figure 3 .7 .4.3 Examples of good layout where through
50 km/h by careful and deliberate inclusion of traffic is prevented from using local access roads M Al
obstructions to create meandering alignments .
Access roads kept short where possible, ideally 250 m

to 300 mmaximum .
Culs-de-sac and loop roads to be used wherever

possible to deter through traffic.
Junctions to be three (e .g . Ì"' junction) rather than

four leg, and kept compact to aid pedestrian movement.
Pedestrians and vehicles can `share' space.
Carriageway width can be reduced to emphasise

pedestrian priority.
Entrance/exit points of access streets should be clearly

identified by threshold treatments, e .g . changes in
geometric layout, landscaping, building development
or even gateways and signing .
Parking and stopping within the street is permitted

although adequate provision should be provided within
individual properties or separate garage areas.
0 Use of fully mountable kerbs for vehicles may enable

reduced road width and reduced standard alignments
to be used by emergency and service vehicles, or for
occasional parking .
Firepaths (emergency accesses for fire engines) can be

kept clear by using diagonal closures to eliminate parking
spaces or by ensuring other nearby owners gain access Figure 3.7.4.4 Schemes for safe network in
by the same route so that they keep them clear. small honsing area 0
Ministry of Surface 7Fansport Ross Silcock

a 3 .21
CHAPTER 3
3.8 1-affic Segregation
Overview :
The presence of slow moving vehicles on the carriageway can create hazardous conditions and cause delays .
Faster vehicles have to slow down and in certain situations are tempted to overtake in dangerous circumstances.
Pedestrians and non-motorised vehicles such as cyclists form the most vulnerable group. Being unprotected,
any impact, even a small one can cause severe injury.
Engineers can reduce conflicts, particularly those between pedestrians and vehicles, by appropriate design of
road networks so that roads intended primarily for movement (e.g. motorways and expressways) are designed for
that purpose, while roads intended for access (e .g. residential roads) have an environment suited to that func-
tion.
On rural roads, physically large animal drawn vehicles can be even more problematic and more hazardous
particularly during night conditions . These slow moving vehicles cause obstructions to heavier traffic in unpre-
dictable ways creating risks of collision. In India, the rural economy is important and so animal drawn vehicles are
an essential mode of transport.
Problems :
The lack of segregation between motorised and non-

motorised vehicles and pedestrians in India encour-
ages the close interaction of such modes of trans-
port . The differences in traffic speeds increase the
risk as well as the severity of accidents.
Many road accidents are due to various and incom-

patible types of traffic obliged to use a single and
often too-narrow road . Collisions are inevitable when-
ever too many road users are obliged to move about
in a limited space. Whenever, two motor vehicles, or
a motor vehicle and a cyclist or pedestrian meet each
other on a road, the consequences can be danger- Figure 3.8 .1 Lack of traffic segregation for
ous. Some measure of segregation is thus necessary vulnerable road users creates traffic hazards in
and the various classes of road-users should be Delhi.
guided into channels most safe and convenient to
them . Roads should be planned with this end in view.
Segregation measures should where possible, be self-enforcing e.g . Toad markings are often ignored by many
road users.
New Delhi has a system of cycle-tracks, which has fallen into disuse through encroachments making the
tracks discontinuous.
There is lack of continuity of cycle-tracks at the junctions.
Cycles tend to use the left-hand lane, which inhibits their use by buses, particularly when marked as a bus
lane .
Safer Praetice :
Segregation of Motor Vehicle Traffic from Pedestrians :
Motor vehicle segregation from pedestrians can be through distance or time separation . Pedestrians
should be separated by a barrier or raised step and where motor vehicles and pedestrians have to interact
(e .g . pedestrians crossing a road) priority should be clearly alternated between pedestrians and motor
vehicles. Where vehicle volumes exceed 300-400 vph, pedestrian crossings in conjunction with guard
rails should be considered
PLANNING
In urban situations, the provision of footpaths is essential . In order to induce road users onto, the
footway, its quality must be at least equal to that of the carriageway. Footways should be continuous, of
convenient height and should be pedestrian friendly. Dropped crossings should be provided at kerbs to
assist the elderly and infirm .
At hazardous locations crossings, pedestrian barriers should be used both to keep pedestrians on the
footway and to channel the stream of pedestrians wishing to cross the road to a safer location .
Crossing facility locations should be sited along pedestrian desire lines.
On wide, multi-lane roads, a suitably designed pedestrian refuge constructed in the centre of the road will
help crossing movements by allowing each direction of traffic to be crossed separately.
Segregation of Motor Vehicle 11raffic from Cyclists :

On high speed and rural roads, efforts should be made to keep pedal cyclists off the main carriageway by
providing them with separate continuous cycle-tracks . It must be further ensured that cycle-tracks do not
disappear where they are most needed, such as at road junctions.
Since a substantial proportion of accidents involving cyclists occur at road junctions, special facilities
should be provided to ensure their safety, such as by physical design or traffic control devices.
Cycle tracks must be attractive to use, coherent and

direct. They should not have steep gradients, or long
detours. They should be well maintained and should
be provided with trees and plantation along it for
comfort in summer.
Cycle tracks should be minimum of 2 .5 m wide with

additional width to allow for high flows. In urban
areas segregation by a kerb barrier will limit the use
by motorised vehicles, on rural roads, road markings
and possibly studs will have to be used where cycles
use the hard shoulder to permit its continued use for
emergencies and vehicles breakdowns .
Segregation of Motor Vehicle from Slow Moving Traflic:
The slow moving road users need segregation Figure 3 .5.2 Pedestrian segregation in Pone
whenever possible from fast traffic vehicles . Where at a particularly difficult location . This
animal drawn vehicles are common on rural roads, arrangement is sub-standard but does assist
provision of wider shoulders can act as a track for pedestrians in crossing at a busy gyratory
slow vehicles-. The provision of wider shoulders also system .
provides benefit to cyclists and pedestrians .
Whenever feasible, non-motorised vehicles should be separated from the carriageway by a barrier or edge
line marking. Barriers are not appropriate on National and State Highways in rural areas where separation
by road marking is appropriate .
Segregation ofPublic Transport
" In urban areas there are travel time benefits if public transport can be segregated from other motorised
vehicles . This can be accomplished through the use of at-grade bus only lanes, (possibly segregated by
studs or a kerb), contra-flow bus lanes and elevated bus only links.
ar
Ministry of Surface 7fnsport Ross Silcock
3 .29~-
CHAPTER3
3.9 Wayside Amenities
Overview :
For the road user, wayside amenities such as drinking water, telephone booths, bus shelters and road side rest
areas are of value. On highways, drinking water needs are met by handpumps and often by large earthen vessels.
The industrialisation and socio-economic development has increased the use of telephones. Telephone booths
are often available in urban areas but their provision along highways would also be beneficial . Road side rest
areas are essential for long distance road travellers . Long distance journey's cause driver fatigue resulting in
poor driving and increases in driver reaction time . In India such services are starting to be provided but more are
needed . To promote safer driving, drivers should be encouraged to have adequate rest when they feel tired. The
provision of rest areas which are conveniently located and are economical and easy to maintain will help achieve
this .
Problems :
The drinking water facilities and the water supplied can cause various health problems . Often existing facilities
obstruct the pedestrian traffic flow on the footway and force the pedestrians to move into the road. The improper
drainage allows water to pool on the road creating un-safe situations .
Similarly, the location of telephone booths often cause an obstruction to pedestrian traffic, as do bus stops,
which are sited at the most popular places where the public is likely to use them. Bus stop locations often do not
consider both pedestrian and vehicle requirements.
The rest areas provided on certain National Highways are mainly meant for car users and for travellers of deluxe
buses. The truck drivers take shelter at' dhabhas' . Truck drivers often park, wash and repair their trucks at these
roadside 'dhabhas' . This can cause obstructions and reduce safety on the adjacent highway .
1 _7 we _
" It be .
<
"^ .e.a
- ---------------
I -
f ,
LEGEND
O Net 1.. . i .e. 100 n . " aa IS .. .1 . . V .l. " .71
Ne " I .I
. .Fen 7 wslru .
Y Nnlr 11 . . _ " 11. 0I f" . " lane . aVIJ " tl 1e IF" .K " vl " bn " Fal )" ~ "
. .I 7 N " Iru to, N .1,On01 Niehe .Y. . .e I' .' . NI9Fnga

I"o Then
and a nr " .U Is . e .FR rene . v ".~ ns 0Y .le "7eOFS ere reeulree
new or in rulur " .On " nee leas Inen 12 .U r . " OnV " " Y" I . ......
" .1 .1 er "" Y be r .4 .1r.1 in IVIVr "
M I% " . " .. . .I " uei O"ra " e " ny . the . . <1a1" .. . . . .eule e" ne "" Irr "
f' . . .e . < .nV . Yns .1 I.t n " Ore " I Mlen< . of to . . . . .. .. .. .
I N"I 1 " t " IF " e 9 A\""
11 2eb.a nel I . . t :. 12 eev"" 19u .1 to .... III
CC Culvert -CUlu .rla 1 " e" Crevipe YOM O " " IHl" m" ieed it-if
Figure 3.9.1 Location and layout of motor-fuel filling and motor-fuel filling-cum service stations m B3
CRRI, TRL Man wi forSafety in Road Design

3 .24
PLANNING
Safer Practice :
Suitable locations for drinking water facilities along

rural highways as well as in urban areas should be
identified and be provided with proper drainage sys-
tems and water supply systems. The facility provided
should not cause a hindrance to pedestrian move-
ment and should be easily visible. Where possible, it
should be located away from a footway, or placed at
the back of the footway where it will cause least prob-
lems (ideally 3 .0 from the carriageway.)
Similarly, telephone booths should be located where

they do not cause obstructions to pedestrians . Along
highways where rest areas are located, telephones
should be provided . Provision of telephone booths
along the highway should also be considered . Such
telephone booths must be properly signed . Figure 3-9-2 Drinking water facilities located
There is a need to provide rest facilities for truck driv- off the footway with drainage adequate to prevent
ers. However, research and development is required pooling on the road, Haryana 0
to identify suitable locations for these facilities on the
highway network system based upon the requirements of truck drivers. Adequate space should be provided to
permit parking and servicing of the vehicles off the highway.
MOST circular reference B42 suggests that the following services should be available at Wayside Facilities :
parking lots, snack bar/restaurants, toilets, rest room for short stay, first aid, telephone booths, petrol pump/
minor repair shop (optional), kiosks for sale of miscellaneous/sundry items and landscaping .
BROAD GUIDELINES FDR SELECTION OF SITES FOR PASSENGER-ORIENTED

WAYSIDE AMENITIES Ireference B421
Such facilities are to be provided along high traffic density corridors of National Highways
where these do no exist at present or are lacking .
Easy availability of the required land for infrastructure development should be kept in
view . Approximate area required may be in the neighbourhood of 15,000 to 20,000 m' .
Site should be away from urban influence and any other similar wayside complexes .
Feasibility of locating the facility close to scenic/historic/tourist spots should be kept in
view.
(v) The Intended location should have good potential for usage by road travellers/tourists .
(vi) Desirably the site should be 200 to 250 metres away from a road junction,
(vii) Preferably, the location should be along a straight reach of the National Highway or on a
gentle horizontal curve with adequate sight distance and good visibility. In no case must
the facility be located on a sharp curve . Also it should be possible to widen the carriageway
of the National Highway near the selected site to 4-lanes if so warranted from traffic
considerations .
The road alignment should preferably have easy gradients In the vicinity of the complex .
Availability of infrastructure facilities like drinking water, electricity and drainage etc .
near the site should be duly considered .
From environmental considerations, the facility should create minimum disturbance to
the surroundings .
Availability of any existing petrol/repair/spare parts facilities near the proposed location
should also be kept in view.
The type of facility should be commensurate with the expected passenger category e .g .
at locations frequented by general category travellers, a self-service snack bar/fast
food stall me y be better suited, while restaurant type facility might be preferable for
passengers of personalised cars/deluxe buses .
The wayside amenity should be so planned as to allow phased development, subject to
the minimum stipulated scale of facilities being provided in the first Instance .
Ministry of Sruface 7tansport Ross Silcart

3.25
CHAPTER 3
3 .10 'IYaflic Calming
Overview :
Traffic calming (where engineering measures are used to reduce speeds and volumes of motor vehicle traffic in
local areas) has proven very successful in developed countries. Not only is the risk of accidents reduced but also
the associated accident seventies. These benefits apply to all road user groups with the creation of a better
environment but are particularly beneficial to the safety of pedestrians, cyclists and other non-motorised vehi-
cles . Traffic calming methods involve the horizontal and vertical realignment of roads at selected locations using
various methods such as road humps, chicanes, pinch points and footway widening . Alterations can also be
made to junctions by redesigning the whole junction layout, providing entry treatments across junctions and the
use of mini-roundabouts to help control speeds. Such measures should be implemented as part of an area wide
set of measures .
Problems :
Speed is arguably a factor in every accident .

Lower speeds reduce both the likelihood of
the accident happening and the seventy if it
does occur.
Speed reduction benefits have received

much attention in recent years and an
international review of speed and accidents
concluded that, on an average, each one mile
reduction in speed would result in a 7 per
cent reduction in fatal accidents. Further
research which has been used extensively
in publicity campaigns is the effect of speed
Figure 3.10.1 Wide road through village encouraging high
on pedestrian casualty severity. At 30 km/h,
speed despite high level of pedestrian activity, Nepal
5 percent of pedestrians hit will die compared
to 85 percent at 65 km/h (and 9590 of children
hit at 65 km/h will die) .
Safer Practice :
/IIYn~IY "n
wffla OmYF.~
Wf "rlYl ,
A B 8 _ C --- --_/ I
I I
HAZARD
IIII 11~I II
1 1000 40m 1- ?00
RuMne STRIP SPnmrts

TYPE A 4 ni c.nirts
TYPE a 11M O" ties
TYPE 0 2 m Csntns
Figure 3.10.2 Construction details for mumble strips p
CRR4_IgL Manual for Safety in Road Design

3 .26= -_
PLANNING
Traffic calming measures need to be applied in a formal structured manner. All features should only be con-
structed where approach speeds are such that all road users can perceive the calming feature and traverse it
safely. They should not be used in isolation but as part of a strategy covering a stretch of road or an area.
Measures currently used in traffic calming Technical Annexe 3.1 include :
" Speed breakers or humps (Figure 3.10.3,

3.10.8, Table 3 .10.1, 3 .10.2 illustrate details)
" Speed cushions (Figure 3.10.7 and 3 .10.9)
" Rumble strips (Figure 3.10.2)
" Entry treatments )----. - - ---- Sinn
-t
" Road narrowings or chicanes
r- 3-1" #
" Pedestrian facilities
" Landscaping and environmental features sty "
(or Raised crossing)
4 Speed limits and signs
" Mini-roundabouts
" Road closures os .
r ti
A glossary of terms and definitions on traffic calm- I -. sa=
ing is included in Technical Annexe 3 .1 . --r' {
3 .7a
Alerting AM
As traffic calming is meant to benefit a wider rang-
ing group of road users by reducing vehicle FIgure3.10.3Road hump profiles
speeds and volumes, specific measures for non-
motorised vehicles (NMVs) are not necessary providing that their needs are fully considered during the planning
stage . For instance, where carriageway widths have been reduced, the interaction of cyclists and motor vehicles
in the remaining space is of prime concern. Facilities for cyclists to avoid or minimise the effects of physical
obstacles meant for high speed vehicles should be considered and catered for wherever possible . The design
and construction of traffic calming features can have a significant impact upon cycle use. Inappropriate meas-
ures such as rumble strips should be avoided due to the discomfort caused to NMV users or else the design
should be such that it is designed to have minimal effect on NMV traffic .
T9ble3.10.1 Appropriate road humps heights for apprordmate "between hump" mean
PRIVATE Road Mean "Between Hurry" Speed (approx .) Mean "Between Hung" Speed Suggested Montana on-off rang
HunpType 50kph (apprux .)30kph gradient
Round WP 50tran-75tran" 75nxd^ NIA
Flat top 50. - 75 . ' 75mnf" 130
Raised jtuc0on SOnvn-75mn"' 75 . . 100ivn 1 :10
without other measures may tut be 1

Clsshinn 60nm-75mn :8
appropriate
35 - 45. Up to SOnva heights have

Not really appropriate where low
"Tramp" been used, but may catseunnecessary NIA
speeds are required re
discond'ort
3.10.2 Recommended minimum and matdmum lenaft for road humps

PRrVATERoad MininsunLength MaximvnLength
Cmm
Hump Type (m) (nal
the perfomsme of longer hops has not been researched . Speed

Rout top 3 .7 3 .7
reduction is likely to he lower .
Along ban routes a nirdnaun of 6m (plateau length) is Preferred by bus

Flat top 2 .5 (tplareau length) None
operators .Platelu greater data 20t, are tot generally recomocnded .
It may be appropriate w extend raised area into side streets foraminiman

Raised jmtctim Nom None length of 5m in from of give way Makings to allow a car to wait on level
surface .
it MY be appropriate to have a mmnswt of 3m to prevent lengthways

Cu shion About 1 .9 3,7
straddling by cars.
I "T1amp- 1 0.9 1 .5 Little advantage in having lengths Beater than 0 .9m
m-=-
Ministry of Surface Ransperr Ross SLkock

3.27
CHAPTER 3
Traffic calming measures are now beginning to be applied

in India and other developing countries of Asia and the
Pacific. In India, the most common features are small humps,
rumble strips and chicanes produced by barriers . In neigh-
bouring Nepal, village gateways and two-armed
roundabouts have been suggested for restraining speeds
on highways traversing villages . After being upgraded, eeaestrtaa erouing sign not
highways generally experience higher speeds and in- prescribed in British Traffic
Sign Reg,, .
creased accidents. In order to control speeds where the
road passes through an inhabitated area, village gateways
have been recornmended with a signed village archway and
heavy vegetation planted on the sides of the signs. and
with the added effect of rumble bars . If these measures do
not prove effective, then the more costly option of a two-
armed roundabout could be considered.
Table 3.10.3 Stagger length car speeds
Stagger length 'L to achieve the

required vehicle speed in chicane
25 km/h 30 kinlh 40 km/h
6m 9m 14m
9M 13m IBM
12m 15M
Table 3.10.4 Minimum dimensions of stagger length for

larger vehicles
Figure 3.10.5 Typical layout - urban single
Stagger length 'L' m needed for a free view
width of 0,0 m
carriageway 0
lane width 3.0m 3.5m 4 .Om
Arno lorry 20 19 11
Rigid lorry 12 9 7
Single decker 13 11 9
bus
Free view width (A) -the width of the

central gap between build outs on
opposite sides;
Lane width (B) - the average width
between the build out and the opposite kerb;
Stagger length (C) - the length between
the start of the stagger on rite offside, and
end of the stagger on the nearside ;
Path angle - the angle through which the
traffic lane is displaced
Figure 3.10.6 Chicane design p
CM, TRL Manual for Stein Road Design

3 .28
PLANNING
Figure 3.10.7 Specdcushiondesign(b) 0
Figure 3.111.8 Road markings suitable for road humps z
16o0mm - 1700mm for bus routes :

up to 2oWrnm elsewhere
WOW c9ticanes narrower
01
wxans maybe appopriate
N
s pe 3700mm maximurn
~t
he,
1 In 8 -a) 35Mnm may be
~,- appropriate for routes
wth mini buses
b) About 2ooomm
to 3000mm on
other routes
y 1
rux Nolateepsr
~ !Man t in 4 Figure 3.10. 10 Linkage between Traffic Calming and
Other Safety Activities 0
Figure3.109Speed cushion design (a) 0
Ministry of Surface 71ansport Ross Silcock

3 .29
CHAPTER3
3 .11 Development Control and Encroachment
Overview:
Effective land-use planning is dependent upon

strict rules to control development and enforce-
ment when those rules are broken . Unauthorised
buildings and advertising hoardings encroaching
onto the road or causing obstructions can create
additional dangers for road users and need to be
prevented . These cause increased pedestrian-ve-
hicular conflict points, reduce visibility of traffic,
cause hazardous distractions to the motorists, re-
duce the effectiveness of traffic control devices,
cause glare problem to the traffic and affect amen-
ity. This can only be done by rigorous enforce-
ment and the forced removal of such unauthorised
Figure 3.11.1 Encroachment by street traders
activities. However, unless suitable alternative
sites are provided nearby where such activities can
be relocated, it is quite likely that the unauthorised activities and buildings will be re-erected within a short time
of their removal,
Problems :
When roads are planned or constructed it is usually with the expectation that particular land-uses will be
serviced by the road. However, land-uses change over time and if these are incompatible they can have a
dramatic effect on the efficiency of a road . For example, many residential or commercial units with unauthorised
direct access onto major transport corridors cause danger to residents and to through-traffic. This is particularly
evident in rural villages in India which are often built along the edge of a road and each property has its own
access .
It is not just changes of use that can be problematical . Often, perfectly acceptable uses outgrow their location or
change their operating system and have new demands which must be met by the highway network, When all
activities cannot be contained within a particular site it inevitably spreads onto adjacent land and this, in many
cases, is the transport corridor. The many vendor stalls which appear during the fruit or vegetable season are
typical of this problem.
It is vital that the access and development control is retained if overall road safety is to be preserved, e.g . roads
designed as bypasses must not be allowed to turn into ribbon developments with buildings along either side
with numerous access points . Turning and emerging vehicles from unauthorised accesses can significantly
increase the risk of accidents at such locations.
Advertising hoardings are also erected close to the carriageway and over footways, distracting motorists and
forcing pedestrians into the carriageway, Municipal Authorities try to maximise revenue from authorising hoardings
rather than minimise their use .

3 .30
PLANNING
Sq/er Practice :
Any planning and design process must incorporate

a degree of flexibility to allow for growth and the
development of activities or uses that were unfore-
seen earlier. However, this does not mean that all
changes should be permitted. Those involved in plan-
ning and design must be aware of the scale of change
that can take place and to what extent this can be
controlled . Similarly, they should be aware of the
implications that relaxation of control can have on
the various elements of infrastructure provision, and
their safe and efficient operation.
The main points to consider are:

Figure 3.11.2 Wide segregated footway in Singapore
with good enforcement against encroachment 0
Strict control of roadside hoardings and
advertisement boards is required . Municipal
authorities should seek other forms of revenue.
Land-use and highway requirements change over time, so some spare capacity should be designed into
road networks to enable such changes to be accommodated without detrimental effects upon road
safety . Spare capacity is dependent on a number of factors such as policies on traffic growth, policies on
land use, land use changes over time and capacity elsewhere in the network. Each case needs to be
treated on its merits and is based on a local planning/engineering judgement of future requirements .
[f development control standards permit the growth of activities to encroach onto the transport corridor,
additional countermeasures may be required to maintain a safe level of service to the community as a
whole. These include strong enforcement policies, alternative locations for activities, service roads and
building regulations should be available to control a "building line" for roadside developments and
suitable height kerbs to prevent encroachment by vehicles onto the footway.
Strong development control can only prevent encroachment onto roads if there are alternative locations
for commercial activities to be undertaken .
Unauthorised development such as roadside advertising boards, illegal accesses and market stalls which
create unsafe traffic conditions should be removed as soon as possible and the sites monitored to prevent
their reappearance .
Ministry of Surface TYansport Ross Sdcock

3 .31
CHAPTER 3
3 .12 Public Transport
Overview :
Public transport in India makes a significant

contribution to travel patterns and provides for
the movement of large numbers of people, while
occupying a relatively small proportion of the
road space . It also offers a service to the
community at large by providing travel
opportunities to those without private motor
transport to meet work, social and recreational
needs. In other motorising countries, public
transport modes frequently provide for the
majority of motorised journeys . By locating
activities and functions in such a way as to
facilitate the use of public transport the number Figure 3 .12 .1 Inadequate bus facilities
of road accidents associated with public cause passengers to attempt to board from
transport vehicles can be reduced and the overall
safety and efficiency of the road network
unsafe location 0
improved .
Problems :
From a road safety viewpoint public transport routes should be designed to allow convenient access without
increasing pedestrian/vehicle conflicts. Large buses are not desirable on access roads, yet if they are kept away
from residential areas this increases the inconvenience to users and results in pedestrians being attracted to the
more major transport routes . Conversely, if roads suitable for large buses are provided in residential areas, they
may attract other undesirable traffic (e.g . HGVs and through-traffic) . In many cities and towns in India, buses
stop at road junctions and this has several safety implications . Firstly it means that pedestrians have to cross the
road where there is turning traffic. Secondly, the road width at the junction is reduced causing congestion and
unsafe overtaking manoeuvres .
Taxis and paratransit vehicles often stop indiscriminately along major roads to pick up or discharge passengers .
This causes delays and dangerous conditions at such locations .
In India many buses are made of wooden bodies which are bolted onto vehicle chassis. Often the glass used in
windows is not toughened or laminated. When such vehicles are involved in an accident, very serious injuries can
be sustained by passengers . The shortage of public transport vehicles also often results in gross overloading
of all types of public transport vehicles at peak times. If and when an accident does happen, the number of
persons injured can often be very high . Many buses in India are not well maintained, have poor brakes, tyres
without tread and lights (both front and rear) which are broken or obscured .
CM TRL MAW for Sakty in Road Design

3 .32
PLANNING
Safer Practice:
The main factors influencing road safety in terms

of public transport are:
Bus/bus and bus/rail interchanges

should be close to their users. Bus and
paratransit stops should be near to
residences to minimise walking distance
and major interchanges should have
direct pedestrian links segregated from
motorised traffic.
6 Public transport routes should generally

follow main traffic routes and boarding
points should be adjacent to and beyond
Figure 3 .12.2 Bus stop adjacent to pedestrian
junctions and linked with other parts of
the general traffic network - particularly and c) etc tva% in Japan 0
footpaths .
a Wherever possible public transport vehicles should be provided with passenger pick-up points clear of
the through-traffic route i.e . lay-byes .
Segregated lanes should be provided for public transport in areas of congestion, provided that overall
capacity is not restricted to the extent that total delays are increased.
Well constructed cement/concrete surfaces should be used in construction of bus bays to minimise
maintenance problems resulting from leaking oil and fuel which softens blacktop roads. -
Public transport operators and drivers should be required to meet minimum age and experience criteria
before being licensed to operate or drive public transport vehicles .
Y7(AMPLE is Bus route in u

large .nit
USE
/
Gnn1Y%L 1 : dsS route -, 7 tape :errn2G city
Hgurc3.123 h:XAMPlcsufMINI urI,-biINrontP1a1ItIGnt\ 0
Miaistry of Surface 7Pansport Ross Silcoch~

:~- 3
CHAPTBR3
3.13 Traffic Aid Posts
Overview:
These are booths set up at prominent locations along the heavily trafficked sections of highway and manned by
traffic police to help the road users in their grievances related to traffic behaviour on that section. The main
purpose is to provide reliefto accident victims and in India the experience so far has been mixed. In some places
the scheme has functioned efficiently, while at other areas booths have not operated satisfactorily . However, the
failure of such schemes may be due to the lack of training, in the set up and implementation of the booths.
Developed countries have high speed roads where modem technology is often used to convey information to
motorists. The entire operation of traffic flow, safety and signing are controlled through a high technology
communication networks. The system is further aided by telephones at a spacing of 1 km along on either side of
dual carriageway high speed roads.
Problems :
Different areas and states in India have got different designs, which need to be standardised to provide a
consistent and recognised facility throughout the country. The Bombay-Pane road scheme has shown good
practice which can be followed elsewhere.
In some areas of India, the absence of traffic aid posts means that road users have to enquire from the public the
location of the nearest police station for reporting safety, security or traffic-related problems . In a large country
like India which does not have restrictions on the movement of people but has a multiplicity of languages,
communication among different categories of road users travelling to different parts of a country is a problem.
Where police aid posts have been set up, some cases the patrolling was regular, but there tended to be
exhaustive checks of vehicles, which was not meant to be their primary function .
A. major drawback of the patrol system is often a lack of funds. The maintenance of vehicles and
employment of permanent staff is costly .
Central Government provided funds for such posts, but only for one year . The scheme became ineffective once
funding ceased .
CRRI, TRL Manualfor Safety in Road DeAjp

3 .34 I
PLANNING
Safer Practice:
Traffic aid posts should be established on

important and selected stretches of
National and State Highways . The traffic
aid posts should be located at
approximately 50-60 km intervals with
adequate equipment and manpower to
perform the intended functions. Funding
should be provided for more than one year .
The equipment at a traffic aid post should

consist of minimum of an ambulance
vehicle, crane, tools, radio communication,
and first aid box. The personnel should Figure 3.13.1 Traffic aid in Madurai, India
include police, medical attendants and
supporting staff.
The main task assigned is to patrol the highway section regularly, identify accident occurrence, provide
ambulance services and enforce traffic discipline .
Perhaps the most important feature of a traffic aid post is the improvement in response time, in that the
police are conveniently located in an emergency so that precious time is saved by the public searching for
a policeman.
The aid posts scheme needs to be enforced in existing areas and supported and extended to areas not
covered. Good results shown by this scheme, which has functioned well in States like Maharastra and
Tamil Nadu should be followed by others . [Engineers should contact these States directly to discuss their
experience .]
Monitoring of the effectiveness of the posts should be undertaken .
_ Z~ZZZZ_- ~C!`lI `
22
Figure 3.13.2 Suggested Arrangement for a Traffic Aid Post MC8
Ministry of Surface 7tansport Ross Sik ock

3 .35
CHAPTER3
3.14 Checklist For Land-Use-Physical Planning
(a) General
is there a zoning plan and does the proposed development conform to this?
Are major facilities like hospitals, district shopping centres and petrol stations, which create large volumes of
motor vehicle traffic, located on distributors?
Are activities creating high pedestrian flows, like the schools, shopping centres and health centres, connected
with each other and with dwellings by continuous footpaths or footways?
Are bus stops connected with the dwellings and nearby services, like shops, by footpaths or footways?
Are bus stops located close to the pedestrian crossings, footways and footpaths in such a way that it is
convenient for the passengers to use these facilities?
Are bus stops located beyond the pedestrian crossings and after street junctions!
Are activities creating bicycle traffic, like industrial and other working areas, schools and shopping centres,
connected with each other and with dwellings by roads which cater for cycles or a continuous cycle-way
network?
Does the cycle-way network consist of local streets, wide shoulders of streets and mainly of separate, sealed
cycle and pedestrian ways?
Are unauthorised developments, accesses, structures and advertising hoardings removed if they obstruct vis-
ibility or increase danger to road users?
Are alternative off-road sites available for traders and paratransit pickup points which are removed from the
roadside so that siting of stalls and pickup points can be relocated off the main road or on side roads at least 60
metres from the main road?
Are all accesses to roadside properties and car parks at least 60 metres from street junctions on road categories
higher than access roads?
(b) Residential Areas
Have residential areas been planned so that they are self-sufficient in basic services, like local shopping and
primary schools?
Is there a network of segregated facilities for vulnerable road users in the area?
Is parking located away from childrens' play areas?
Are roads designed to exclude through traffic, to induce slow speeds and to give equal priority to pedestrians?
CRR(, TRL ManualforWety in Road Design

3 .3r-
PLANNING
(c) Industrial Areas
Does the industrial area have direct access onto a primary or district distributor?
Is the industrial area physically separated from nearby residential areas?
If not physically separated, have specific measures been implemented to minimise the undesirable effects ofHGV
traffic?
Are junctions on nearby routes carrying industrial site traffic wide enough and designed to allow easy manoeu-
vring by HGV traffic?
Is there sufficient off-road space for parking and loading activities?
Have networks of footpaths or footways and of cycle-ways been provided between industrial areas and main
areas where people live?
(d) Commercial/Retail Areas
Are commercial/trading areas separated from through traffic by provision of service roads?
If not, are they well clear of the edge of the road so that they do not result in obstructions/danger to road users?
Are there safe facilities for pedestrians to cross the traffic stream?
Are speeds of through traffic low enough to enable pedestrians to cross in safety?
Do delivery and servicing arrangements minimise potential dangers for pedestrians and other traffic?
Has visitor parking been provided offthe road?
Are exit/entry arrangements to the site as safe as can be?
(e) RecreationaLlTourism Areas
Have special traffic management and parking plans been developed for major events?
Is the main access and parking area segregated from through traffic?
Are entry/exit points from parking areas safe and suitable for the volumes of traffic expected?
Are the entry/exit points located in a way which disperses traffic over the road network?
Has an adequate direction signing plan been prepared for major events to direct traffic to and from such
locations?
Ministry[ Surface Transport Ross Silcock

3 .37
CHAPTER 3
3 .15 Checklist For Network Planning
(a) Road Networks
Have roads been categorised into a hierarchy of the street network: primary distributor, district and local distribu-
tors and access streets?
Do the arterials form the primary network for the whole town or region and carry most of the through traffic?
Whenever an arterial has two or more lanes in each direction, are the driving directions separated by means of a
median barrier or a central reserve?
Do local distributor roads serve only the traffic within a residential estate, village, or similar area, and connect
these areas with district distributors?
Does each street intersect only with streets in the same category or streets one category above or below its
category?
Have access streets been so designed that they are not suitable for through traffic?
Are all access roads, loop roads or culs-de-sac no longer than 200 m?
Are all intersections between two arterial streets channelised, signal-controlled intersections or roundabouts (or
where very high volumes are involved, grade separated)?
Are all intersections between an arterial street and collector streets priority T-junctions, (with priority to the
arterial road) roundabouts or signal controlled?
Are all intersections between a collector street and an access street priority T-junctions (with priority to the
collector road)?
At intersections between arterial and collector streets has consideration been given to channelisation to provide
a protected turn bay for turning traffic cutting across the main traffic stream?
Is intersection spacing on arterial streets at least 250 m? (The desirable maximum number ofjunctions is 3 per icm.)
Is access to local parking areas from access roads only? (Access to larger parking areas at hospitals, district
shopping centres, petrol stations and similar developments which create large volumes of traffic can, in excep-
tional cases, be from a collector street.)
Have proposed vehicular accesses from nearby properties been checked to ensure that there is no direct access
less than 60 metres from a junction?
Is visibility and signing at intersections such that road users can readily see which road has priority and where
they should stop or give way?
Is vehicle parking controlled or prohibited on arterial roads carrying large volumes of traffic?
Have suitable bus and para-transit stopping places been provided at safe locations?
CRRI, TRL Manaalfor Safey in Road Design'

3.38 -
PLANNING
(b) Pedestrian Footpath Networks and Facilities
On busy roads are pedestrians channelled to safe locations where special facilities have been provided for safe
crossing?
Are main footpaths separated from the streets wherever possible?
Do main footpaths always cross streets at well designed, properly signed and where possible, lit pedestrian
crossing facilities?
Do arterial and collector streets have footways (sidewalks), if there are no separate footpaths nearby?
On all arterial and collector streets is there reservation for a separation strip between the carriageway and the
footway (sidewalk)?
Are all pedestrian crossings on arterial streets grade-separated or controlled by traffic signals or designed to
have pedestrian refuges such that the pedestrian never needs to cross more than two lanes of traffic at a time
before reaching a safe refuge?
If there are two or more traffic lanes for each direction, is there a refuge at least 1 .2 metres (and preferably 2.0
metres) wide at locations where pedestrians are likely to cross?
Are pedestrian crossings on collector streets controlled by traffic signals if the AADT is above 7500 veh/day?
Does every access street serving more than 100 dwellings or 200 working places have a footway (sidewalk)?
Have all under or overpasses been so designed that the pedestrian will prefer to use the under or overpass rather
than cross on the carriageway? (If necessary by installation of pedestrian fences to make the surface alternative
longer.)
Are there safe, attractive (e .g . shaded and well drained) segregated routes for pedestrians between major resi-
dential shopping, schools and work areas?
(c) Cycle Networks and Facilities
Do main cycle tracks avoid crossing arterial streets or can they do so using pedestrian under or overpasses?
Have the crossing needs of cyclists been taken into account in detailed junction design at locations where there
are large numbers of cyclists?
Do main bicycle ways cross streets only at locations where pedal cyclists can stop easily? (e.g . not on long
downhills or at the bottom of a hill .)
Are exclusive bicycle ways at least 2 metres in width?
Are combined bicycle and pedestrian ways at least 2 .5 metres in width?
Are there segregated networks of footpaths/cycle-ways (preferably shaded from direct sunlight) providing
alternative safe routes for cyclists?
Minlste e~sf Surface Transport Ross Silcock

3.39
ROAD LINK DESIGN
CHAPTER 4
DESIGNING FOR SAFETY
ROAD LINK DESIGN

4.I
CHAPTER4
4 DESIGNING FOR SAFETY : ROAD LINK DESIGN
4 .1 Introduction
Overview :
Safety must be given special attention at the initial design stage of any road or intersection . This chapter of the
Manual deals with the accident risks associated with such designs for both urban and rural situations .
It will often be possible at the initial design stage to develop designs or to incorporate at little cost, safety
features which will reduce accident risk substantially . In all such circumstances, safety features should be
incorporated . In other situations, the cost of the primary safety feature, such as increasing curve radii for a road
in mountainous terrain, may be prohibitively high . Reliance in such circumstances may then need to be placed
on secondary safety features, such as the provision of signs and guard rails. Final decisions will be based largely
on financial and economic criteria and available research evidence, such as those incorporated into TRL Overseas
Road Notes 5 and 6 for interurban roads. However, whatever the decision, it is very important that safety
considerations are carried forward throughout the complete design and construction process.
Whilst this section is concerned with the effectiveness of the final designs, the design process should also
include decisions and recommendations as to how traffic will be safely controlled during the construction
process . This should include signs and their placement for each stage of construction, together with details of
how the interactions between construction and other traffic will be handled . In general, good design will result
in a driving task which is clear, simple and consistent. Use ofthese principles will automatically result in a driver
being led along a road or through a conflict situation such as a junction, in an efficient and safe manner. The
driving tasks will be the result of the effects of a combination of geometry, road signs and markings and clear
priorities should be presented to the driver. Even if a driver makes a mistake, the design should enable a driver
either to recover without accident, or at least minimise severity should an accident occur.
Evidence of the effects of different design parameters on accident rates in India and other developing countries
is scarce and, whilst some research is underway, it is essential that the collection and analysis of accident
information continues to be undertaken in order that the guidance contained here may be refined to represent
local circumstances .
Interurban Roads:
Interurban roads can range from single-lane rural roads to multi-lane dual carriageways. Geometric design
characteristics and construction standards will depend on factors such as traffic flow and terrain, and the main
accident problems and related safety features will also vary substantially .
Within the following sections of the Manual, emphasis has been placed on single carriageways, as interurban
dual carriageway roads are less common and usually less of a problem . Where dual carriageways are to be found,
they will usually have been designed on the basis of selected developed country standards . Such standards will
normally include safety considerations .
The design process recommended in Overseas Road Note 6 (reference A 12) incorporates safety considerations
based on assumptions of consistency of design elements with speed (see Figure 4 .1 .1) . More direct safety
considerations may be incorporated as shown . (It is to be noted that the safety considerations should be carried
forward from this design stage to final implementation .) The emphasis within Overseas Road Note 6 is on
economic optimisation . Road safety can only be included in the economic evaluation process if there are
predictive relationships for accident rates, and accidents can be given specific economic values . Unfortunately,
in India a very reliable estimate is only becoming available slowly . Thus, for the present, safety should be
assessed by consideration of appropriate checklists or audits at the stage indicated in Figure 4.1 .1 .
CRRI, 71M Manaalfor Safety in Road Design

4.2
ROAD LINK DESIGN
DEFINE BASIC PARAMETERS

road Hucdon - traffic how/ped how - hatrain Mw
SELECT DESIGN CLASS
i
Consider hatter RELAXATIONS of STANDARD DETERMINE TRIAL ALIGNMENT(S) and
with appropriate waniq measures ~ IDENTIFY ELEMENTS of few geanetric slendarde
NES
AM the ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES of Do al elements let within the
UPGRADING the d esgn laq? DESIGN CLASS STANDARDS?
NO
Do al elemeras let within ONE sup
of the design class standard?
YES
NO Are design elemens acceptabq consenaot with
APPROACNSPEED ESTIMATES ?
YES
Complete design(s) 1
FAIL
Safety audit
PASS
Does the project have anacceptable
Review project
ECONOMIC RETURN?
YES
the ecaank titan be ingrwed by
amended alignment?
NO
Safistaclary design achieved
Figure 4.1 .1 The design process A1 m
Urban Roads:
In urban situations, accidents are largely caused by interactions between the movements of conflicting streams
oftraffic and between the different road user groups, with pedestrians being the most vulnerable and comprising
typically between 40 and 70% of the fatalities. The safety emphasis has thus been placed on clear segregation
and prioritisation . Conflicts between road users are reduced where possible, whilst elsewhere, priorities are
identified in an obvious and positive way.
At the design stage, which is very similar to Figure 4.1 .1, it may be possible to introduce large scale traffic
management schemes, incorporating one-way systems which will reduce conflicts and accidents. As with
interurban roads, checklists and audit systems should be used at the initial design stage and be carried forward
to implementation . Studies to compare the accident conditions in the before situation with that afterwards should
be made where possible to refine design and control features, and to identify their effectiveness for application
elsewhere .

4.3
CHAPTER4
4 .2 Design Parameters and Speed
Overview :
The speed of a vehicle travelling along a road will vary with vehicle type and condition, driver characteristics,
road geometry and the presence of other road users and speed controls .
In light flow conditions on rural roads, the successive geometric features presented to a driver should be
consistent . This consistency is usually achieved through the concept of 'design speed' . In most current
standards, the speeds used for the estimation of design parameters, such as sight distance, are closely related to
actual speeds . This is crucial for safe design . There are many relationships to predict vehicle speeds from known
geometry. The 85th percentile speed of light vehicles is commonly used as a basis for speed limits (i .e . the speed
exceeded by only 15 per cent of the vehicles) because this allows a factor of safety .
A useful reference is Overseas Road Note 6 (reference A12) in which Design Class Standards are used which link
road function, traffic flow and geometry in order to develop an economic design . Consistency is ensured by
comparing estimates of actual speeds with those inherent in each of the Design Class Standards. If the design
is found to be inadequate on the basis of this comparison, a new alignment is adopted and the process repeated
(see Figure 4.1 .1). Tables 4.2 .1 and 4.2 .2 undertake the same function for Indian conditions .
It is important that the elements of design standards, which are based on speed assumptions, reflect the actual
speeds of vehicles and hence relate to drivers' expectations . Where no suitable equivalent local data exists, it is
recommended that the speed estimating relationships in Road Note 6 are used . Consistency is the key issue, with
higher standards being justified by the road user savings available at higher flows from straighter, less hilly
alignments .
The Indian standards shown in this document generally relate

to an absolute minimum standard commensurate with
topography and design speed. In practice most roads will be
constrained to minimum parameter value over short sections
on specific geometric elements . Further, the most economic
designs will often not involve the use of minimum standards,
as levels of traffic may be such that the additional vehicle
operating cost, accident and travel time saving benefits from
wider, straighter and shorter roads may more than offset the
extra construction costs needed . It is for such cases that
some countries have developed a "two tier" system of
desirable minimum and absolute minimum parameters . The
alternative is to relax the design class to a lower speed but
though this may permit a better rate of return there may be
serious safety implications that should be considered . It is
recommended that IRC review the various codes and
standards and give serious considerations to the use of
absolute and desirable minimum standards . Figure 4.2 .1 Speed not commensurate with road
surface condition may lead to such situation.
Problems:
Drivers on a road will travel with a speed profile which reflects the predominant geometric features of the road,
and the rigid application of a set of speed related design standards will not necessarily result in a'safe' road . For
example, if the terrain allows a road to be built to curvatures substantially above the minimum for the design
speed, the application of minimum standards at any single location will result in a substantial apparent reduction
in standard to the driver, and create a potential accident blackspot at that location .
Relationships between speed, geometry and accidents are generally poorly understood, and the effects of
interaction between different design features is difficult to predict: e.g . is a straight narrow road more or less safe
than a tortuous but wide road?
CRRI, TRL ManualTor Safety in Road Design

4.4
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice:
Use comprehensive design standards which link

individual design elements to best estimates of actual
speeds . Several empirically based, relationships exist
which link speed to geometry, such as those given in
Overseas Road Note 6 for developing countries
(reference A12).
Drivers must not be presented with the unexpected .

The emphasis must be on maintaining continuity or
giving adequate wanting where this cannot be done .
For example, drivers will expect more tortuous roads in
mountainous conditions, and actual and design speeds
will be lower.
In urban areas, speed limits will apply, and design parameters will be closely linked to speed limits . Care should
be taken to note that the character of the road will often influence drivers' speeds more than an arbitrarily low
speed limit so features of the road must be designed to induce the required speeds.
Table 4.2.1 Design Speeds for Rural (Non-Urban) Highways B22
Design Speed (km/h)
Plainterrain Rolling terrain Mountainous terrain Steep terrain

Road Classification
Ruling Min . Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.
design design design design design design design design
speed speed speed speed speed speed speed speed
1. National and State 100 So so 65 50 40 40 30

Hi ghway
2 Major district roads 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20

3. Other district roads 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
4. Villagemads 50 40 40 I 35 I 25 I 20 I 25 0
Table 4.2.2 Design Speeds for Urban Roads in Plains B22
S. No Road Classification Design speed (km/h)

1. Arterials 90
2 Sub- arterials 60
3. Collector streets 50
4. Local streets 30
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silcock -

4.5
4.3 Sight Distances
Overview:
A driver needs to gee a sufficient distance ahead of him in order to stop safely to avoid colliding with a stationary
object on the road. This sight distance will depend on the approach speed of the vehicle and the assumed
drivers' eye and object heights . In addition to a safe stopping distance, it is also necessary periodically to
provide sections of extended sight distances to permit overtaking opportunities.
Sight distance criteria may be introduced other than for safe stopping, and these include manoeuvring sight
distance, in which a driver may not be able to stop, but may have sufficient time to manoeuvre round an
obstruction .
Problems:
Sufficient stopping sight distance must always be available for drivers to stop their vehicles when faced with an
unexpected obstruction in the carriageway. The effects of a driver hitting an object (e .g. which might have fallen
off a lorry) or water at speed, or whilst braking, can
be extremely serious.
The braking capabilities of vehicles in India are

often extremely variable and driver training and
testing may be poor, further the vehicle may be
overloaded . Hence, calibration based on stopping
distances in industrialised countries may be
unreliable and local research is required. Trucks
and buses, because of their greater weight,
generally require a greater distance to stop than
cars . However, bus and truck drivers are
approximately one metre higher above the road than Figure 4.3.1 Stopping sight distances Al
car drivers and can thus often see further ahead.
Therefore, extended stopping sight distances for buses and trucks are not required except, perhaps, when
horizontal sight distance restrictions occur at the end of a long downgrade, or where the inside edge of a
horizontal curve is bounded by a high vertical barrier such as a hedge or a fence . Sight distances may be
substantially reduced due to growth of unintended vegetation.
Figure 4.3.2 Criteria for measuring sight distances Al
Adequate sight distances should be available along the full length of a road for vehicles to be able to stop safely .
In view ofthe greater likelihood ofthere being objects on the road (e.g. having fallen from other vehicles) in India,
an object height of 0.15 metres should be used. Where there is the possibility of standing water on the road, it
may be advisable to have a yero object height, although this will very substantially increase the sight distance
requirements and cost of pfovision. There should be clear signing and marking system to indicate locations
where sight distance is inadequate for safe overtaking.
--
CRR4 TRL Manualfor Safety in Road Design
4.6
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice:
For safe stopping sight distance an object height of 0.15

metres and an eye height of 1.2 metres are recommended.
Where standing or running water may (such as fords) occur
on the camageway a zero object height should be used .
The carriageway edge should be indicated by edge markings
or delineators.
Overtaking sight distance should be available between

points 1.20 metres above the centre of the carriageway
forming an envelope of visibility, and should be checked in
Figure 4.3.3 Good sight distance on road in Kenya.
both the horizontal and vertical planes . Long sight distances
Note wide shoulder and shallow slope to drainage
are desirable to permit overtaking, avoid frustration and the
ditch reduce hazard 0
need for dualling .
Suitable sight distance can be achieved by increasing the radii of horizontal and vertical curves, widening
verges, and benching to allow visibility outside the road width . If sight distance requirements are satisfied in the
'worst' case, i.e . when both the vehicle and the object are located on the inside lane of the curve, there will always
be adequate visibility for a vehicle on the outside of the curve.
Figure 4.3.1 Minimum recommended sight distance B22 Table 4.3.2 Criteria for measurement of
sight distance B22
Speed (hNp) Safe Stopping 0v-taking Sight Distance
Sight Distance Sight Distance intennediau Driver's Eye Height Object Height
(m) (") (M) Sate Stopping 1 .20. 0.15 .

20 20 - 40 Distarre
25 2s - 50 0venaldng sight 1 .20m 1.20m
30 30 - 60 e
I Distance r
40 45 165 90
50 to 235 120
to 80 300 160
65 90 340 180
80 120 370 240
100 180 640 360
Table 4.3 .1 lists safe distances for stopping and overtaking at different speeds while Table 4.3 .2 gives criteria for
their measurements.
On single lane roads, the sight distance must be sufficient for two vehicles approaching each other at the design
speed to stop before they collide, ideally twice the safe stopping sight distance.
Where feasible the overtaking sight distance should be provided for as much length of the road as possible.
However, in hilly or even in gently rolling areas, cost considerations may preclude this . A cheaper alternative
is to use the intermediate sight distance, which is twice the safe stopping distance, with some loss in safety.
There will normally be some sections of road, such as on bends and summit curves, where there is insufficient
sight distance for safe overtaking ; these may be designated `non-overtaking' sections (Chapter 4.13) and should
be clearly marked as such . Adding an overtaking lane at hill crests may be a cheaper solution than increasing
vertical curve radius . If sharp-low-radius bends are replaced with longer bends in rolling terrain which reduces
the length of straight sections, the remaining overtaking opportunities may be inadequate . To increase the
opportunities, shorter sharper curves within the design standards can be used, provided this is dome consistently
along the route and does not result in approach speeds which are too high .
- 11
Other r vttnt eeetitw.4.2, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4'.13, 5.6, 8,13,8.16
IlitiienI m: B18, B22
Kev eater refereactes : Al, A4, A38, A41, A43, ASS, A58

4.7
CHAPTER 4
4 .4 Horizontal Curvature
Overview:
Horizontal curves should be designed so that they can be

negotiated safely by approaching vehicles . For higher speeds
and tighter radius curves, the sideways friction developed
between a vehicle's tyres and the road surface will need to be
greater. Consistency of design is achieved by relating approach
speed to acceptable levels of sideways friction for any horizontal
curve . For economic and environmental reasons, curvature
standards may be relaxed, the extent of relaxation depending on
local circumstances and the degree to which additional measures
such as signs and road markings are introduced to reduce Figure 4 .4 .1 Where curves are not
approach speed and thus offset the potential increase in risk. properly designed accidents may take
place
Where possible, the horizontal curvature of a road should be
-4M
consistent with speed requirements . If a relaxation in standard is
necessary for economic or environmental reasons, clear signs,
markings and other warning devices should be introduced to
make the driver aware of the potential problem ahead. Good design
should not encourage excessive speed, but nonetheless should
provide frequent overtaking opportunities . It is particularly
important not to introduce a flowing design with sight distances
well in excess of safe stopping sight distances, yet below safe
overtaking standards. Horizontal curvature should be co-
ordinated with other design features . Safety should be considered
at an early stage of design to identify possible hazardous locations
and alternative solutions.
Figure 4.4.2 Tight horizontal curve may

lead to such situations
Table 4.4.1 Minimum radius of horizontal curves for different terrain conditions for design speeds B8
* Where trucks also ply, a minimum 26m radius should be provided to accomodate them
Mountainous and Steep Temin

Resi gn Speed (kWh) Plain and Rolling Terrain (m)
Snow bound areas (m) Non-Snow bound areas (m)
20 15* 15* 14*
25 23* 23* 20*
30 33 33 30
35 45 45 40
40 60 60 50
50 90 90 80
65 155
80 230 Speeds not applicable

100 360
&RI, TRL Manualfor Safety in Road Design

4 .8
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Problems:
Unexpectedly tight horizontal curves can lead to accidents as drivers try to negotiate them at too high a speed.
A similar situation may occur on horizontal curves at other hazardous situations, such as on steep gradients or
long straights where drivers are encouraged or misled by the approach geometry to be travelling at excessive
speeds . The sight distances associated with larger radii curves may also encourage drivers to overtake when
it is unsafe .
At grade-separated intersections it may be necessary because of site constraints to have tight horizontal
curves on the access ramps. Even if within design parameters these curves are know to be the source of
accidents.
On narrow carriageways, vehicles may cross into the path of an approaching vehicle on tight curves, or onto
shoulders and pedestrian areas. On gravel roads in particular, the loss of super-elevation in the cross-sectional
profile through lack of maintenance, may result in the effects of a horizontal curve being more severe than
designed.
Safer Practice :
In general, horizontal curves should either be designed geometrically
so that they can be safely negotiated by the driver of an approaching
vehicle, or the driver should be adequately warned of the need to
reduce speed.
At the design stage, geometric alternatives may be available which

could reduce the hazard of an unexpectedly tight horizontal curve at
little cost, either by increasing the radius of the curve under
consideration, or by varying other approach features (e .g . introducing
progressively tighter curves on approach roads to reduce speeds).
Alternatively, a range of simple and inexpensive techniques exist to
warn drivers of a potentially hazardous tight horizontal curve which
cannot be re-aligned for financial or environmental reasons. Special Figure 4.4.3 Well maintained
treatments should be specified and carried forward to the design and delineation on curves provide
construction phases . These may include safety barriers or the removal guidance to motorists m
of obstructions to reduce accident severity .
Potentially unsafe overtaking on curves with inadequate sight
distances should be prevented by signs, road markings or physical
barriers (additionally, positive signing or markings may be introduced
to inform drivers of safe overtaking opportunities. Shorter, sharper
curves with longer straight sections for overtaking may be better).
Tight curves on access ramps for grade-separated intersections

can be made safer through correct signing. This should include
advisory speed limits before the curve and chevron markings at
and around the curve.
On gravel roads an acceptable cross-sectional profile with appropriate

camber should be maintained. Where adequate maintenance is
considered to be unlikely, it may be better to design the road curvature
on the assumption of a level cross-section. Figure 4.4.4 Mountain road showing
appropriate design in difficult
Clear centre line markings should be introduced wherever possible . terrain 0
Edge of carriageway markings should be introduced to differentiate
carriageway from shoulder.
Available information suggests that accident rates on horizontal curves may increase markedly if sight distance
is less than 3110 m. Therefore, large radius horizontal curves may be introduced on otherwise straight alignments
to relieve driver monotony and to enable drivers to make betterjudgements of approaching vehicles' speed. Care
must be taken to ensure that unsafe overtaking is not encouraged .

4.9
CHAPTER4
4.5 Transition Curves, Superelevation and Pavement Widening
Overview:
Simple circular horizontal curves are normally used for road design. In order to facilitate the gradual transition of
steering from straight sections of road to the curves, transition curves are often provided . The characteristic of
a transition curve is that it has a constantly reducing radius, as in a spiral.
Superelevation is often applied over the length of a circular curve to reduce the sideways frictional requirements
between the tyres and road surface and to increase comfort . In such situations, the transition curve length may
be used to introduce the superelevation .
Widening of traffic lanes is often necessary on lower radius curves to allow for the offset of the rear axles of
heavy vehicles following a smaller radius curve than the steering axle.
Transition curves provide a useful role in enabling drivers to move safely from straight-ahead to circular motion
round a curve. The transition length is also useful in introducing superelevation, the removal of adverse camber
and lane widening . Care should be taken to ensure that the resulting edge profile shows a consistent aspect to
the driver, and there are no inadequately drained areas. Transition curves must not mask the true nature of curves
to oncoming drivers. The applications of the above principles are detailed in Road Note 6 (reference A 12) and
will prevent intrusion of vehicles onto adjacent lanes and will increase road safety at curves . A maximum
superelevation of seven per cent will eliminate most overturning and sliding problems as recommended in Indian
design codes .
Problems:
Where transition curves are omitted or are inadequate, drivers will adopt their own transitions which may bring
them closer to opposing vehicles and increase accident risk.
Long transition curves can be deceptive and drivers may enter such curves at speeds that they are unable to
sustain safely as the radius reduces .
Too high a superelevation will result in the possibility of stationary, slow moving vehicles sliding sideways or, in
extreme cases, overturning . Too low a superelevation may result in standing water on the carriageway .
The application of superelevation with a very low rate of rotation of the carriageway over a long transition
section may result in `flat spots' with inadequate drainage.
Without adequate superelevation or removal of adverse camber, the friction required between the tyre and road
surface will be much greater, and the risk of an accident higher. Such a situation will encourage drivers to use the
centre of the road, or the inside lane, irrespective of direction . This situation is frequently evident on gravel
roads, where a lack of adequate maintenance can lead to a loss of profile .
CRRI, TRL Manaalfo ery'n Road Design

4 .10
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice:
Indian codes recommend a maximum superelevation =, .. .w.,

of 7%.
The introduction of transition curves, superelevation

and curve widening, where the radius is less than a
specified minimum for each design speed, will i
minimise the intrusion of vehicles on to the adjacent
lanes, tend to encourage uniformity of speed, and E~ r~ [~ ~ Level Few,ee I iull
increase vehicle safety at the curves . This cemee. 1 u.we. I ,pFiWF :on
consistency is achieved by using minimum

acceptable side friction factors between the tyres of
a vehicle at the design speed and the road surface. CB059 SECTI W"3
Acceptable friction factors vary from 0.15 to 0.33,

the higher values being used with lower speed,
tighter radius curves . Figure 4.5 .1 Well maintained delineation on curves
provide guidance to motorists Up Al
Transition curves may be inserted between tangents
and circular curves to reduce the abrupt introduction of the lateral acceleration, and they may also be used to link
straights on two circular curves. The full nature of approaching curves must be evident to a driver. Long
transitions which mask a sharp final radius should be avoided. However, transition curves may not be worthwhile
on low volume roads where speeds are low.
The length of a transition curve should be the sum of the length required to remove adverse camber and the
length needed to increase this crossfall to the full superelevation requirement.
On roads of lower design classes which have substantial curvature requiring local widening, it may be advisable
to increase width over a complete section to offer a more consistent aspect to drivers.
Drainage conditions should be checked to ensure that combinations of fall along and across the road are
adequate to remove water from potential `flat areas' .
Table 45.1 Extra width of pavement at Horizontal Curves B22
Radius of Curve (m)

Up to 20 21 to 40 41 to 60 61 to 100 101 to 300
Two lane 1.5 1.5 1 .2 0.9 0.6
Single lane 0.9 f 0.6 0.6 - r
1:,4.3##A.4>4e7
' ,
( AID e 12 A38; A41,
:' ;
Ministry of Surface 71ansport Ross Silcock

4.11
CHAPTER 4
4 .6 Vertical Curves
Overview :
There are two types of vertical curve: crest curves, which occur on hills, and sag curves, which occur in valleys.
The design of vertical curves is based on comfort or visibility criteria and a parabolic function is usually used to
connect gradients in the profile alignment. Sight distance requirements for safety are particularly important on
crest curves . The minimum lengths of crest curves are designed so as to provide sufficient sight distances for
safe stopping during daylight conditions .
Two conditions exist when considering minimum sight distance criteria on vertical curves . The first is where
sight distance is less than the length of the vertical curve, and the second is where sight distance extends
beyond the vertical curve. There are relationships to calculate each separately, which include object and eye
heights discussed in section 4.3 . The maximum vertical accelerations at the top of a crest curve and at the bottom
of a sag curve also need consideration. The comfort criterion for sag curves as a result of vertical acceleration is
often taken as the critical design factor.
Stopping sight distances should be provided on all vertical curves, although sight distance requirements for safe
overtaking are usually difficult to achieve on crest curves . Drivers should be given adequate warning through
traffic signs and road markings . On sag curves, the vertical acceleration which can be tolerated in comfort is often
the critical design parameter. Care must also be taken to ensure adequate night-time visibility by taking account
of the upper limit of headlamp beams. Successive short vertical curves should be avoided, particularly on
straight sections of road . Care is needed with drainage, especially on long, shallow sag curves. Lane and edge
markings are critical on the vertical curves of surfaced roads. Some local widening may be beneficial on otherwise
narrow pavements.
Problems :
It may be difficult for a driver to appreciate the sight distance

available on a crest curve and he may overtake when it is
insufficient for him to do so safely. It can be extremely expensive
to provide safe overtaking sight distances on crest curves .
However, a complete ban on overtaking would be difficult to
enforce because of the presence of very slow-moving vehicles,
the lack of driver discipline in selecting stopping places, and
poor maintenance of road markings and signs. Successive short
vertical curves on a straight section of road may produce
misleading forward visibility .
Although comfort may be a key factor in determining the

minimum length of a sag curve because centrifugal and
Figure 4.6.1 Vertical curves in hilly areas
gravitational forces act together, night-time visibility determined require careful planning because
by headlamp beam angle is also important. The night-time deficiencies are costly to correct at later
visibility concept assumes that headlamp beams also have the
stage
necessary range to illuminate an object on the road . This is
often far from true, particularly for vehicles in India .
The radii of sag curves at the entries to underpasses and tunnels may be such that sight distance is restricted by
the presence of the overhead structure . Long sag curves connecting shallow gradients can lead to drainage
problems .
CRRS TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

4 .12
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice :
Vertical curves are usually designed as parabolas. The major control for safe operation on crest vertical curves
is the provision of ample sight distances for the design speed. Minimum stopping sight distance should be
provided in all cases. Overtaking opportunities can be maximised by using small vertical curves allowing longer
tangential gradient sections .
Table 4.6.1 Minimum length of vertical curves B32
Sag curves should be designed
according to comfort criteria, in which a Maxinrmt grade change
Mtiniun l ve ( of
vertical acceleration of 0.05g would be Design Speed (knih) (%) not requiring a
vertical cu rve (m)
an appropriate maximum on major roads, vertical curve
although this may be relaxed to 0.1 Og on
other roads. Up to 35 1.5 15
40 1 .2 20
Profiles with successive short vertical 50 1.0 30
curves (i .e . 'roller coaster' profiles), 65 0.8 40
80 0 .6 50
should be avoided as they are potentially
100 0.5 60
dangerous . Sections of highway
composed of two vertical curves in the
same direction separated by a short
tangent length (i .e . 'broken back'
profiles), should also be avoided.
Frequent changes in vertical profile should be avoided because these introduce sight distance reduction at crest
vertical curves and these are related to accidents. On long grades, it may be preferable to place the steepest grade
at the bottom and lighter grade near top of ascent or to break the sustained grade by short intervals of lighter
grade .
Care should be taken with long vertical curves connecting shallow gradients, to ensure that the cross-drainage
is adequate. Such problems may be particularly acute on sag curves which are associated with horizontal curves
which themselves require a change in profile.
When sag curves are associated with highway underpasses, curve lengths must be chosen to ensure the
necessary vertical clearances and to maintain adequate sight distances into the underpass.
Table 4.6.2 Gradients for roads in different terrains B32
Riling Limiting Exceptional

S Terrain
No . gradient gradient gradient
1. plain or rolling 3.3 per cent 5 per cent 6.7 per cent
(1 in 30) (1 in 20) (1 in 14.3)
2. Mountainous teraain, 5 per cent 6 per cent 7 per cent

and steep terrain (1 in 20) (1 in 16 .7) (1 in 14.3)
having elevation more
than 3,000m above the
mean sea level
3. Steep terrain upto 6 per cent 7 per cent 8 per cent

3,000m height avobe (1 in 16.7) (1 in 14 .3) (1 in 12 .5)
mean sea level
CHAPTER4
4 .7 Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Curves
Overview:
Alignment
Horizontal and vertical alignments should not be
Vertical Gnalent
considered independently . They complement each Saayht ~~~
Gradant
Horizontal Straight
other and poor design combinations can confuse
drivers and lead to potentially dangerous situations .
It is extremely difficult and costly to correct alignment (a) A sag curve immedaely Meeting a horizontal curve
deficiencies after the highway has been constructed.
Evidence suggests that initial cost savings may be
more than offset by the subsequent economic loss to Alignment
the public in the form ofaccidents and delays . Vertical Gradient Gradient
Horizontal ~Straight Straight
Where possible, horizontal and vertical curvature
should be so combined that the safety and operational
efficiency of the road is enhanced. If horizontal and
(b) A sag curve immediately following a horizontal curve
vertical curves cannot be entirely separated, they
should be combined with common changes for
intersection points and where possible, should be of
the same or similar length. Good co-ordination should Alignment
result in the maintenance of safe overtaking vertical Grad Gradlant

opportunities, and the continuity of a consistent Horizontal Straight .Straight
appearance of the road profile to the driver. Drivers
must be clearly warned of situations which cannot be
readily anticipated from the geometric profile seen (d A tag cum overlapping the beginning of a horizontal curve
ahead . In particular, sharp changes in horizontal
alignment should not be introduced at or near the
bottom of a sag curve or at or near the top of a crest Alignment
curve .
Vertical _ Gradient Gradient
Horizontal Straight r' Straight
Problets:
Poor co-ordination of the horizontal and vertical (d) A sag curve occurring within a horizontal curve
alignments ofa road can result in visual effects which
contribute to accidents and are detrimental to the Figure 4.7.1 Bad combinations afhorizontal and vertical
appearance of the road. curvature p A12
An appearance likely to be misinterpreted by a driver

may result when horizontal and vertical curves ofditferent length occur at the same location. For example, drivers
who judge their approach speeds and lateral locations on the expectation of a single vertical crest curve may be
surprised by the later appearance of a short horizontal curve contained within the vertical curve . These situations
are particularly dangerous .
CRRI, TRL ManualforSafely m Road Design

4 .14 =
ROADLINKDESIGN
Safer Practice:
The presentation of misleading information to drivers can be avoided by making all the points where horizontal
and vertical curvatures change coincident . Where this is not possible and the curves cannot be separated
entirely, the vertical curves should be either contained wholly within, or wholly outside the horizontal curves .
Also, horizontal and vertical curves should be of the same length and the chainage of their centres should
coincide .
A logical design is a compromise between the alignment, which offers the most in terms of safety, capacity, ease
and uniformity of operation, and pleasing appearance, within the practical limits of the terrain and area traversed.
Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the top of a pronounced crest vertical curve as
drivers will not be able to perceive the horizontal change in alignment, especially at night.
Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the low point of a pronounced sag vertical curve
because the view of the road shead would be foreshortened .
Expenditure is often justified to increase the radii of horizontal curves at the bottom of steep grades to allow for
vehicles running out of control. Alternative measures include èscape' lanes or ramps where vehicles travelling
too fast to turn can be safely stopped.
Technical Annex 4.1 illustrates combinations of horizontal and vertical curves in more details. Special facilities
may be provided on steep downgrades to bring runaway vehicles to safe, controlled escape ramp or lane, or
an arrestor bed of sand or gravel. These latter may be full or half vehicle width.
At locations where there may be drifting snow or sand, the design should give consideration to characteristics
which will reduce the likelihood and extent of material being deposited on the road, e.g. shallow cuttings should
be avoided .
Horizontal alignment and profile should be made as Alignment
flat as possible at interchanges and intersections V"cal Gnedient

Horizonnusl ] straight
where sight distance along both highways is
important. Sight distances well above minimum should
be provided at these locations, where possible.
(e) The ends or the vertical curve we coincident with the
corresponding ends or the horizanesl curve
On two-lane roads where combinations of curves are
likely, straight sections should be provided with good
fure4.72 Good oombutebonofhorizootalandvertical
passing sight distance to provide opportunities for
curvature p
safe overtaking .
Broken back curves should be replaced by a single curve whenever possible . If they are unavoidable, a tangent
length of 10 seconds travel time is desirable between curves .
seMoiulx: 4.2, 4.3 4y4, 4 4.8

rewces: B22, B8, B25
Al, A12, A^ A41, A43, A56, A58
Ministry of Surface 7tansport Ross Silcock

4.15
4.8 Overtaking Lanes, Gradients, Climbing Lanes and Escape Lanes
Overview :
Restricted overtaking opportunities and the presence of slow moving vehicles can result in substantial congestion
and high accident rates through injudicious overtaking . Congestion effects are greatest on long steep gradients.
The situation is particularly difficult in India because of the presence of overloaded trucks and buses with very
low power-to-weight ratios, and animal drawn vehicles .
In such circumstances, the provision of an auxiliary climbing lane can be extremely beneficial to enable vehicles
travelling up the gradient to overtake safely and efficiently . However, the criteria for introducing and evaluating
climbing lanes are complex and involve length and severity of gradient, traffic composition, level of flow and an
estimation of the speed differences between the various vehicle groups . Overtaking opportunities on the
adjacent sections of road are also significant. If the overall alignment is tortuous with few other overtaking
opportunities, the provision of a climbing lane may be particularly beneficial .
Although the major benefits of a climbing lane are in terms of values of travel time saving, there is some evidence
to suggest that they also result in a reduction in the accident rate . Accident savings may also occur on adjacent
sections of road, if the climbing lane reduces levels of frustration and injudicious overtaking on these approach
sections .
Problems:
Climbing lanes, by the nature of the terrain in which they are

installed, will often involve expensive construction, and
accurate estimation of the economic benefits is particularly
difficult and uncertain. The provision of a climbing lane on a
two-way, two-lane road may encourage vehicles travelling
downhill to overtake, resulting in a high accident rate with
high levels of severity. In heavy flows, there may be merging
and accident problems when the climbing lane ends and the
overtaking and overtaken flows merge .
Overloaded vehicles in India are common, on flat stretches

one overloaded vehicle passing another may take some
distance to complete the manoeuvre leading to frustration in Figure 4.8 .1 Driver frustration leading to
the queue behind . On hilly sections long queues of frustrated unsafe overtaking manoenvres, Maharaslra .
drivers also build up with drivers overtaking rashly .
Long down grades are common in hilly areas and on ghats. Generally there are no escape lanes either on existing
or new roads. This means that vehicles do not have a safe refuge if they should become out of control.
Safer Practice :
Simple empirical and other models exist which can be used to estimate the effects of introducing climbing lanes.
However, these models relate to traffic conditions in developed countries, where the differences in the performance
of vehicles in the traffic stream are usually substantially less than in developing countries.
Simulation models can be used to estimate the effects for abroad range of climbing situations, but are based on
time saved rather than vehicle operating cost or accident savings because there is little relevant data. Guidance
is given in reference A12 on the increases in mean speed to be expected .
CRRC TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

4 .16
ROAD LJNK DESIGN
Clear signing, road marking and, in some cases, physical barriers are needed to ensure that the absolute right of
way of climbing vehicles is safely upheld.
Climbing lanes should start before the gradient, and end after it, to ensure as small a speed differential as possible
between overtaking and overtaken streams to aid safe and efficient overtaking and merging.
Maximum benefits have been found to be achieved within the first few hundred metres of the start of a climbing
lane . In general an absolute distance cannot be given as it depends on gradient, vehicle composition, traffic
flows and approach speed of vehicles . Most benefit
will be obtained in the fast 400 m - 500 m but any
climbing lane should extend for the length of the
gradient and around 200 m beyond to permit merging.
Particularly with shorter climbing lanes, it is essential
that the start is clearly marked and that heavy vehicles
block the remaining traffic for as short a time as
possible (Figure 4.8 .1).
In some situations climbing lanes will occur on both

sides of a sag or crest curve, serving the two directions
of traffic . In these situations the opposing flows must
be separated by solid lines and hatched areas may be
provided as an additional safety measure.
Climbing lanes should terminate with the overtaking

lane closing using advance appropriate retum-to-
nearside arrows, rather than the climbing lane itself,
as this helps to encourage, rather than discourage,
into usage by drivers of slower vehicles .
It is useful to consider sections of overtaking dual Figure 4.8.2 Additional climbing lane in Papua New
carriageway on level sections to permit queues of Guinea. Note recent footway. Unfortunately road
vehicles to dissipate. These may be useful on the markings not yet renewed p 53 Al
approaches to hilly areas, there by reducing the need
for climbing lanes.
Escape lanes should be considered on new roads where long down grades are unavoidable and on existing roads
with a poor accident record. These lanes provide acceptable deceleration rates and good driver control of the
vehicle.
It has been suggested that a means of controlling overloaded vehicles in India would be to maintain steep grades
to discourage operators from overloading . This may be a possibility but requires a more extensive discussion
backed by research which is beyond the scope of the Manual .
More details are shown in Technical Annex 4.2.
vent sections: 4.3, 4.6,8.13, 5.7

'es: B32
es: Al, A12, A38; A41 A43, ASOjA$8
Minstry of Surface annsport Ross Silcock

4.17
CHAPTER 4
4 .9 Cross Sections
Overview:
A cross section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or kerbs, drainage features, and earthwork
profiles. It may also include facilities for pedestrians, cyclists or other specialist user groups. There .is some
evidence to suggest that widening lane or carriageway width or widening shoulders up to a certain extent is
beneficial in reducing certain types of accident.
Adding extra width to cross sections can be very expensive, and many safety benefits can be obtained simply by
careful design of the cross sectional profile . The need to maintain the designed cross sectional profile is
particularly important . For rural roads, this is easier if the shoulder is designed and constructed to the same
standard as the carriageway . The use of edge of carriageway markings also protects shoulders from excessive
wear ifthey are built to lower standards. The appropriate design of drainage facilities is also particularly significant.
Adequate and appropriate consideration should be given to the movements of non-motorised vehicles and
pedestrians in the cross-sectional design. Design for and control of parked and stopped vehicles is important.
Problems:
Cross sections, particularly on roads in built up areas, are often not uniform . Local developments may encroach
onto the carriageway because of a lack of effective planning control. In rural conditions cross sections may be
reduced at drainage structures.
The continuity between the shoulder and the pavement may be broken by a lack of adequate maintenance .
Tracks made by movement of slow moving vehicles and other motorised vehicles from fields on to highways at
a higher formation level damage shoulders . This is a particular problem with gravel shoulders on narrow paved
roads, where there are frequent intrusions onto the shoulder by heavy vehicles. The resultant 'step' can be
substantial and may lead to drivers' loss of control as well as erosion of the surfaced section . The general lack
of maintenance may result in a loss of cross sectional profile and standing water and the associated accumulation
of silt can also lead to the loss of control of a vehicle.
Steep side slopes, introduced for drainage purposes, do not allow a driver to recover should he leave the
carriageway, and thereby add to the likelihood of an accident . Open channel drains can also increase the
probability that driver error will result in an accident . Few rural cross-sections cater for what maybe substantial
pedestrian, cyclist and animal drawn traffic, and these user groups tend to have to share the carriageway with
fast moving motorised traffic . Few appropriate stopping places are provided for vehicles to stop and park off the
carriageway . As well as hindering flow, inappropriate parked vehicles maybe a danger to crossing pedestrians.
Safer Practice:
The development of cross-sections to cater safely for all road users in both rural and urban situations is a most
important aspect of road design . The following sketches and Tables taken from IRC guidelines illustrate the basic
principles and cross sections .
CRRI, TRL ManualforSafery in Road$eesign

4 .18
ROAD LINK DESIGN
I
I,
I 31 el
NJ
Figure 4.9.1 Road land boundary, building lines and control lines. B22
Table 4.9.1 Recommended Standards for Bnildmg and Control Lines B22
Plain and rolling terrain Mountainous and steep terrain

Open areas Built-up areas Open areas Built-up areas
Overall Overall Distance between Distance between Building Line and
width width BuildingLine and road boundary (set back)
Road classification
between between road boundary
Building Control (set-back)
Lines Lines
(metres) (metres) (metres) (metres)
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 . National and State 80 150 3-6 3-5 3-5

Highways
2. Major District Roads 50 100 3-5 3-5 3-5
3 . Other District Roads 25/30. 35 3-5 3-5 3-5
4. Village Roads 25 30 3-5 3-5 3-5
Notes 1. *If the land width is equal to the width between building lines indicated in this column, the
building lines should be set-back 2.5 m from the road land boundary.
2 See fig4.9.1 for position of building lines, control lines and set-back distance relative to the
road centre line and road land boundary.
Rnral Areas
Table 4.9.2 Width of roadway for single lane and two lane roads B22
Plain and Rolling Terrain (m) Mountainous and Hilly Terrain (m)
Road Classification Single lane Two lane Single lane Two lace
National Highway and State Highway 12 .0 12 .0 6 .25 8.8
Ma or District Road 9 .0 9 .0 4 .75 -
Other District Road 7 .5 9.0 . 4 .75 -
Village Road 7 .5 - ~4 .0 I
Table4.93 Wldthofcarriageway
Number of Lanes Width of Carriageway (m)

Single lane 3.75
Two lanes widiout raised kerbs 7.0
Two lanes with raised kerbs 7.5
Mdti lanes pavemetns, widdi per lane 3.5
Ministry of Surface Tiansport =Ross Silcock

4.19
CHAPTER4
Cross-sectional standards such as those proposed

in reference B22 and B25 should be applied. They
incorporate a consistency of approach which links
the various cross-sectional elements to other
design factors. Encroachment of other activities
into the cross section should be controlled .
Cross-sectional profiles should be properly

maintained . This may be helped by constructing
the shoulder to the same standard as the
carriageway. Edge of carriageway marking and other
delineators will be helpful.
0 Open channel drains should be covered where

possible or have some physical barrier to separate
Figure 49-2 Road in Papua New Guinea with
them from the carriageway . The physical barrier
shallow side slopes and rounded drainage
could consist of a raised kerb or similar structure.
ditches improves sarety I] A1
In some situations the drainage ditch or kerb will
effectively segregate vehicular and pedestrian
movements.
Generally side slopes of highway embankments should be as flat as possible so that drivers accidentally
leaving the roadway have a better chance of survival . IRC : 36-1970 recommends side slope of 1 :4 for low
embankments up to 1 .5 m height . Where embankment height is more, a variable cross section of side
slopes starting from 1 :2 at the top ending in 1 :4 where the embankment meets the ground is suggested.
Higher embankments may require barriers (Chapter 4.16) .
Figure 4.9.3 Side slopes for road embankments B55

0 The incorporation of a shoulder will give room for parked or stopped vehicles and for manoeuvring in an
emergency.
On rural dual carriageways (divided highways) a minimum median width if 5.0 m is recommended by
reference B22. This may be reduced to 3 .0 m where land is restricted (less is acceptable in urban areas).
Where medians narrower than 5 .0m are used median barriers should be strongly considered .
CRK 7RL Manual for SaAMM Road Design

4.20
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Urban Areas
Figure 4.9.4 Typical cross-sections of urban roads B25
Expressways :
Expressways are a special case of (usually) rural roads. Only interim guidance is correctly available (reference
B49) . As per MOST guidelines Àn Expressway' is a divided arterial highway intended for through traffic with
full control of access and generally provided with grade separation at intersections. No slow moving traffic or
pedestrians will be permitted on expressways. The main function of expressways is to cater for movement of
heavy volumes of motor traffic at high speeds . Expressways are divided highways with high standards of
geometrics and full or partial control of access . A typical interim cross section of expressway is shown here. A
new design guidelines for expressways is in course of preparation .
TYPI CAL CROSS SECTION OF EXPRESSWAY
Yores :- r . ~~ . DrYCnarw+s ~wc rY YY .
". ~TTCD . Yes -NDKAT "

fVTW C .0"
"
.
T[
""
Figure 4.9.5 Interim dross section of expressway B47
l 'C117,4^41%14,0,531
xB25, $4'x 055
Mntstryof Surface 7tansport Ross Silcock

4.21
CHAPTER4
4 .10 Shoulders
Overview:
A shoulder is that portion of a roadway adjacent to the travelled
way that is primarily used as a refuge area by parked vehicles .
The provision of shoulders also gives a sense of openness
which helps considerably towards driving ease and reduces the
concerns of the truck drivers regarding lateral clearances with
other vehicles, travelling in the opposite directions . Shoulders
provide structural support to the carriageway . The width of the
shoulder should be adequate for giving working space around
a stalled vehicle. Some of the other important functions include:
" To aid in recovery from temporary loss of control, or to

provide room to perform emergency evasive action .
To serve as a temporary travel way during reconstruction, Figure 4.10.1 Poor shoulders with edge
major maintenance, or emergency operations on the main drops due to cart trucks are a problem for
carriageway. drivers in case ofemergency.
To serve as a primary clear area free of obstructions .
To enable provision for sufficient horizontal sight distance .

For use by pedestrians or, if sealed, motorcycles .
For use by non-motorised vehicles .
Problems :
Due to poor maintenance, run-off water often creates furrows in soft shoulders. This is especially a problem in
high rainfall areas and places where the roadway is on an embankment .
India has an agriculture-based economy with a large number of animal drawn vehicles with hard tyres. Such
vehicles joining the roadway from cart tracks wear away the shoulders reducing them to be non-existent at the
joining point and causing discontinuity. Such locations along the roadway are potential safety hazards and deter
vehicle drivers from using a shoulder, due to level difference, in case such a need arises .
Inadequate or discontinuous shoulders tend to encourage drivers to keep away from the edge of the main
carriageway and to straddle the centreline of the road and reduce safety . The lack of adequate shoulders also
reduces capacity and forces drivers to park their vehicles on the main carriageway. These situations become
especially dangerous during night-time .
When hard shoulders have road markings applied to help distinguish the shoulder from the main carriageway,
the shoulder width should be such that it is not confused as an additional lane .
Shoulders are not given adequate attention in their construction and maintenance. This results in large edge
drops, pot holes and inadequate widths . The shoulder looses its utility of providing openness to the driver
which helps towards driving ease .
Safer Practice:
Well designed and properly maintained shoulders are a necessity on all rural roads and where possible on
suburban arterial roads carrying high speed traffic . Shoulder widths can vary with the IRC recommending 2 .5 m
shoulder width for National and State Highways. The shoulder width for village roads is recommended as 1.75 m.
Where cost considerations are important MOST circular suggests that the shoulder may be made up from a 1 .5
m hard shoulder and a 1 .0 m soft shoulder. On busy roads a shoulder width of 3.0 m is strongly recommended.
This allows a gap between a parked car and the edge of the carriageway which helps safety .
A shoulder should be capable of supporting vehicles under all weather conditions, without rutting or displacement
of the surface. Skidding and overturning may occur if vehicles drive over soft shoulders at high speeds . Excessively
CRRk TRL Manual for SafetylMoad Design

4.22
ROAD LINK DESIGN
large shoulder drop off either from resurfacing or erosion, discourages use of the shoulder. Ideally there should
be no shoulder drop off but small drops of up to 50 mm can be tolerated.
Where hard shoulders are constructed, they should be of full

construction depth and the shoulder surfacing must be distinct
from the main carriageway, otherwise vehicles will use it as a
regular traffic lane . Hard shoulders, with bituminous surfacing
using different coloured stone chippings or surfacing composed
of less expensive surface dressing materials than used for the
carriageway are an effective way of differentiating between the
shoulder and the main carriageway. Expressways should have
no shoulder drop off and edge markings should be used to
indicate the hard shoulders. Guidelines for the provision of
paved shoulders is contained in reference B52.
Figure 4.10.2 Wide and strong shoulders but
Edge Line Marking mayalso help todiscourage traffic from using edgeline marking will increase their
the shoulder as a carriageway and is an effective safety effectiveness greatly m
measure .
Shoulder cross slopes should be so designed as to avoid draining onto the carriageway. IRC recommends an
extra 1% slope for shoulders. An important consideration in shoulder slope design is the difference between
shoulder and adjacent lane where a step in levels should be avoided as this can easily lead to a loss of control of
heavy vehicles in particular.
A study on the safety benefits of countermeasures has revealed that shoulder improvement resulted in a benefit
cost ratio of 28 .83, which is the highest value of countermeasures compared, i.e . benefits were assessed as nearly
24 times the cost of provision .
Shoulders also provide an alternative for slow moving vehicles to allow high speed vehicles to pass .
Shoulders with surfaces of grass are the most clearly delineated and aesthetically pleasing, but drivers are afraid
of using them for fear of inadequate structural strength to support the vehicle after wet weather conditions . They
are most suitable at very low flows.
~St
1 ~JM C PA fi~ NOT ON LJO&O II4A,M 2.8 TO 3% ON ~U~
.
L~T=1: T= ON ~ ENOU~-ESEA~ER VALUES sNAu
an USED ~RAWFALL EXCEEYINO 1.O CN PEA YEAR .
2 ON EUIERELEVAf&O KCTIONE rr/E EMOULOER ENOULO NAVE BANE
CROEE"A4 AE rNE "AVEN~.
Figure 4.103 Typical crass section of paved shoulder B52
Ministry of Surface 7}anspaHR= Ross Silcock

4.23
CHAPTER 4
4.11 Surface Treatment
Overview:
Skidding is a contributory factor in many accidents, particularly on wet roads on the approaches to junctions. It
can be minimised by the preservation of a good skid resistant road surface, particularly on approaches to
junctions and pedestrian crossings.
The surface texture of a road is described at two levels : the micro-texture refers to the detailed surface characteristics
of the aggregate and mortar and the macro-texture is the large-scale surface profile visible to the naked eye. At
low speeds, e.g . at or near junctions on the minor road, or on circulatory carriageways of roundabouts, a harsh
micro-texture is required. At higher speeds, e.g. on slip-roads exits from high speed dual carriageways the macro-
texture needs to be relatively rough .
Skidding resistance of road surfaces can be measured with special equipment . This can range from a lorry
mounted device (SCRIM) which can be operated at up to 80 knrlb with minimal disruption to traffic to a portable
hand-held pendulum device which can be used to check skidding resistance at accident blackspots .
The provision and maintenance of a good skid resistant surface is essential for the safe operation of vehicles.
Monitoring should take place on a routine basis and the surface should be maintained right up to the edge of the
carriageway to allow for cycles and other slow moving vehicles. Many techniques exist for improving the skid
resistance of the road surface. Surface dressing (chipseal) is the cheapest . Specialist resinous binders and
proprietary skid resistant surfacing are also available but tend to be expensive, though they can be worthwhile
as accident remedial measures atdifficult sites.
Problems:
The two criteria of most importance in surface materials are their resistance to polishing and their abrasion . If the
former is inadequate, the surface will become polished smooth by the action of tyres and if they abrade (wear)
badly, the aggregate will quickly be lost by the road surface. In both instances the road surface will have a
reduced skidding resistance and vehicles will skid especially if there is any water (e.g. rainfall) on the road and if
the vehicles are travelling fast.
Although these criteria are considered in the design procedures of most developed countries, they are often not
given the importance they deserve in maintenance activities in India.
Safer Practice:
Regular maintenance is important to retain surface texture . Of particular interest in critical places such as
accident remedial sites with a high prevalence of skidding accidents, is the Polished Stone Value, established by
laboratory tests . If a location is found to be in need of attention, 4 categories of improvements are available:
1) Removal of material- For concrete pavements, the new surface is prepared by removing material from
the surface by physical means, e.g. grooving, sanding or planing, or by chemical means (IRC-SP : 17)
using hydrochloric acid.
2) Addition of material - This method lays a new, non-structural, surface layer either by heating the old
surface and rolling in chippings or by laying a layer of new binder and chippings. Suitable aggregates
include quartzite, granite and basalt in bitumen binder. Specification must suit locallyavailable materials
and conditions, which will vary across India. The aggregates are obtained from approved sources and
the material has usually been crushed . The shape should preferably be cubical not long and thin. The
material must not crush under traffic and be sufficiently clean as dusty aggregate do not adhere to the
bitumen .
3) Re-cyeling - This involves removal of the surface (100 to 500 mm) usually through heat (though new
cold in-situ techniques are being developed), mixing it with an asphalt binder and possibly new aggre-
gate, and replacing the recycled material to form the wearing course (or having a second pass of a new
wearing course).
CRR/,7RL Manualfor Safety in Road{igmgn

4.24 -
ROAD LINK DESIGN
The normal method of surface dressing is to spread a

thin layer of hot bitumen binder onto which is spread
stone chippings which are rolled in with a rubber tyred
roller. The binder viscosity and temperature and the
size of chippings must be designed carefully to meet
the particular needs of the site.
Surface dressing gives good skidding resistance .

Resinous binders give even better skidding resistance
but these are more expensive: they may be justified,
however, in critical circumstances.
On smooth concrete roads the texture can be improved

by cutting grooves with a diamond saw. Figure 4.11 .1 Mastic Asphalt treatment of
4) Slurry seal treatment - When cracks start appearing, road surface to provide greater resistancem
these can be sealed using a slurry treatment . The slurry treatment consists of fine aggregate and cement
dust filler with a bituminous emulsion as a binder.
Overseas Road Note 3, A guide to surface dressing in tropical and subtropical countries, TRL UK (reference A
62) is a particularly useful document in this context .
. .. ...
/- v, 5
Figure 4.11 .2 The shape and

form of surface textures Al
777777 7' -77
Figure 4.11 .3 Illustration of terms used

to describe surface texturem A61

4.25
CHAPTER 4
4.12 Road Signs
Overview:
Careful provision of road signs can make a considerable

contribution to the safe and efficient operation of road
networks . Traffic signs should be designed to convey clear
and unambiguous messages to road users so that they can be
understood quickly and easily . In industrialised countries,
traffic signs normally conform to regulations and centrally
specified standards so that there is consistency of signs
throughout the whole country. There is an international
agreement on the more important signs and India has adopted
Figure 4.12 .1 Worn out road sign
the UN convention on this topic .
Traffic signs may be divided into three broad categories .

Warning signs, Regulatory signs and Information signs. To
be effective . signs need to be sited so that the correct
information is given to road users when they need it not
too-soon or too late - so that they are given sufficient time to
carry out the required manoeuvre in safety . Road signs should
be used in conjunction with road markings .
Road signs (along with road markings) are used to

communicate with the driver and to guide him safely through
the road network. International standards exist which make
extensive use of symbols rather than words . There are
advantages in using these to develop local standards as this
Figure 4.12.2 Excess of road signs and
provides consistenc y and uniformit y with international
hoardings in Pane.
practice . Much greater use should be made of road signs
than at present. Wherever feasible, reflective signs and
markings should be used on major rural roads so that the carriageway is clearly delineated (especially at night-
time).
Problems :
In India there are a multiplicity of languages and written signs require numerous words which then become
small and difficult to read . Literacy is also limited. Whereas absence of good road signs was not so important
when there were few vehicles on the roads, it becomes a serious problem when there are a large number of
vehicles and conflicts.
Roads (and junctions) in India are often inadequately signed and drivers are provided with little guidance or
information as they use the roads. Sometimes this is because of limitations of funds but it is often because IRC
standards are not universally applied and the agency responsible for installing and/or maintaining road signs
and markings differs from that responsible for the road construction .
Maintenance, too, is often a major problem and it is commonplace to see worn, almost illegible, damaged or
missing road signs on road networks . Unfortunately theft of signs (for the metal content) is also a problem in
some areas. The civic authorities responsible for road signs do not seem to be adequately trained in the provision
of road signs. In many cases, wrong signs have often been installed. Training programmes should be organised
for engineers and other persons responsible for installing road signs .
Cm' TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

4 .26
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice:
The most important aspects with respect to road safety are:
" Road signs (and road markings) are extremely important tools of communication to guide and direct the
driver through conflict points and hazards on the road network. They enable the driver to be given
advance warning.
" Warning Signs Play a crucial role in terms of road safety, in giving advance information about hazards
ahead.
" Generally, all signs shall be placed on the left hand side of the road . Where extra emphasis is required they
may be duplicated on the right hand side of the carriageway.
" In the case of hill roads, the sign shall generally be fixed on the valley side of the road, unless traffic and
road conditions warrants these to be placed on the hill side .
" On unkerbed roads, the extreme edge of the sign shall

be 2 to 3 m from the edge of the carriageway . On
kerbed roads it should not be less than 60 cm away
from the edge of the kerb
" Reflective warning road signs have a particularly

important role to play in reducing night-time accidents
in India where there is often no street lighting, even
on urban roads.
" Where theft of metal signs is a problem, drilling holes

through the sign may make the metal less useful and
less likely to be stolen . Alternatively wooden painted
signs can provide an acceptable solution.
igure 4.12.3 Right-hand curve wrongly
" Warning signs should be used to break the driver's used for a T-junction situation. Such
line of sight where unexpected hazards could exist practices can be hazardous and lead to
(e .g . chevrons at sharp bends) . disrespect for road signs
" A periodic review of existing signs on roads should

be undertaken to remove incorrectly placed and
redundant signs. Regular maintenance (every six
months) should include washing and clearing of
posters on signs and damaged signs replaced .
" Since road users have very limited knowledge of the

traffic engineering content of traffic signs, an
extensive programme of education should be
launched for them . Licensing authorities should be
specifically strict on the requirement of potential
drivers possessing knowledge of traffic signs and
other traffic control devices while issuing licences .
More information is contained in Technical Annex . 4 .3 . Figure 4.12.4 Right usage of keep to the left
road sign for regulation of road trafff 0
Other relevant sections: 4.13, 5.7

Indian references : B4, B19, B33, CS
Key external references : A41, A51, A52

s 4.27
CHAPTER 4
4 .13 Road Markings and Studs
Overview :
Road paint or thermoplastic road markings are used on the road surface to convey warnings, to provide information
and to indicate required manoeuvres, and can make a significant contribution to the safe and efficient operation
of the network . As with traffic signs, regulations and standards are normally specified nationally so that there
is consistency in junction layout and marking throughout the country.
To be effective, road markings need to be visible in all weather conditions and should convey the information
required by drivers clearly and unambiguously . Road markings should be used in conjunction with road signs.
Road markings play a very important role in guiding the driver and providing him with the information necessary
to negotiate conflict points on the road network and should be a high priority for those seeking to improve road
safety . The driver can be given appropriate information through the use of different types and colours of road
marking. Stop and give-way lines at junctions help to position the driver on the road to minimise his risk .
Centrelines can be used to indicate locations where overtaking is dangerous while edgelines give advance
warning of changes in alignment . Where possible, high quality paint containing small glass beads (forreflectivity
at night) should be used. Centre and edge lining reinforced through the use of studs are strongly recommended.
Problems :
Although India like most of the developing countries has national standards for road marking, many of the
roads do not have good markings . This is partly due to the fact that road marking paint available locally often
tends to be of poor quality whilst imported road marking paint is often too expensive.
The poor conditions of roads (potholes, deformations, etc) can also make road marking difficult to apply in any
effective manner . Shortage of specialist machinery, skilled/trained technicians and the cost of imported
thermoplastics all make its use problematic in India.
Experience with thermoplastic paints in India has been mixed. Haryana has found that under high temperatures,
large humidity ranges and under heavy wheel loads the paint deforms and cracks . On concrete pavements the
paint gets lifted and blackening also is a problem, (that is in a dry climate the rubber deposits do not wash off) .
The high cost was also an issue. Elsewhere experience was better with Maharastra finding the paint cost effective.
This may be due to the lower humidity range. The material does require precise, temperature control and a dust
free surface in order to be well laid and then perform correctly . Experience in the Middle East indicates that
thermoplastic should not be a problem in dry climates .
The limited budgets available for maintenance make it difficult for engineers to keep the road markings to an
acceptable standard . As a result pedestrian crossings, junctions, etc, often have no road markings to provide
guidance to drivers. This significantly increases the risks and dangers to all road users .
Even when to Indian standards (IS 164-1986) colour can be poor quality .
Figure 4.13.1 Lack of maintenance of pedestrian Figure 4.13.3 Clearly marked pedestrian crossing
crossing road marking in DOW . p in Calcutta but incorrect markings. p
CRRI, TRL Manual for Saffiy in Road Design

4.28
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice:
Road markings guide and assist the driver to negotiate conflict

points and to be positioned at precisely the right location to make
his manoeuvre in the safest and quickest way so that the time he
is exposed to risk is minimised. National standards are to be
strictly followed so that road users can be sure of their meaning
( i .e . the encourage consistency of approach, layouts, signs and
markings) wherever they are in the country.
Stop and give way lines on roads can position drivers so that
they are brought to the safest point from which to make their
Figure 4.13.3 Adequately marked
manoeuvres through the junction .
pedestrian crossing and no overtaking
Centreline and edgemarking of rural roads can help to delineate lines in Maharastra
the road ahead so that any horizontal or vertical curvature can
be clearly seen by approaching road users and is strongly recommended.
Centreline markings can be used to convey information about whether or not it is safe to overtake, while marks
in the centre of lanes should be used more to indicate particular hazards ahead.
Frequent repainting can give good results even if the paint quality is not high . If frequent repainting is not
feasible, specialist contractors should be employed to apply thermoplastic (a higher quality material) markings
(these are more expensive but can last as much as 8 times longer than paint) . Paints should confirm to Indian
standards and be reflectorised.
On unlit roads, night-time visibility of road markings and hence any horizontal or vertical alignment can be
markedly improved by mixing small glass beads into the paint or thermoplastic before applying it to the road
surface. This solution is particularly appropriate for India as many urban and rural roads are unlit.
The hybrid markings consisting of both reflective road markings and reflective studs can be useful for night
time driving in un-lit areas. The studs give an audible and tactile warning of crossing any line which incorporates
them . They are strongly recommended.
Prefabricated markings are also acceptable and can be laid with minimum disruption to traffic .
Figure 4.13A Innovative road marking for compulsory Figure 4.13 .5 Hybrid markings consisting
right turning in Maharastm, India. m both of paints and studs in Bhopal, India . m
More information is available in Technical Annex 4.3
Other relevant sections: 4.12, 4.14, 4.17, 5.7, 8.14

i s references: B7, C6
references : Al, A41, A52
Ministry of Surface TYnnsport Ross Silcock

4.29
CHAPTER 4
4.14 Delineators and Chevron Signs
Overview :
Centre and edge lining, especially if reflective, assists in the efficient and safe usage of the carriageway and is
strongly recommended. They allow drivers more easily and accurately to judge their position on the road and
are particularly helpful in conditions of poor visibility such as in rain, fog or darkness . This can lead to a
reduction in accidents with oncoming vehicles, and with stationary vehicles or obstructions on the shoulder or
road side .
Areas of cross hatching may be used to guide drivers away from an obstruction such as a central bollard or
sheltered taming lane . Delineation of this sort gives clear guidance to a driver, whilst allowing him to recover
from an error by driving on the hatched area if necessary. Reflective road studs and "cats eyes" are commonly
used in industrialised countries to delineate the carriageway and give drivers advance warning of changes in
alignment ahead.
Delineation of the carriageway using lane markings and small physical barriers can be extremely cost effective
in maintenance, traffic operations and safety terms. A large range of measures exist as indicated above, and
consideration for their appropriate introduction should be given at an early stage of design . For example, on the
interurban roads, markings should be considered as part of the design process. Indeed, early consideration will
sharpen the designers' awareness of the overtaking and other opportunities available in the alignment. Reflective
delineators are especially useful at night-time in guiding a driver through what might otherwise be a potentially
dangerous location.
Chevron signs at bends are highly recommended. If reflective material is used their effectiveness is increased at
night .
Problems:
It is more difficult for drivers to judge their lateral

locations on a road where there are no centre line
and/or edge markings . A lack of edge definition can
increase pavement deterioration due to vehicles
driving onto the shoulder and may increase the risk
of accidents.
Centre line markings may not be sufficient to deter

vehicles from overtaking into an opposing lane, as
driver discipline is often very poor.
Without delineation, drivers may not be aware of the

need to locate their vehicles correctly as they
approach either an obstacle or a changing traffic
Figure 4.14 .1 Lack of delineation on a rural
situation, such as at an intersection or at the end of a
highway
climbing lane .
Delineators which form physical barriers may themselves add to the accident situation if they are poorly
designed or located . The presence of physical barriers may also restrict the movements of heavy vehicles/
abnormal loads or the ready ability to divert traffic in emergency situations or when there are road works .
Few sharp bends are indicated through the use of chevron boards with retroreflective sheeting . There is no
standard for chevron sign in India. (Technical Annex 43)
CRRI, TRL ~= Manual for Safety in Road Design =_

4 .30
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice:
The benefits of delineation are as follows:
" Clear road markings should be introduced

wherever possible as they result in more
consistent and, therefore, safer lateral location
of vehicles in all highway situations . The
density and type of marking can also give clues
to a driver as to whether or not they can
consider overtaking in safety . On dual
carriageway roads, and where lanes are added
or dropped, delineation can encourage less
haphazard movements and hence reduce
accident risk .
" Reflective delineator posts are especially useful

at night-time . These are typically one metre
Figure 4.14.2 Provision of delineators on the road
high and set one metre from the carriageway curves in U.P, India. Definition of the curve is
(or back of shoulder). On hill roads they may improved but the marker drums become an
be placed either on the parapet or at the edge additional hazard [j]
of the shoulders. Reflectorised raised pavement
markers are very effective for centre-line, lane
and edge marking.
" Small physical delineators such as studs or

painted raised kerbs can deter drivers from
changing lane . They should be used in
dangerous situations difficult to enforce
otherwise.
" Physical barriers may be used where the effects

of vehicles ignoring guidance may lead to
severe accidents and where other objectives
can be met at the same time . Such barriers are
often placed down the centre of wide urban
multi-lane roads and incorporate pedestrian
barriers . They stop U-turns, a particularly
dangerous and disruptive movement . Such Figure 4.14.3 Reflectorised Chevron warning sign
barriers are for delineation purposes only and in Papua New Guinea is readily visible at night m
may be very narrow .
" Reflective edge of carriageway markings may be very cost-effective in reducing shoulder damage and
maintenance costs.
The delineators are most likely to be effective on dangerous bends, on approaches to intersection and on
embankments .
Delineators made of plastic which recovers to its original position are safe and effective .
Chevron signs are very useful in showing the location of sharp bends. They should be sited so as to be
visible as a vehicle approaches the hazard . If the bend is long, they should be repeated . If a guard rail is
present the chevron signs should be sited behind, but not obscured by, the guard rail.
Some additional material is presented in Technical Annex 4.3
mces". B23
11 references: A12, A41
9s'nistry of Surface Transport Ross Silcock

4.31
CHAPTER 4
4.15 Drainage
Overview:
Drainage ditches are an essential part of any road which is not on an embankment and must be incorporated into
most highways . These are designed to accommodate the expected rainfall but can often be hazardous to vehicles
that run off the road . Adequate attention must therefore be given to the safety considerations of drainage
facilities when designing and upgrading highways . Drainage ditches collect and disperse the water from the
roadway pavement and the run off from the uphill side of the carriageway. Careful design and location of such
ditches can reduce the potential hazard of such structures .
Drainage ditches must, first and foremost, be designed to accommodate the expected rainfall and run-off and
are required to prevent structural damage to the road . In areas where flash floods or heavy monsoon rains occur
these channels may need to be very deep . Unfortunately deep, steep-sided drainage channels can result in more
damage in the case of vehicles going off the road . Where expected volumes of run-off permit L or J type drains
should be used in preference to U or V type as, in addition to minimising damage to vehicles running off the
road, these provide a safe area for pedestrians to walk on rural roads .
Problems :
In developed countries median drains are often covered and designed to be crossed by vehicles . In India such
buried median drains are unsatisfactory because of the high cost, the fact that they are often not regularly
cleaned out and because less disciplined drivers will drive across medians rather than making U-tums at the
correct locations.
Drainage ditches are designed to accommodate expected

run-off and in areas where very intense rainfall occurs
the ditches may need to cope with very high volumes of
water over short periods, (e .g . flash floods in desert areas
or monsoon rains in tropical countries) . Consequently,
they often need to be very deep and steep-sided to
accommodate the volume of water but in this form they
can easily flip vehicles over should they run off the road .
Inadequate maintenance and clearing of debris from

drainage channels, especially on the uphill side of the
carriageway where large volumes of solid material is
often washed down into the ditch, can result in water
and debris overflowing onto the carriageway. This
results in the potential danger of drivers colliding with Figure 4.15.1 Accumulation of water on the road
debris or aquaplaning . due to lack of proper drainage in Mahamstra
In many areas, rural roads become the main pedestrian routes between adjacent communities and the absence of
pedestrian footpaths forces pedestrians to walk on the road, especially if the drainage ditch is of a type (e .g .
deep U or V type) which cannot be used as a pedestrian route.
Unprotected U and V type drains present a hazard to motorised vehicles particularly motorcyclists. These types
of drain should be covered as this reduces problems for vehicles, particularly motorcyclists .
CRRI, TRt" - Manual for Safety in Road Design

4.32 z
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice:
The development of drainage ditches which can cope with expected rainfall levels and yet do not create
unsafe conditions for motorists is not an easy task and inevitably a compromise is required . The most
important principles to consider are as follows: .
" The best possible hydrological study must be made using all available data, including discussions with
local inhabitants, aerial photographs of areas upstream and personal reconnaissance (ideally in winter
just after heavy rain when wet channels are clearly visible) .
" On long grades, culverts are required at regular

intervals to reduce the risk of flow damaging the
roadside ditch. Regular turnouts are required on
the downhill side of the road .
" Ditches do not need to be watertight and, indeed,

it is better if they are not watertight on the side
nearest the carriageway. Even in areas of tropical
rainfall they will be dry for much longer than
they are wet. If the side of the ditch is porous,
evaporation takes place rapidly and dries out not
only water which has percolated sideways from
the ditch into the subgrade but also any water
which has percolated vertically into the subgrade
from cracks in the surface of the pavement. Figure 4.15.2 Uncovered drainage along the
road in Goa'
" Slopes on the side of the ditch nearest the road
are not recommended to be more than 1 :3 and
preferably shallower if feasible as this will
minimi se damage and injury. On the side further
from the road, to slope can be as steep as the
ground will permit to make it difficult for vehicles
to enter the road except at proper access points.
" Where expected volumes of run-off permit Ltype

and J-type drainage channels, these should be
used in preference to open U or V type to
minimise danger to vehicles which run off the
road and to provide, during dry periods, a safe
area for pedestrians to walk. The depth and width
of the channel gap on a typical U-type ditch offers
no opportunity for the motorist to recover if he
should temporarily lose control and, of course,
no possibility for pedestrians to walk along it .
" Generally, carriageways should drain away from

Figure 4.153 Covered drainage along the road
the median. Where superelevaton considerations
in Maharashtra. However, there is no raised
mean that a drain is required the median should
footway for pedestrian. m
be protected by a kerb and sub-surface drainage
provided (Technical Annex 4.4)
Further details are shown in Technical Annex 4.4
Mintsrry of Surface TrenSpor Ross Silcock

4 .33
CHAPTER 4
4.16 Safety Fences and Barriers
Overview :
Many accidents on high speed roads involve vehicles leaving the road and being in collision with hazardous
obstacles such as trees, bridge supports or simply rolling down a high embankment . Similarly, a vehicle leaving
a lane on the off-side of a dual carriageway runs the risk of collision with an oncoming vehicle .
The risk of these types of accidents can be significantly reduced by the use of guard rails or barriers . The
purpose of the barrier is to absorb the impact with as little overall severity as possible . Barriers and safety
fences may also be introduced to protect roadside facilities from vehicle impact.
The correct design of safety fences and barriers is important to prevent accidents which otherwise would often
be very severe . They should be designed to absorb impact with as little risk of injury to vehicle occupants as
possible . They are intended to be placed between the carriageway and the objects which cause severe accidents
if struck, such as bridge supports, or to retain vehicles on high embankments or mountain roads. Their use on
high speed roads is justified, but care needs to be taken to detail correctly, particularly at the start and end
points . Damaged barriers must be repaired immediately
as they can cause serious damage if struck by passing
vehicles .
Problems:
Safety fences and barriers are used to protect drivers and

passengers of vehicles from severe accidents. Problems
occur when :
" The principles of design are not fully understood

and carried forward to construction, so that a
vehicle colliding with the safety fence is not
adequately restrained . In such situations, the costs
of construction will have been wasted .
Safety fences are often introduced too close to Figure 4.16.1 Poor quality of safety fencing, can
the hazard, terminated too early or the detailing of be helpful in delineation to a certain extent but
the ends of the safety fences is poor and introduces does not prevent accidents caused by run off road
a new and severe hazard . vehicles
Barriers and safety fences are subject to minor

damage from vehicle scrapes and impacts and will
lose much of their safety benefits if they are not
properly repaired.
Barriers and safety fences are installed too close

to the edge of a carriageway . Reduction of the
effective width of the carriageway increases the
likelihood of collision between opposing vehicles,
particularly on narrow roads. Barriers and safety
fences are installed at locations where they are
not essential, this may result in additional
accidents .
Figure 4.1&2 Barrier warrant for rill-section

embankments as used in India 1146
CRRI, 7RL Manual for Safety in Road DlMgn

4.34
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice :
Where there is space between the guardrail or safety fence and the protected feature, flexible barriers should be
used which are held in tension at both ends but are flexible in between. This allows energy absorption by the
barrier and therefore leads to less serious accidents. Construction must be to manufacturer's requirements, as
tolerances may be small if they are to be most effective for the range of vehicle types and conditions of impact
which may occur.
Where there is no room for deflection, for example,

where width is severely limited by a bridge support,
then appropriately designed rigid barriers must be
used . These are not suitable for high-speed roads,
although some designs will deflect vehicles back onto
the carriageway .
Special attention should be paid to end points of

barriers which can themselves be a significant hazard
due to the positive anchorage required and their
unprotected nature . The easiest solution to this is
for the end of the barrier to be buried into the back
slope.
Guard rails and safety fences should be placed

sufficiently far from the edge of the carriageway so
as not to cause a hazard to vehicles on the
carriageway, nor reduce the effective width of the
road . For rural roads, the minimum clearance should
be 0.5 metres although 1 .0 metres would be more Figure 4.16.3 Bridge with integral barrier but ends
desirable. For urban roads, with low speeds the protected only by delineator posts. A flared barrier
setback may be reduced to 0.33 metres . would improve safety . Note no provision for
pedestrians across bridge exposing them to greater
New Jersey barriers are also applicable where hazard . p
clearances are tight around important structures .
Details of their construction are in Technical Annex
4.5.
Wire rope barriers are commercially available . These

are expensive (Rs. five million/km compared with
standard beam barriers at Rs . one million/km) but
have been found to be effective in India as
maintenance and repair are easier . They are
recommended where a solid beam barrier may create
snow or sand drifts (Technical Annex 4.5) .
Proper maintenance of barriers is essential if they

are to remain effective.
Warrants for the introduction of barriers are available.
The barriers are highly useful at locations Figure 4.16.4 Provision of rigid barriers to contain
experiencing high run - off the road accidents. run-off road accidents in Maharashtra , India The
Therefore, study of the accidents is essential (see end should be flared to avoid vehicles riding up the
Chapter 8 and reference C1) . end of the barrier. m p
Ministry of Surface 7tanspotr - Ross Silcock

4.35
CHAPTER 4
4.17 Median Barriers
Overview :
Medians, or central barriers, are used to segregate opposing streams of traffic and to discourage unwise choices
of crossing place by pedestrians . The safety implications are that head-on collisions between opposing streams
are avoided and that pedestrians are encouraged to use crossing facilities or to choose another, safer point at
which to cross.
A distinction should be made between median used for directional guidance in traffic management, and safety
barriers. The latter need to be more substantial as their function is to redirect errant vehicles onto their original
course and absorb much of the energy of collision. Safety barrier dimensions are typically of the order of 600
mm or more in height, whereas median provided for guidance need only consist of a wised kerb or low railing.
Care needs to be taken with access routes for emergency vehicles and for other unexpected events such as
accidents or breakdowns . End details are important as an unprotected end to a median barrier becomes a
particularly severe hazard.
Problems:
Pedestrians are reluctant to make long detours to find a safe crossing point and in
some situations the median barrier merely necessitates a dangerous vaulting or
climbing manoeuvre in the middle of the road .
Medians can restrict the movement of traffic ifthere is a breakdown or if emergency

vehicles need to make their way through a traffic jam .
The materials used for median barriers can be useful for other purposes and pilferage
may be a problem in some areas.
End detail is important, as the unprotected end of a median barrier can form a
substantial and potentially lethal structure in the centre of the carriageway . Figure 4 .17.1 Typical
barrier dimensions Al
Clear and effective signs are needed, with strict enforcement, to ensure that drivers
do not mistakenly - or deliberately - drive on the wrong side of the barrier.
Median barriers are an important safety feature on high speed roads and in some situations can have safety
implications for both motorists and pedestrians. They reduce or eliminate the danger of head-on collisions and
prevent pedestrians crossing at potentially hazardous locations.
There is often a lack of barrier at split level carriageways where' only a narrow median has been created during
reconstruction to four lane divided carriageway .
Where barriers are not considered necessary a desirable rrlinimum median is 5 m. Solid New Jersey (or British
Concrete Barriers) are applicable on narrow medians (Figure 4.17.2) .
Safer Practice:
Median barriers can reduce or even eliminate head-on collisions, depending upon their characteristics.
Median barriers can be used to channel pedestrians to safer crossing points, at which special facilities can be
provided. In some cases kerbside barriers may also be required to prevent pedestrians attempting to cross by
climbing the median . The median barrier may be retained at pedestrian crossing points, but be modified for
easy use by pedestrians . A single step of not more than 0.25 metres would be adequate to deter vehicle usage.
Consideration should be given to the access ofemergency vehicles and other vehicles in the case ofa breakdown
or accident . This can be done by local widening at the junction or by strategically placed gaps in the barriers.
CRR(,TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

4 .36
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Careful end detailing can reduce the hazard formed

by the end of the barrier. This may include some form
of impact absorbing crash cushion, with road markings
and advance warning signs.
The choice of a raised, level or depressed central

median is dependent on local circumstances (such as
drainage) but unless the median is a minimum of 5 m
it will bF necessary to kerb raised medians and to
provide barriers for level or depressed medians.
Where there is a narrow median and a split level

carriageway with no protection it will be necessary to
retrofit rigid barriers to the uphill side. The downhill
side may be protected by a kerb, but if the level FSgure4.17.2 Rigid barrier to avoid head an collision
difference is more than 1 .5 m (interim suggestion) it high speed row in Puce- m
should also be protected by a barrier. Additional research is required on this issue.
A brief note on anti-dazzle screens is in Technical Annex 4.5
aFt13N : Or POST: CLRARANca

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Figure 4.173 Safely fences and barriers, types and clearances at obstructions
M&Lrtry of Surface 1lanaport Ross Silcock

,~ 4.37
CHAPTER 4
4.18 Lighting
Operviety:u
Night-time accidents in urban areas can be substantially reduced by the implementation of adequate street
lighting . This is an established accident prevention measure in urban areas in industrialised countries. It is
particularly important where there are high proportions of pedestrians, cyclists or other poorly lit road users
including animalp. Lighting has benefits other than accident prevention and can often be justified as a general
amenity with an associated reduction in night-time crime and an improvement in personal security .
Lighting should provide a uniformly lit road surface against which vehicles, pedestrians or other objects are
seen in silhouette. The design of the lighting system should relate to the road surface reflection characteristics
in order to provide the optimum quality and quantity of illumination. Light coloured surfaces give better
silhouette vision than do dark ones.
Table 4.18.1 Recommended lighting standards as used in UK

Average Overall Longitudinal
Category Luminance Uniformity Uniformity Examples
Level Lcd/m2 Ratio Uo Ratio Um
1 1 .5 0 .4 0.7 High speed roads dual carriageway roads .

2 1 .0 0 .4 0.5 Important nual and urban traffic routes .
Radial roads district distributor roads .
3. 0.5 0.4 0.5 Connecting less important roads, Local
distributor roads, Residential area and
Major access roads .
NOTES : Awragelwwinuze(of1heroadmtfaor)adwaveragelv,nlnaorovsradefked~oflheroadrwfatvkvedfromaipeciJhdoDae,wrpaealon
(~bol L).
Owroll vmfomly (ofhminmws) u the ratio afthe rohdorwo to awroge hmirnvws ofadeflned wo,, oflhr roadway (symbol O).
1Gmgitwhnal wdlbmlry (oflvmdvanw) 4 dae raao oflhe mhdmmv lmnlromw along a lolWmdblulllm drawn through the observerposiaon fymbd O,) .
Lighting is most appropriate in urban streets, and key locations include intersections and places where pedestrians
cross. The level of illumination needs to be consistent and maintenance is most important. Signs and road
markings should be visible at night. Where the road layout is at all unusual or where there are large numbers of
cycles or pedestrians, lighting is particularly important . If only limited funds are available, efforts should be
made to provide lighting on at least the most important routes .
Problems:
Lighting is expensive to install and maintain . However, without propermaintenance, the resulting inconsistency
in lighting can of itself be a safety hazard . Maintenance is a problem in India because of inadequacy of funds .
Careful attention needs to be paid to the siting of lamp posts as they can be hazardous in the event of a vehicle
leaving the road. The column can be a significant visual obstruction at critical locations. Lighting demands
readily available and sustainable supply of electricity . This is generally not available in rural areas in India and
many towns also suffer fromeirregular and low-voltage supplies.
Safer Practice.
The most important aspects to consider are :

Evenness of illumination is important. This requires good design and regular maintenance. A routine
maintenance programme should be initiated and all installations inspected on a regular basis .
rr Lamp posts should not be sited in positions where they will be a danger to a vehicle leaving the road. If
this is not possible, then they should be protected by crash barriers, or designed to collapse on impact.
Minimum clearances should be as Figure 426 .3 .
Signs-and-road markings should be visible at night. Where lighting is not feasible, use of refiective
material is a useful, cheaper alternative .
-CRRI,-TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

&38
ZZ=---, ZMZJr-- ,
ROAD LINK DESIGN
" Lighting is most important at key locations

such as at sub-standard design sections, at sites
where the layout may be unclear, at
intersections, and where pedestrians cross.
" Consideration should be given to the use of
sodium lighting, particularly at key points, as
it is much more efficient than mercury or
tungsten lighting.
" The lighting columns should not themselves
obstacle-, i .e . should not be
Pexception2y
rovide solid and sited too close to the
kerb edge. Frangible posts should be used
wherever possible.
" Four standard mounting height are
commercially available : 9 m, 7.5 m, 6.4 m,
and 4.5 m. Outreach may vary from 0.5 m , to
2.75 m but not exceed 0.5 m for the 4.5 m
column. Figure 4.18.1 Placement of lighting poles for
providing visibility during night in Calcutta,
" Lamps should be chosen to match as many
of the following criteria as possible India m
a) High efficacy and low energy consumption
b) Long life
C) Resistance to fluctuations in the electricity supply
d) Low capital costs
e) Good colour rendition
Table 4.18.2 Lamp characteristics A42

Efficacy Life Seninvity Purchase Colo"
hn/waa Hours - to Voltage Cost Rendering
Hi PtesaoreSodiom 130 12000 AVERAGE HIGH AVERAGE

Low Pasoa e Sodann 200 8000 AVERAGE HIGH POOR
lE Aeanre hiercury 60 6000 LOW MEDIUM AVERAGE
Fluoresces! 80 " 8000 '' LOW MEDIUM GOOD
T5Lngsten 14 1000 HIGH LOW VERY GOOD
Figure 4.18.2 Lamp placementm A42
Ministry of Surface TYansport Ross Silcock

_ 4.39
4.19 Urban Footways
Overview :
Pedestrian accidents form a substantial proportion of road accident deaths and injuries. Pedestrians arc particularly
at risk in the urban situation (Figure 1 .1 .4). In India, highways are usually designed with raised footways as
part of the crow-section. On interurban roads, footways are rarely provided, although in some areas, pedestrian
flows may be, high. ,
The standard of maintenance and repair of facilities plays an important part in reducing both real and perceived
danger and inconvenience for pedestrians.
Footways have great implications for safety and every effort should be made to segregate pedestrians and
vehicles where space allows . Separate routes make travel much more safe for vulnerable road users. In areas
of high pedestrian activity it may be desirable to give greater road space to pedestrians and less to vehicles by
the use of wide footways . In central areas it may even be beneficial to pedestrianise some streets for at least part
of the day but access must still be possible at other times for service vehicles. Care must be taken to ensure that
footways do not become obstructed, especially by street traders and/or parked vehicles, and that the surfaces are
easy to walk on.
:
Problems
Pedestrian activities are usually relatively

unrestricted and, consequently, complex and
confusing movements take place.
In some urban situations inadequate footway space

can force pedestrians onto the roadway and create
safety problems for all concerned. Pedestrians may
also be forced onto the cariageway because of the
poor condition of the footways, parked vehicles,
or the use of the footway by street traders.
Poorly sited street furniture and hoardings can

prevent full use of the footway and impede visibility
for road users. It is sometimes possible to site Figure 4.19.1 Lack of pedestrian facility in Goa,
equipment such as traffic signal controllers, lighting India
columns and poles for signs, at the back edge of
the footway rather than at the kerbside, but this is
rarely done.
Parking on the footway is highly obstructive and can damage the surface as well as forcing pedestrians onto the
road. Physical barriers to prevent parking on the footway can be useful.
Footways with uneven surfaces or otherwise in a poor state of repair am particularly hazardous and people may
be forced to walk in the cariageway and hence be exposed to unnecessary risk.
Kerb heights am often high for drainage purposes with no provision for the elderly or disabled to step on and off
the footway . In consequence, they may use the carriageway reducing safety . In some areas the problems are
increased because of numerous crossing for vehicle entry to property.
Manual for Safety in Road Design

,~ 4.40
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice :
Whilst it is clearly desirable to provide an extensive net-
work of segregated footpaths and footways, this is rarely
possible in most parts of India where resources are lim-
ited. Thus, attention should be directed to places more
likely to benefit from the segregation of pedestrians from
motorised traffic. Potential locations are places where pe-
destrians are found in large numbers; for example, near
schools, shopping areas, office complex and major sports
facilities . In some areas it may be possible to widen the
existing footway where it is too narrow for the demands
placed upon it in order to avoid the necessity for pedestri-
ans to step into the carriageway .
Footways should be segregated by at least a raised kerb

(100 mm - 150 mm minimum height) and in critical areas
by guardrails as well (8 .23) . This is particularly important
on narrow and/or high speed roads. Where no footway can
be provided (e.g . where drainage limits this option) pedes- Figure 4.19.2 Wide footpath with tines. m
trians can be segregated by pedestrian barrier, a system
found effective in Mumbai .
At kerbs, dropped crossings should be provided to assist

the elderly and infirm. The ramps at dropped crossings
should not exceed a maximum gradient of 8% (1 in 12)
with no abrupt change of slope. The section of kerb should
be flush with the carriageway . Tactile surfaces, such as
small raised studs, will assist blind people in locating the
crossing. (Detail Figure 4.21 .7)
Footways should be of good standard (smooth, well drain-

ing surface) and of adequate width for the pedestrian flows
involved and be kept clear of obstructions .
Measures which increase the capacity (including widen-
ing and removal of obstruction) of the footway and reduce
the time taken for pedestrians to cross the road can be es-
pecially useful where pedestrian movements cannot be con- Figure 4.19.3 Provision of protected footpaths
centrated at a formal crossing place. The loss of carriage- for safety of pedestrians in Calcutta . However,
way capacity for moving vehicles can sometimes be re- the barrier should have a gap for pedestrians
duced if bays are provided for bus stops and arrangements to cross safely . p
are made to control loading and any on-street parking, thus
preserving an adequate nmning width.
In central areas, consideration should be given to pedestrianisation of certain streets for at least part of the day,
possibly allowing access for service vehicles and public transport.
Alternative, off-road routes should be sought, such as paths through parks and school playing fields .
Table 4 .19.1 Capacity of footways B21
Capacity in number of persons per hour
Wi dth of foorways (metre)
All in one direction I In both directions
1 .50 1,200 800
2.00 2,400 1,600
2.50 3,600 2,400
3.00 4,800 3,200
4.00 6,000 4,000

4.41
CHAPTER 4
4 .20 Rural Ftwtways
Overview:
Although pedestrians exist in lower concentrations in rural areas than in towns, they are still placed at considerable
risk due to the higher speeds of traffic and lack of pedestrian facilities and street lights. In India, where village
people sometimes have to walk long distances to nearby villages or their fields, this can be particularly hazardous.
The construction of a simple footway along the roadside, or even a wide shoulder, can remove many such
zonflicts.
As space is usually available in rural areas, it is often possible to provide segregated footways within the
boundaries of the highway . These should be segregated from the carriageway by a grass verge and/or railings .
Where space permits it is possible to allow shared use of paths by pedestrians and cyclists . Ideally, footways
and cycleways should be provided on both sides of the highway.
Walking is a major mode of transport in India and pedestrians form a high proportion of accident victims. The
provision of simple segregated footpaths or footways adjacent to the carriageway can prevent accidents to
vulnerable pedestrians in rural areas where vehicle speeds are high . It is crucial that they are given due
consideration at the design stage, to see how pedestrian movements, both along and across the roads, may be
catered for most safely and efficiently in all aspects of the design . Where such rural roads pass through isolated
communities or trading centres this may require appropriately signed raised crossings to slow down traffic. In
rural sections where high volumes of pedestrians are expected, wide shoulders or a graded footpath alongside
the road may be requi red.
Problems :
Substantial conflict pt oblems usually exist where

roads pass through rural settlements as the road
often passes very close to existing buildings leaving
no footpaths for pedestrians . Also, in India, rural
roads are often used by the local population as
footpaths, particularly in the rainy season as these
usually provide the easiest and most convenient
routes between communities.
In India many interurban roads have a cross

sectional profile which makes it difficult to cater
easily for pedestrians . The natural camber of the
canriageway is carried over into the shoulder and
this is followed by a steeper slope into the side drain. Figure 4 .20 .1 Lack of rural footways forcing
The side drains too are often deep U-type channels pedestrians to walk on the carriageway .
which (particularly in mountainous areas where the
road is in a cutting) force pedestrians to walk on
the roadway and expose them to increased risk .

ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice :
The most important elements to consider are:
" Special consideration should be given to

pedestrian movements along the route during the
design stage of a highway. This will require
separate surveys to estimate demand and
appropriate provision as part of the design .
" On all but the lowest trafficked roads, the non-

motorised movements should be segregated,
eitherby providing a footpath/cycle track beyond
the drainage facility, or on a segregated part of
the shoulder . Where segregated facilities are FSgure 4.20.2 Provision of shoulder footpaths
designed for a fight loading and there is likelihood on rural roads. 0
of encroachment by heavy vehicles, provision,
such as barriers or bollards, should be made to stop the passage of heavy vehicles which would damage
the facility and make it unserviceable . Footpaths need not be expensive. Running a grader along one side
of the road levels the ground and removes most of the vegetation to create a cheap segregated footpath .
" At settlements, the safer practices outlined in Urban Foorways Chapter 4.19 should be adopted.
" Where vehicle speeds are relatively high, crossing facilities should be protected by speed limiting devices,
such as speed humps, and be readily visible. Parked vehicles should also be banned within 50 metres of
each pedestrian crossing facility.
" A regular maintenance programme should be initiated to ensure, that the surfaces of footways are kept
reasonably clean and level, and that vegetation does not cause an obstruction either to passage or
visibility.
" Visibility at crossing points is particularly important and advance warning signs should be used if good
visibility is not available.
" On very low volume access roads, reduced geometric standards will reduce vehicle speeds and may allow
pedestrians to use the road safely without segregation.
" Footway width should be a minimum of 1 .5 m for low flows (less than 300 pedestrians per hour) and a
minimum of 2 m at higher flows
Table 4.20.1 Rural highway footpath design criteria [ASHTO standard adopted in reference A611
Average daily Pedestrian flow per hour
Footway traffic (ADT) Design speed m speed hmit Design speed w speed hmit
(50-80 kmPo) (80-120 ktn/h)
One side 30-100 150 100

>100 100 50
Both side 50-100 500 300
>100 300 200
Ministry of Surface Ransport ,mess Silcock

4.43
CHAPTER 4
4 .21 Vulnerable Road Users
Overview :
All over India, flows of modern motor vehicles are mixed with animal-drawn carts and bicycles . As well as
reducing capacity substantially, the presence of slow-moving vehicles on the same carriageway creates hazardous
conditions . Other vehicles may be forced to slow down rapidly, or be tempted to overtake in dangerous
circumstances. Non-motorised vehicles are amongst the most vulnerable groups of road users and like pedestrians,
are unprotected . Consequently, any impact, even a small one, can result in serious injury to riders and passengers .
The mix of traffic in India can lead to particularly hazardous situations because of the wide range of vehicle
performance characteristics especially in the speed differentials. Segregating the slower moving traffic from
the motorised flows can offer safety benefits and an improvement in overall efficiency of the network. Although
it is rarely practical to build completely separate networks in existing cities, it may be possible to provide a safer
network by providing additional facilities along certain routes and linking these by short, segregated sections .
In new developments, segregated road and path systems can be included at the planning stage, often at little
cost. Pedestrians and slow moving vehicles can share facilities . The provision of shoulders along rural roads
could provide one such facility .
Problems:
This compares to China where cycles are registered and special facilities are provided for them since they
constitute the largest group of road vehicles using the roads. In India, despite the large numbers of cyclists and
other human powered vehicles (e .g . cycle-rickshaws, hand-carts), very few special facilities are available. In
India, these vehicles have to compete for road space against cars, trucks and other motorised traffic using the
roads. For example, buses stopped adjacent to the kerb can obstruct cyclists and other slow moving vehicles .
Other kinds of slow moving vehicles can be even more problematic, especially if they are physically large - as
are many animal drawn carts. Slow moving animal drawn traffic can be particularly hazardous in rural areas
and at night. Often unlit, they obstruct faster moving traffic in an unpredictable way. Unsuspecting drivers run
serious risks of collision, either with the cart or with other vehicles if they attempt to overtake . It must be
recognised however, that in India. animal drawn carts are sell fundamental to the local and rural economy and
so cannot just be banned . Furthermore, pedestrian facilities like footways are neither sufficient nor pedestrian
friendly as these are discontinuous, too high and are subject to encroachment by street traders . In a city like
Pune, only 1090 of the roads have pedestrian footpaths. Also crossing facilities are quite inadequate, especially
at and near intersections.
Figure 4.21.1 A channelised intersection with signals and recently marked

crosswalk assists pedestrians to cross safely. However, the median Island is
insufficiently long to protect pedestrians fully, the markings are incorrect
and the stopline set too far back which leads to vehicles disobeying it. Dropped
crossings would also assist pedestrians to cross . L.-~
CRRZ TRL Manual for Safety in oad Design

4 .44
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice:
Different types of traffic need different facilities and slow moving and vulnerable road users should be segregated
wherever possible from faster motorised vehicles . Ideally, separate cycle tracks should be provided in cities
where it is a major mode of transport. A wholly separate network of cycle tracks is generally impractical in
existing cities on cost grounds but should be considered, particularly in new developments . Aspects which
should be considered are:
By simplifying the traffic situation with the segregation of slower moving traffic from the main streams,
it is likely that a more efficient, and safer, situation will result for all road users.
It is sometimes possible for cyclists to share facilities with pedestrians - for example an underpass or
overbridge - and at the same time to reduce delays caused to faster moving traffic by removal of the
conflicts. In order to avoid conflicts between pedestrians and cyclists it may be possible to segregate
them through the use of a kerb or level difference. The joint use facility should be a desirable minimum
5.0 in and an absolute minimum of 3.0 m.
Opportunities for segregation may be less in rural areas. If animal-drawn traffic is still common, then
the provision of a wider shoulder on major routes can act as a suitable track. The presence of the wide
shoulder may also be of similar benefit to cyclists and pedestrians as well as offering a safe refuge for
broken-down motor vehicles, off the main carriageway . If special shoulders are to be used in this way,
care should be taken to ensure that they are sufficiently wide and segregated at least by road markings .
Cycle tracks should usually be a minimum of 3 .0 m wide, with additional width to allow for high flows
and, in some situations, use by other non-motorised vehicles . Width for rickshaws and hand carts should
be a desirable minimum of 3.5 m with an absolute minimum of 3 .0 m Segregation by a kerb or barrier
will limit their use by motorised vehicles .
Pedestrian footpaths are to be constructed based on pedestrian flows and needs (Chapter 4.19) and
provided with dropped crossings (Figure 4.21 .7).
Table 4.21.1 Capacity of cycle tracks B25
Width of cycle track Capacity in number of cycles per hour
One-way traffic Two-way traffic

Two lanes (3m) 250-600 50-250
Three lanes (4m) over 600 250-600
Four lanes (5m) - over 600
Figure 4.21.2 Mid-block zebra crossing across Figure 4.21 .3 Mid-block zebra crossing across
two way street current practice B29 one way road current practice mB29
Ministry of Staface 71ansport Ross Si4

45
CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.21.4 UK warrants for pedestrian

crossing facilities .
Figure 4.21.5 Refuge island
PI- C, W1, R~d
Figure4.21 .7 Pedestrian dropped crossings. Slope

I~I~I gradient should not exceed 8% p A58
=IZ
Figure 4.21.6 Various types of pelican to assist

pedestrians p A43
CRRI. TRL Manual for Safety in Rid Design IL

4.46
ROAD-LINWSESIGN
-f Bu( B"Y
Figure 4.21 .8 Layout indicates how a single

bus bay may be incorporated where there is a
slow moving vehicle lane[Z] B21 TYPE A -SEPARATED OWYCLE ROAD
~ .e " vr scx " c n " rn. . . .e c . .mwrnx cwenuxco i
-+ort <.. .- ..m .x u ., 11, . .. . . . .,
. .. ...
r 4
TYPE E-LOw PAVgO

i M rvr m 7e /G A=sC0 .0~Nt710F nDT CONOTY~M01
NO "L Nd n.
.
i I~iE1S~ .a.
~ Il~~ni '~"" I
d
TYPEC-1 .6m WED 3HOULOERS

~. . u Vcraznurnc,a,n,wc+coxmwcr
su " a" wc c . . "=
E07H:
r . roro ~ .a.ar.wnmw."
z aM9,yzeizzazzwuaza~aw..nns,vnus.av .n,,newa,r~ .x m., .
.gxu~oaa .n .
r
Figure 4.21.9 National Cycle Route UK practice. Figure 4.21.10 Suggestion for national highways
Staggered Cycle Track Crossing of Major Road. in Vietnam (right hand drive) for various levels
(Two-way segregated cycle lane within parking bay of cycle traffic m
area) m A66
s.;
Pant Sedigns : 2.10, 4.19, 4.20, 4.22, 4.23, 438, 5.10, 5.-11, 8.20, 8.21
Ivdim ftferences: 821, B25, B29, B34, C1, C8
Key external references: A3, A17, A25, A36, A39, A43, A58, A66

4.47
CHAPTER 4
4.22 Providing for Public Transport
Overview :
India has a diverse range of public transport modes. Economic factors can result in many of these being unsafe,
but they are the only available modes of travel for the large majority . In such circumstances first priorities need
to be aimed at limited regulation to ensure that the safety of passengers is adequately catered for through regular
roadworthiness screening of vehicles and by having basic minimum standards for drivers and operators providing
such services . In addition, consideration can be given to special measures, such as those used in industrialised
countries, to give priority to passenger carrying transport, or to take passengers close to their destinations so
that the number of roads to be crossed can be minimised.
In industrialised countries efforts are made to attract passengers to public transport by giving buses priority
over other traffic, by having convenient interchanges between bus and rail and by subsidising some socially
desirable public transport operations . Road based public transport usually consists of buses and taxis and these
are strictly regulated to ensure that passengers are able to travel in safety and at reasonable cost . Public transport
in industrialised countries is a very safe form of transport.
Problems :
In India a much larger variety of passenger carrying

transport modes operate and compete for space against
other traffic on roads which are often very congested.
These range from motorised rickshaws and shared taxis
to passenger carrying trucks . Regulation of public
transport operators is often weak . Fare levels are so
low that drivers often have to work extremely long
hours to earn enough to pay the hire charges for the
vehicle and still to leave enough profit on which to
survive . Furthermore, driven at high speed to beat
competitors they often stop suddenly to pick up extra
passengers along the routes, frequently causing danger
Figure 4.22.1 People dangerously hanging on to a
to their passengers and other traffic. Maintenance
vehicle due to inadequate provision of public
undertaken is inadequate and the structural safety of
transport.
the vehicles is very low .
Drivers are often poorly trained and educated and road accidents involving public transport vehicles are
commonplace with at times, major catastrophes occurring (e .g . deaths of 80 or more persons in overloaded and
unsafe buses) . For convenience safer practices items are discussed in terns of `buses' but they also apply to
other types of passenger carrying vehicles in India.
In rural areas those bus bays provided with a divider from the main carriageway are not used by buses, which
;top on the carriageway. On the other hand in urban areas those bus bays with dividers seem to operate better .
This is because bus bays without dividers are used by hawkers which encroach into the bus bay.
Some bus lanes have been implemented but a number have not been well thought out. Some have been created
where bus flows are very low leading to abuse of the painted lane . Some are too narrow at less than 3 .5 m.
CRRI, 7RL Manual for Safety in Road Design

4.48
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Sqfer Practice:
Governments have a responsibility to ensure that vehicles

which are licensed by them for public transport operations
meet basic safety criteria in terns of their structural safety .
This can be done as follows :
" Vehicle owners should be required to have

qualified drivers and their vehicles inspected
regularly to ensure roadworthiness (minimum
annually, ideally 6 monthly).
" Bus and intermediate transport stops should be

placed at points where pedestrian routes to and
Figure 4.22.2 Open back vehicles used as
from major generators converge . Avoid locations
public transport creating hazards in U.P.
where road safety or congestion problems are
likely ;
" If buses stop on opposite sides of the same road, stops should be staggered tail to tail as these are safer.
Pedestrians will tend to cross behind the buses where approaching vehicles on the same side of the road
can see them more clearly.
" Bus stops close to junctions or pedestrian crossings should be located beyond (i .e . past) the junction or
crossing . There is a potential conflict between safety of all road users and convenience for the passengers .
If the stop is too far from the junction bus drivers will ignore the official stop. 50 m - 60 m may be
acceptable in many cases as a compromise solution. Parking restrictions must be enforced near bus
stops, so that crossing pedestrians are not hidden by parked vehicles .
" In both rural and urban areas the use of shade

trees and shelters to encourage passengers
to wait on the verge or footway may be /r.
beneficial . This would stop encroachment on
,~ i iI
~/ I ~ I
the carriageway . In urban areas in particular
stronger enforcement of the use of bus bays
} 1 1 I~~ i
(which must be correctly sited to satisfy
iNe
passenger demand) would assist their correct I me
usage . Sn .jSn 14n
" Lay-byes can be beneficial in reducing delays

to other traffic. The bus can also stand off STREET
_- - __ ~ i
the road while passengers board and alight . a

i
BUS -_ _ a 'NAT
Sn/ p
- o `
SLOP
" Special facilities are often used in
industrialised countries in order to give
greater priority to buses and hence to make
public transport more attractive to potential
~U~TR4 FIOV
passengers . These generally set aside a MS lN1E
portion of the road for the exclusive use of i
buses where they can maintain reasonable

speeds or reach the head of queues at
junctions.
NOR TH BOUND nNE-W AY STR EET
Figure 4.22.3 Contra flow bus laneM B37
Ministry of Surface naasport Ross Silcock

4.49
CHAPTER 4
Bus links, bus lanes, bus gates and bus only streets enable buses to penetrate right to the centres of
shopping or business districts. They reduce walking distances for passengers but can increase the risk to
pedestrians in the central areas.
Bus lanes should only be implemented when bus flows exceed around 10 per hour otherwise empty bus
lanes encourage abuse by other drivers .
Use of bus lane should be permitted to cyclists and other slow moving vehicles. When cyclists are
permitted the absolute minimum width should be 3.5 m and the desirable minimum width 4.0 m. This
allow the bus to pass the cyclist.
Bus lanes may be segregated by a solid white line, a low, painted domed kerb (that permits overruning)
or a white line and studs. Buses should be encouraged to remain in the lane but will need to pass other
buses on occasions .
The bus design features should take into account various safety features such as, lower footstep height
(preferable not more than 100 mm to 120 mm from the road) and wider and closing doors .
Bus stops where possible should be located in lay-byes to reduce delays to other traffic. A bus stop should not
be provided near a junction and preferably, should be at least 75 m away. Normally, bus stops should be located
away from bridges and should not be provided on horizontal curves or at the top of a vertical curve . Good
0 1 OI ^
'n;,v L/
1 L
~
--~-J
.J
--J r --
~t~t~ Main direction or

`!-I> interchange movement
AI a Itt1Araanes
~,1 A 9
iatir A ~"-. .. . ... .. .. .. . .
A1 Rrt1A Olvor " ens "
A1 A Jametles A1 A PaGHrlo Cr9Wq
Figure 4.22.4 Bus stop location to minimise inter change distances m A67
CRR/, TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

-C50
ROAD LINK DESIGN
visibility and safe stopping sight distance must be taken

into account. In hilly areas, bus stops should be
provided on straight stretches having reasonably good
visibility of not less than 50 m
The number of bus stops in urban areas will vary

according to demand and population density. Stop
separation will vary from 0.5 km to 1 .0 km . Stops on
opposite sides of a single two lane road should be
staggered by about 50 m and should be so placed that
buses pass each other before stopping.
One bus stop is not always sufficientfor all the different

services . Under the circumstances, different routes can
be grouped together geographically and more bus stops
can be provided in one location . The lay-byes provided
should be accompanied by traffic signs and road Figure 4.22.6 Bus shelter having well designed
markings . The surface quality of lay-byes should be facility for manoeuvring 0
maintained as that of carriageway . Selection of bus
stops must take into confidence the different agencies
dealing with road safety such as police, road engineers, bus operators etc .
Sf .Merd MWV-bue Lay-by
Srenmrd S.n9'w.bua/MUtti-stop Lay-by
Open-ended Lxy-by
Sta~d monad Lay-by
tin I 7e . I
~~`~1 f:M'CWxl~rpy~
a
~w~'~prn iwr.rx w .wrM xyw,r
Lay-by wph Sub-weneana Oaptb
------------
Standard lay-a b,mroprednn skis asa d
Figure 4.22.7 UK practice far Bus Lay-byes m A43

Figure 4.225 With-flow bus lane m B37
Ministry of Surface Transport _-trr Ross Silcock

4.51
CHAPTER 4
4.23 Heavy Goods Vehicles
Overview:
In Indie, the use of heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) is not tightly controlled. Regulation and traffic management
can be used to minimise their danger and nuisance, especially in sensitive locations such as residential areas.
Controls should be imposed and enforced to restrict axle weights so that roads are not damaged and to avoid
inconvenience and danger to pedestrians and others through illegal parking.
HGVs form an important part of the economic activity in India but their use on unsuitable streets or areas can be
very detrimental to road safety . Industrialised countries have developed techniques to manage heavy goods
vehicles, in terms of parking and access controls, and to control and influence the routes and overnight parking
they use. Some of these methods could be used in India also . However, the most important effort required is to
regulate HGV operators with respect to road safety issues . These must ensure that the vehicles are roadworthy,
that drivers are competent and capable, that dangerous freight is kept away from residential areas and that
drivers do not drive under the influence of drugs or alcohol or with overloaded/dangerous vehicles .
Problems:
HGV operations in India are not adequately regulated

and proper enforcement is often lacking . Vehicles may
be defective and often criteria to define those who may
drive the vehicle are ignored. The number of hours an
HGV driver may drive without rest is also not regulated.
It is suspected that much of the long distance driving
is undertaken with the aid of alcohol or drugs to keep
awake. Vehicles themselves are often grossly
overloaded, and axle-loads of 15-20 tonnes are
common. Police enforcement of axle-load restrictions
is often minimal and ineffective . Consequently,
significant structural damage can occur to roads which
were never designed for such loads .
Overloaded vehicles also have longer breaking

distances, which combine with "bald" tyres will
increase the risk of accidents. Trucks are often not only Figure 4.23.1 Typical overloaded tractor-trailer
overloaded in weight but may often be unstable due to posing road safety problems .
very high loads. They may have protruding loads
which are a danger to other road users. In the urban
areas such trucks are often parked on the roadways in unlit streets of residential areas at the homes of drivers or
operators, despite the fact that they may be loaded with dangerous, inflammable or potentially explosive chemicals.
Resting points and refreshment stops for drivers develop along major routes . Unfortunately, apart from food,
local alcohol and narcotic substances are often sold at such stalls . This can have very serious consequences in
terms of accidents. In addition, the traffic congestion caused by such terminals can cause serious problems on
the through-road unless parked vehicles can be relocated well away from the road edge .

4.52 =
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice:
Much can only be done through increased government

regulation and control of the freight industry with
respect to safety-related features (e .g . roadworthiness
of vehicles, qualifications of drivers, working hours) .
However, even in the absence of such increased
legislative control, improvements can be made to
minimise the effects of such heavy trucks. These
various measures are normally aimed at controlling
the movement and parking of such vehicles and include
the following:
" Advisory Routing - uses advisory route signs

to direct heavy goods vehicles to routes which
are more suitable for such traffic and take them
out of and around areas where their presence
is undesirable .
" physical barriers - can either be of the "height"

Figure 4.23.2 Hazardous goods vehicle not
type if designed to protect bridges from high
displaying emergency information panel
loads, or more usually, the "width"type where
the road carriageway is deliberately narrowed
to about 2.2 metres at selected points using very
substantial (150 mm) steel posts.
" Parking and loading restrictions are often applied at certain times of day (e .g. peak hours) to ensure
that moving traffic is not impeded on important routes . Deliveries or collections then have to be made
early in the morning or late at night. In pedestrianised areas these may have to be done through rear
servicing facilities.
" Area-wide truck management schemes are often used to deter and remove heavy vehicles from
residential streets. This can be done by prohibiting truck from passing into an area by having truck bans
on short sections . HGV cordons can also be nsed to prevent through movement while still permitting
access .
" Vehicles carrying hazardous loads are required to have clearly visible identifying plates indicating the
type of hazard and what to do in the event of a spillage . They are normally required to use major roads
2only and to avoid residential areas.
Figure 4.23.3 Places for R:ingemergescy information panels on vehicles and dimewims. m
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Slcock

J153
CHAPTER4
4.24 On-street Parking
Overview :
Ideally, kerbside parking should be permitted only if stationary vehicles do not unduly interfere with free and safe
movement of vehicles. On roads which are primarily for moving traffic, efforts should be made to ban on-road
parking and to provide off-road facilities wherever feasible. This, of course, cannot always be done so a number
of measures have been devised to minimise the consequences, to create safer driving conditions, and to reduce
the conflicts between pedestrians and moving vehicles which can result from parked vehicles.
Parking manoeuvres and parked vehicles cause obstruction, interference and potential danger to pedestrians
and other motorists. Provision of off-street parking with clearly defined entry/exit points where feasible, or
displacement of parking to side roads, can create safer conditions by increasing conspicuity of pedestrians and
removing parking/moving vehicle conflicts. Alternatively, narrowing of roads and use of redundant space for
the creation of "off road" parking areas can also aid pedestrians crossing the road and enable manoeuvring
activities to be done more safely, without interfering with the moving traffic stream . Judicious use of parking
bans, either all day or for pacts of the day, can also keep important roads clear for moving traffic and, by
reducing conflicts, increase capacity and safety.
Problems :
In India the problem of parking is becoming more

difficult to control . Planning of Central Business
Districts (CB Ds) has often been done without adequate
recognition of the need to provide for the parking of
the vehicle, with the result that parking demand is
frequently far in excess of the available supply . Time
is wasted and congestion and pollution is created by
motorists driving around looking for parking spaces .
Illegal parking is rife and pedestrian footpaths are often

encroached upon, forcing pedestrians onto the roadway.
Enforcement is often poor and this, allied to
undisciplined, frustrated drivers, often leads to the
creation of hazardous conditions for motorists and Figure 4.24.1 Parking on channelisers in
pedestrians . Maharastra .
Insensitive planning and placement of buildings, car parks and roads can create unforeseen hazards by. forcing
people to walk across roads after parking.
Uncontrolled parking adjacent to main roads can result

in unsafe conditions as vehicles slowing down to park
or emerging from parking spaces conflict with the
through traffic . This can occur on National and State
Highways as these roads pass through small
communities where the frontage activity is not served
by service roads.
Safer Practice:
Many of these problems can be avoided by more careful

planning, provision and control of parking facilities.
There are three major factors to be taken into account Figure 4 .24.2 On street parking creating safety
when planning parking provision: the need to maximi se hazards in Goa, India
access to traffic generating activities ; the need to
CRRJ,TRL Manual for Safety iRoad Design

4.54 =
ROAD LINK DESIGN
minimise interruptions to moving traffic ; and the need to minimise traffic related road accidents. This can be done
as follows:
" In small communities situated on National and State Highways it is necessary to control parking. This
can be most successfully accomplished by creating parallel service roads to allow parking adjacent to
the frontage activities . If this cannot be done, speeds should be controlled to improve safety . [Technical
Annex 3 .1)
" Parallel parking bays should be a minimum of 2 .0 m - 2.4 m wide with each vehicle bay approximately
6.0-6 .5 m long. Chevron bays are not recommended except .where speeds of passing traffic are low.
HTGHWAYS AND TitAFFIC

30 - 5m
M M M M M M
23m 1 1 1 1
Key M = parking
6.7
meter if provided
Kerb ~~ 31-6m -~
MM MM M M I
2.3 m 1 `- L ti 1 J
467
1-2m manoeuvring space
Figure 4.24.3 Layout of on-street parking bays. A61

" Parking on arterial roads carrying huge volumes of traffic should be avoided . Parking should be displaced
to side streets through partial or all day puking bans on the main road. Major traffic generators along
such mutes should, where feasible, be required to provide off-street parking to meet the businesses' and
their visitors' needs.
" In busy shopping streets, carriageway narrowing through the use of "build outs" (Chapter 3 .10) can be
used to create a clear distinction between the roadway for moving traffic and that for stationary vehicles .
This can be done by extending footways to create pockets of sufficient 'off road' width for parking and
manoeuvring so that moving traffic is not inhibited.
" In residential areas off-street parking should be provided wherever possible . If this is impossible (e .g .
high density developments) on-street puking can be grouped nearby to create special residents' parking
zones.
Figure 4.24.4 Parking bays for residential Areas m A49

" In industrial areas, large articulated trucks need lanes to be about 3.5 metres wide . Unless kerbside
parking is prohibited and enforced, an additional 3 m will need to be provided as parking space.
Ministry of Surface TMnsport Ross Silcock

4.55
CHAPTER4
4.25 Speed Zoning
Overview :
Research has shown that lower speeds lead to fewer and less serious accidents. There is much debate, however,
about the effectiveness of speed limits by themselves in achieving lower speeds as much will depend upon the
amount and effectiveness of police enforcement.
Speed limits may be made more effective if applied in conjunction with physical measures to reduce speed, or
as part of a package of measures introduced on an area-wide basis . Speeds on urban streets should be restricted
to around 50 km/h and speed limits in specified residential areas could be even lower (e .g. 30 km/h) in order to
create safe conditions for pedestrians .
The modem approach is to try to encourage appropriate speeds for the appropriate environment rather than
assuming that traffic must be able to travel at the same speed at all times whether passing through a rural or a
built up area . Speed zoning is used to define acceptable speeds for different sections of the road network.
Problems :
Throughout the world speed limits are widely abused, often

flagrantly . In many places in India, police authorities have
neither the equipment nor the training to enforce them
properly . Many drivers do not see any reason for speed limits
which they regard as an unnecessary constraint on then driving
freedom. The police usually argue that failure to observe the
limit, and their inability to enforce it, brings the traffic law
into disrepute.
Speed limits require extensive signing, especially where a

different limit applies on a major route joined by many minor
roads. In such cases each minor road should have a speed
limit sign at its junction with the major route . Figure 4.25.1 Speed limit sign without advising
what speed should be followed 10
Speed limits, if not consistent with the nature and type of road, will not be observed by drivers. Furthermore,
too many speed limits make enforcement difficult and cause confusion to drivers. Unfortunately both of these
deficiencies occur at many places in this country.
Speed is a common contributory factor to accidents and reducing speeds at accident blackspots is often an
important objective. There is doubt, however, as to whether the imposition of a speed limit alone will achieve
the required speed reductions. Speed limits are commonly abused and can only be effective if subject to
extensive, high profile enforcement and if they are part of a well thought out strategy of speed management on
the road network. A major problem occurs on rural roads when high speed traffic passes through small
communities along the route. This results in unnecessary deaths and injuries in the small community.
Key 4 = zone number
Figure 4 .25.2 Typical major road passing through a community without speed reduction as speed
zoning measures not applied. p
Speed limits cover an excessive number of speeds, 50,80 and 100 km/h for rural areas and 30,40 and 60 km/h
for urban areas. Other speed limits such as 65 km/h in an urban area have been noted .
Safer Practice:
Speed limits are usually set by national legislation and their use as a countermeasure at a particular location is
not common. Nevertheless, excessive speed is a very common contributory factor to traffic accidents and if
CRRI, TRL Manual for Safety in Road ftftign

4.56
ROAD LINK DESIGN
speed limits can be made to work where excessive speeding is a problem, then their effects can be very beneficial .
The key points to consider are:
In the absence of physical measures to reduce speeds, extensive enforcement will be necessary to ensure
compliance with the limit. In the long term this can be costly and may tie up scarce police resources at
one location ;
Speed limits may be more effective if used as part of a more comprehensive scheme, especially in an
area-wide context. Thus, for example, if a residential area is subject to an area-wide traffic management
scheme including road humps, chicanes and road closures to inhibit through traffic and to assist pedestrians,
then it may also be appropriate to introduce a lower speed limit within the area than that which prevails
on the surrounding roads;
As traffic conditions and land-uses change over time, speed limits should be regularly reviewed to
ensure that they relate to current circumstances ;
Other locations in which special speed limits may be appropriate include school zones and other places
where large number of pedestrian may be expected ;
There should be only a limited number of standard speed limits, e.g . 30; 50, 80, 100 and 120 km/h (for
expressways) to, ease enforcement and to provide consistency for drivers. There are no international
standards. In urban areas 50 km/h is probably the most common but there are wide variations, with some
primary routes, especially dual carriageways, having 65 km/h or 80 km/h limits . In rural areas some
countries have no upper limit on motorways/expressways but most have a general upper limit on other
categories of road;
Selective enforcement at hazardous locations may be undertaken ; and
Where rural roads pass through small communities special measures should be taken to reduce speeds as
the traffic passes through the community. There should be a clear "transition zone" where speeds are
reduced via physical measures until they are at an acceptable level. Figure 4.25.3 below indicates the
kinds and sequence of measures which could be considered . More details on type/dimensions of traffic
calming measures which could be .applied can be found in Chapter 3.10 and Technical Annex 3.1 .
Rumble snips Transition zones Small cotmnumty on major mum

m slow
Rumble snips
m slow traffic
' . 1
1 12 .3 4 _T 5 6 7 8
Gateway few n entry

dram edge of Will
~ up atn
m
Figure 4.25.3 Speeds of traffic can gradually be reduced until they are at an appropriate level
for urbanised area and gradually increased on exit back up to rural road speeds. m
Zones
I-2, 7-8 Traffic travels at normal astral road speed without problem.
2-3, 6-7 Warning zone, rumble strips used to give advance warning to inbound traffic to slow down .
3,6 Gateway feature to indicate a "threshold" being crossed and that previous mral road speeds are no longer
appropriate.
3-4,5-6 Transition zone where speeds are reduced by gradually increasing small road humps (e.g . 40 mast, 65 mm).
4-5 Main shopping/commercial section of community. Speeds of through traffic needs to be kept low as it passes
through. Raised pedestrian crossings ( 100 was height) at 150 m to 200 m centres can be used to keep speeds
low as traffic passes through the main commercial/shopping area.
Ministry of Surface Transport = Ross Silcock

4.57
CHAPTER4
4.26 Roadside Furniture
Overview :
The presence of roadside obstacles, street furniture (for example, road signs and lighting columns) and trees
have two safety implications . The first is the potential danger of collision, and the second is their obstruction of
visibility .
Visibility is important not only to the driver, but also to other road users. A pedestrian's decision to cross a road
must be made on the basis of a full appreciation of approaching vehicles . Obstructions caused by trees, for
example, may result in a pedestrian making an unwise decision .
There are many situations where good visibility is particularly important and it can be adversely affected by
roadside obstructions . The most important situations are on bends, the approaches to junctions and on overtaking
sections .
Great care should be taken in the positioning of roadside features which may either obstruct visibility, lead to
accidents or increase accident severity . Where obstructions cannot be practically removed, and contribute to
hazardous situations, consideration should be given to their replacement by equipment designed to collapse on
impact, re-alignment of the road, or the introduction of barriers . Once a road is completed, care must be taken
to ensure that obstacles are not introduced by others subsequently, such as telephone or electricity authorities.
Vegetation should be cut back regularly and planning controls should be enforced to prevent stalls and structures
too close to the road edge .
Problems:
Problems arise particularly where obstacles are

immovable, either due to their very nature such as trees
or outcrops of rock, or because they are needed at
particular positions, such as road signs. Seasonal
growth of foliage can cause substantial visibility
problems, particularly by obscuring signs and signals.
In hot climates, trees are often planted adjacent to roads

in order to provide shade for pedestrians, animals and
parked vehicles . they also help control erosion caused
by inadequate road drainage . Yet such trees are often
a major source of increased severity in single vehicle
accidenta on interurban roads.
Figure 4.26.1 Electric poles placed on the
carriageway posing road safety problems in
In making use of tree shade, unauthorised stalls may
Maharashtra,India
be set up immediately adjacent to the edge of the
carriageway and these could be a hazard to passing
vehicles .
CRRI, TRL Manual for Safety in Road Desrgn

4 .58
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice:
When street furniture is being installed, care should be taken to ensure that adequate visibility is inainta'n d on
all approaches, minimum clearance are shown in Figure 4.26.3 .
It is permissible for insubstantial structures or those

specially designed to collapse on impact such as lamp
posts, to be positioned in critical places such as at the
approaches to junctions. However, larger objects such
as telephone kiosks and large road signs should be
positioned outside such areas or protected by a safety
fence or barrier.
There is a difficult balance to be made between the

many benefits from the presence of trees beside a road
and their effects on accident severity . Large trees set
back five or more metres may provide an acceptable
compromise. However trees should not be planted
where they are likely to be struck by a vehicle which
leaves the road. Where such trees already exist, they
should either be removed or a guard rail placed in front Figure 4.26.2 Trees in the middle ofthe carriageway
of them to deflect approaching vehicles and absorb the creating hazards in Tamil Nadu, India
impact energy . Trees near the road edge should, at the
very least, by painted with white (preferable reflective)
paint markings to be more visible m drivers at night .
Areas in which pedestrians or animals cross the road should be clear of roadside obstructions so that drivers of
vehicles approaching may see, and the vehicle be seen within a safe stopping sight distance .
Vegetation should be cut back regularly to ensure that sight distances are maintained .
Planning controls should be enforced to remove stalls and other similar structures which are too close to the
edge of the carriageway.
Figure 4.263 Clearance profeso
Ministry of Surface TYansport Ross Silcock

4.59
CHAPTER4
4.27 Plantation
Overview :
Well planned and maintained plantations along the roadside contribute significantly to enhance the aesthetic
appeal of surroundings and can be conducive to road safety in certain situations . Road plantations can reduce
headlight glare, increase traffic guidance, control soil erosion and in short, act as a safety cushion and noise
barrier. Properly laid rows of trees along the roadside and shrubs at the median delineate the alignment of the
roadway and help the road user . However, sight distances and the visibility of signs by planting must not be
comprised.
The ideal plantation scheme will complement the basic beauty of engineering works and can even overcome
some of its shortcomings . The selection of species is dependent upon functional, aesthetic, locational and climatic
requirements . Care is however needed as certain planting formats can increase the strain of the motorist.
Problems:
In India trees and vegetation are planted on the basis of

conventional practice which is not suitable for present
day fast traffic. Shade trees are given preference, along
roads and in medians irrespective of their functional
requirements for safety . The environment through
which a road passes should dictate the planting design
and type of plant material to be used .
Functional characteristics of roadside plantation such

as those related to its setback distances and vertical and
horizontal clearances are not given their due
importance . Inadequate setback distance, excessive
overhang of branches, undesirable species along the Figure 4.27.1 Due to overgrowth of plantation on
road and in the median are conunon poor features . curves, visibility has been considerably reduced
Wrongly located and ill maintained trees drastically reduce the capacity of pedestrian paths forcing the pedestrians
to move on to carriageway . During periods of maintenance, sometimes trees are left on the carriageway thus
constituting a major hazard and congestion .
At intersections unsatisfactory plantation affects visibility adversely. Satisfactory planting design at intersections
must achieve adequate sight distances for approaching motorists in order to avoid abrupt and unexpected conflict
situations .
Safer Practice:
Roadside plantation can serve many engineering functions. Besides its aesthetic appeal, it provides vehicle
drivers with the means of tracking the roadway, helps check excessive speed, lessens pollution, reduces dazzle
from opposing vehicles and also supplies visual enjoyment helping to reduce fatigue and monotony. IRC
recommends setback distance of not less than 4 to 6 m from the edge of carriageway, whereas MOST require
the first row of trees some 10-12 m from the centreline of the extreme traffic lane .
However, planting closer to the carriageway edge is acceptable on the approach to villages and towns where a
"gateway" effect . can be created by suitable planting .
CRRI, TRL~= Marampl for Safety in Road Design

4.60
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Maintenance policy, needs to ensure that at sharp

curves, junctions and in medians, clear visibility is
provided for drivers. Enactment of law covering the
legal and administrative control of roadside vegetation
within tie tight of way e.g . to ensure that vegetation
does not hamper in dispersal of street light to tie road
surface is essential.
The properly placed plantation of shrubs can be used

to funnel pedestrians to preferred crossings. While
selecting species for plantation, durability and low
maintenance costs should also be kept in mind . Only
those plants should be selected whose ultimate height
and spread will require minimum essential removal,
trimming or topping for control. Also plants which are
short lived, weak wooded or shed slippery foliage on
road surface need to be eliminated for safety
consideration . A list of pollution tolerant plants is Figure 4.29.2 Good scheme of plantation along
shown in Technical Annex 4.6 . For the central median rural highway m India m
on inter-urban roads in plains Cassia Glaluca, a dwarf
yellow flowering shrub is good. This is a low growing and less spreading shrub which will neither hinder the
movement of traffic nor obstruct vision .
An adequate vertical clearance should be provided . Any low overhanging branches should be trimmed to avoid
vertical obstruction . According to IRC recommendations, the minimum vertical clearance should be 5 m in
rural areas and 5 .5 m in urban areas.
Adequate spacing of trees is necessary to show spatial continuity . A minimum spacing of 10 m -15 m has been
recommended by IRC. On curves, near level crossings and intersections, trees with high crowns should be
planted, or two or three should be omitted to provide a clear view of road ahead.
In the vicinity of road intersections and median openings, median planting should be avoided or restricted to
low growing varieties to ensure adequate visibility for turning vehicles . Pruning of obstructing branches should
be routine practice .
Figure 4.293 Typical Arrangement for the plantation of trees [Source Four IAMog of NH-81 m

4 .61
4.28 Lay-byes Bus Stops, IIW Stands and Service Roads
Overview : _
Lay-byes and bus stops allow vehicles to stop safely and with the minimum of adverse effects on other traffic.
This is best done with a segregated area joined to the main road pavement only at an entry point and an exit
point Vehicles can then stop off the main carriageway without interfering with other traffic and with less risk
to passengers getting on or off.
Where major roads are bordered by commercial or residential development, service roads are the safest way of
allowing access topropeatywith themimmtneeffect onother traffic. Also, where a large commercial development
is fronted by an informal parking area with uncontrolled access to the carriageway, a significant risk of accidents
will often exist
Lay-byes and bus stops are an essential element in providing for access . By removing stopping traffic from the
main carriageway, conflicts are reduced and safety is enhanced . Their positioning is critical, however, and
every effort should be made to avoid physical or visual obstruction . They should not be located on the outside
of curves ; or very close to junctions and should be located beyond pedestrian crossings and junctions so that
buses do not obstruct crossing pedestrians . The replacement of numerous poorly defined access points to a
major road by a service road with one well designed junction will have substantial safety benefits . The benefits
extend beyond the main road, and access roads provide safer refuge for pedestrians, cyclists and loading/
unloading of commercial vehicles .
Problems :
Vehicles stopping at a lay-byes or bus stop constitote a

temporary obstruction which may obstruct visibility of
an important feature. If the lay-byes is close to the
road, there is also the risk of collision between parked
vehicles and those inadvertently straying from the road .
The slower speeds of vehicles entering and leaving a

lay-byes could cause a hazard to faster moving through
traffic, although this is often less hazardous and
disruptive than buses stopping directly on the
carriageway .
On heavily trafficked roads, bus drivers may not wish

to enter a lay-byes because of the difficulties ofmerging Figure 4.28.1 Building material stacked on road
with the main road flow again. A bus lay-byes which and drinking water trolley force buses into
has been produced at the expense of the adjacent carriageway 53
footway may not be used fully at peak periods because
of pedestrian queues and movements .
At existing commercial sites, tyre may be insufficient room for the construction of a service road, although
there may be too many accesses to be compatible with safety.
Safer Practice:
Lay-byes should be positioned on straight, level sections of road and should be visible from a long distance in
both directions.
On nual roads, it is cheaper to provide lay-byes at transitions from cut to fill.
Access to a lay-byes should be convenient and safe for vehicles and also for pedestrians in the case of bus stops
and taxi stands.
CRRf,TIPL Manual for Safety in Road Design

4.62
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Advance warning signs should be erected to alert

drivers of the approach to lay-byes, and to the possible
presence of pedestrians ahead .
Adequate queuing areas should be available so that

waiting passengers do not use the road or a dedicated
bus lay-bye.
Where space is limited, it may be possible to link

Itemises using a service road which tuns behind the
premises and turns to rejoin the main road only when a
convenient and safe location is reached . At this point,
parking acrd other potential visual obstructions should Fifue4.28.2Well maintained service road without
be carefully controlled . any encroachment eahauem haft safety m
Where problems of merging from a lay-bye occurs, it

may be possible to postpone the merge by providing a
short additional lane which is a continuation of the lay-
bye-
Where spillage of diesel fuel is likely to occur (e.g. at

bus stops), concrete construction is more suitable dun
a bituminous surfacing. Buses drivers will not use the
stops if flu road surface has deteriorated.
Bus stops should be located beyond pedestrian

crossings and after junctions to avoid stopped vehicles
masking pedestrian and other crossing activities.
Frgure 4.28.3 Taxi tunnel m
Figrae 4.284 Layout of lay-byes following UK practice. mA43.
Miatstry of SurfWe Dwuport - - Ross Silcock

4.63
CHAP'T'ER 4
4.29 Median Gaps
Overview:
Policies regarding the provision of gaps in medians in urban areas must balance the needs of both local and
through traffic in terms of connections to local streets. Median openings should generally be limited to
intersections with public streets or major generators of traffic and should not be accepted for individual business
needs. Their number should be kept to the minimum. To facilitate right turns from the main road, a protected
right turn lane of adequate width and length should wherever possible be provided in the median . The main
consideration which governs median opening is minimum turning path ; that is, the length of median opening
depends upon width of median and the minimum turning path of the largest vehicle that travels on that road .
Problems :
Road accidents tend to cluster at median gaps

particularly on dual carriageway mainly due to the
conflict between the slow manoeuvre of a wide turn
and fast approaching vehicles .
There is always a conflict between serving the demands

of local traffic and through traffic. Median openings
are provided at most minor side streets, regardless of
their proximity to major junctions. The poor planning
of such facilities are contrary to the interest of any wide
scale area traffic control proposals for removing
through traffic from the local street system . The lyre 4.29.1 Median gap producing dangerous
openings are also provided at locations where due to U-turns in 1{arnataka p
the horizontal and vertical geometry of the road, the
movements of vehicles using the facility are not clearly visible to other road users. Where local traffic dominates,
the conflict between local and through traffic worsens. This problem is compounded by poor design standards
for right turning lanes.

4.64
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Safer Practice:
Design ofmedian openings and median ends should be based on traffic volumes and types of turning vehicles .
The principles for the design of median openings are similar to those for the design of islands and other
channelising devices . In general, the size and shape ofthe openings are determined by the tumingpath requirement
of vehicles expected to use them.
The main functional types of openings to be considered are:-
Openings for right turns
This type of opening is commonly used for at-grade junctions and should allow forright turn movements
to or from the adjacent carriageways . A bullet nosed shape is generally preferred for this type of opening
as it corresponds well to the turning path of a vehicle.
Semi-circular radii may be used on the noses of median up to 2 m wide.
Bullet nosed medians should be used for medians of greater width, using a minimum inside turning
radius of 12 r a and a minimum nose to nose dimension of 10 m for passenger vehicles .
Figure 4.29.2 Design of Median Gap for Right Turn. Right turn lane width should
be 3.0m (minimum 2.75m) . Length should be based on number of turning vehicles
queueing at anyone time. The narrow nosing should be 2.0m wide. m A38
Table 4 .29.1 Length of bullet nose and length of median

opening for various median widths (AASTHO and MOST).
MedimWidth(m) I-1.2 18-2 2 .5 3.0 5.0 6.0 >7 .2
Length of Bunet 30 23 21 19 Is 13 12
Nose (m)
LrngthofMedlan 21 19 Is 16 is 14 to
Opening (m)
--C-
Mintstgf Surface 7}urumport Ross Silcock
4,65
CHAPTER4
Openings for U- turns
For mid block situations, where U-turn facilities are required, semi-circular nosed openings are more appropriate
to the vehicle paths to be accommodated. Sheltered turning slots are desirable wherever adequate width of
median is available.
STa iox. ;a .~ .-----
NL `. I I It `V, far
Figure 4.29.3 Design of median gap for "U" Turn. Figure 4.29 .4 Median gap providing proper
Ideally both sets of turning traffic should have protection for turning vehicles on a National
sheltered turning slots. Width of opening given in Highway
Table 4.29.1. m A38 m
The following factors should be considered in determining the locations of median openings in urban areas :-
Spacings of up to 500m should be sought on the more important arterial roads, with the main openings
being generally associated with four way or major junctions; intermediate openings may be provided for
minor junctions,
The spacing should not be less than 100m where right turning slots are to be provided,
Limiting median gaps to a minimum and consideration of the use of a roundabout to facilitate easier U-
turns should be the adopted policy.
Figure 4.29 .5 Median with turning slots in an urban situation. m A38
CRRI,TRL Manual far Safety in Road Design

4.66
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Figure 4.29.6 Narrow Median to assist traf operation in an nrban situadon.lZ] A38
Median Openings for four lane divided carriageway and expressways should consider the following factors :
" Median openings on expressways should be located near to all terminal junctions.
" Between junctions, at regular, intervals of 1 .5 km (2 km for expressways) to facilitate maintenance
operations, policing, repair of stalled vehicles . These should conform to reference B40.
" Beyond important junctions to allow the driver to change direction if any mistake is made.
" To accommodate minor turning movements.
" Until design standards are prepared median gaps should be based on Figure 4.29,2 and 4.29.3 suitably
adapted for local conditions.
KERB TO BE PAINTED
AS PER DETAILS AT 'B'
Figure 4.29.7 Standard MOST detail from referencem B39
Ministry gtcurface ?transport Ross Silcock

4.07
CHAPTER4
4 .30 At -Grade Road-Rail Crossings
Overview :
India is a vast country with a high population density. It has the third largest rail network along with an extensive
road network to cater to the various needs of the population and economy. Wherever the rail network and road
network meet a rail road crossing, must be provided. 50,000 road rail crossings exist in India, all of which
present a safety risk. This is especially true at unmanned crossings which have poor safety records. At a few
locations, roads and railways may be grade separated but wherever it is not possible from engineering and
economic considerations to provide road over/under bridges, level crossings need to be provided. Often rail
road crossings are isolated in rural areas with the majority unmanned . A lack of driver awareness of approaching
rail traffic can cause serious accidents.
Problems :
The geometric design features of road-rail

crossings at many locations are inadequate at many
sites due to growth of vegetation or due to
encroachment reducing driver reaction times. In
hilly areas, poorly maintained grades at crossings
may cause inadequate sight distances. Therefore,
clear visibility on both sides of trackis essential to
warn motor vehicle drivers of approaching rail
locomotives .
In many cases the road rail crossing occurs as a

"dogleg" bend with the road bending sharply to
enable the crossing . It is also common for the
crossing gate to be narrower than the two lane
approach road and this can restrict flows to a single
Figure 4.30.1 People blocking whole of carriageway at
lane at the crossing . rail-road crossing .
Improper overtaking, excessive approach speeds and inattention can result in accidents at road-rail crossings .
The width of the rail crossing often reflects the width of the carriageway before traffic growth and subsequent
road widening . This leads to a potentially unsafe situation.
FIgure 4.30.2 Current practice for typical pavement markings at Road-Rail Level Crossings B7
CRRI,TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

-AM
ROAD LINK DESIGN
Are road edge obstructions, such as embankments, advertising hoardings, vegetation and buildings, set back to
provide sufficient forward visibility?
Are crash barriers on the outside bends provided where large drops (over 3 metres) in levels occur?
Are crossing facilities with adequate advance signing provided at well sited locations on highways close to
villages or agricultural fields where villagers (including animals) frequently cross?
"Are pedestrians and non-motorised traffic discouraged from using rural roads, or are special provisionsmade
for this traffic (this is more important on bypass sections to urban areas rather than on main inter-city roads
which have traditionally been used by all types of road user)?
Is there a means of controlling and authorising the provision of private access points onto the road network
including the spacing of wayside amenities?
' `For at-grade rail-road crossings have suitable warnings, speed limits, rumble strips and signals been provided?
"Have flood level indicators been provided at submersible bridges and causeways?
Key " Particularly important on urban/suburban roads .
"' Particularly important on rural roads .
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silc'ock

4.71
~i~
~_
CHAPTER 5
DESIGNING FOR SAFETY
JUNCTION DESIGN
CHAPTER 5
5 DESIGNING FOR SAFETY:-JUNCTION DESIGN
5.1 Introduction
In India, as in most countries, the road network layout has its origin based in history, often several thousand
years old. As the country becomes more populated the network expands, and is used at this stage by more and
more animal drawn vehicles and pedestrians . For these conditions with very low traffic flows and low speeds,
simple junctions and crossroads were satisfactory. However, as motor vehicles were introduced and speeds
increased, these junction types began to fail to cope with the demands placed on them.
Junctions are an important part of road design and traffic operation . They form key meeting points in a road
network, often regulating the volume of traffic which can be handled through the system and account for almost
30/a-40% of all reported road accidents on National Highways .
Historically cross roads have usually been the site for commercial development, such as hotels, dhabas, shops
and fuel stations. Land acquisition in the vicinity of major junctions can therefore often be more expensive than
elsewhere along a road.
The need to improve an existing junction is usually prompted by problems such as inadequate capacity, a pattern
of traffic accidents, too many vehicle conflict points or poor visibility from some approaches .
To avoid these problems in the design or redesign of a junction, it is necessary to give consideration to a number
of factors during the planning stage:
" The volume, type and pattern of traffic using the junction and its anticipated distribution and rate of
growth .
" Topographical and environmental aspects such as the alignment, grades and future development of the
approach roads and the positions of adjacent property improvements, accesses, public utilities, and bus
stops etc .
" The need for, and type of traffic control devices to be adopted and the requirements for their siting and
installation .
" The need for street lighting and the requirements for its siting and installation .
" The approach roads and/or traffic movements, if any, which may be eliminated to reduce and regulate the
number of vehicle conflict points.
A complete solution to the junction problem will involve a combination of these factors in conjunction with the
application of the basic design principles referred to in the remainder ofthis Section .
The concept that safety is the most important factor must not be distracted by any other consideration .
Two streams oftraffic can interact in three basic ways, i.e. merge, diverge, or cross. There is also a more complex
manoeuvre called the weave, which in effect is a merge followed by a diverging action .
CRRJ,TRL ManualforSafety in Road Design

5 .2
JUNCTION DESIGN
In both the crossing and merging manoeuvres it is necessary for drivers in one stream to find gaps of a suitable
size in the other stream for their vehicles to enter. Two problems commonly occur :
" A driver misjudges either the length or location of a gap and an accident results ; or
" Not enough gaps of sufficient size are available in one, or both, traffic streams for all vehicles wishing to
merge or cross and congestion occurs.
The design ofjunction is concerned with solving both these problems .
Common reasons for drivers misjudging gaps are:
Acute crossing angle ;

Multiple manoeuvres;
Lack of spatial guidance; or
High approach speeds .
These situations may be corrected by:
" Making conflicting streams cross at more obtuse angles,
" Replacing complex manoeuvres with successive simple ones, e.g. replacing a complex multi-way junction
with a roundabout.
" Inserting a channelising island to redirect or funnel some or all movements .
In order to improve traffic capacity and safety injunction it may be possible to remove some of the conflicting
traffic streams from the area. Alternatively, by widening or flaring the approaches to a junction, it is possible to
increase the capacity but this maybe to the detriment of safety. Unless traffic signals are provided the widening
ofjunctions to increase capacity should be carried out with caution because ofthe possibility that the large open
area may create confusion.
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silcmk

5 .3
5.2 Selection of Junction Type
twerview .
Good junction design should allow transition from one route to another or through movement on the main route
with minimum delay and maximum safety . To do this, the layout and operation ofthejunction should be obvious
with good visibility between conflicting movements . These objectives need to be achieved at reasonable cost
and the provision of unnecessarily high standards as well as inadequate ones needs to be avoided. Different
junction types will be appropriate under different circumstances depending on traffic flows, speeds and site
limitations.
Table 5.11 Advantages and Disadvantages ofDifferent Types of Junctions
Grade Separation Ifightlows. Minimal delays. Expensive.
Low medium flows . Can accomodate heavy offsideturning flows by

Traffic Signals using filter signal and channelisation. Requires less space than
roundabout. Relatively high delays at off-peak times .
Low/medium flows . Good for turners l eaivng to both cross and
Roundabouts merge with traffic streams . Minimal delays at lower flows (ie off-
peak). Not good for safety of cyclists and other slow vehicles .
Low flows . Can have high delayto major road. Major road reeds
Priority (Give-way/Stop)
stopping sight distance.
Problems .
It is often difficult to determine the best junction type

for any particular location, taking into account capacity,
delay, safety and physical layout factors as several al-
ternatives may be possible . Junctions which have
evolved from historical road layouts often are unsafe for
motor vehicle use.
Driver error is a contributory factor in the majority of

accidents . Often this has been influenced by confusing
or conflicting information gained from visual indicators
obtained from the road layouts . For example, this often
gives a false impression of a high speed road and en-
courages drivers to travel faster than is compatible with
safety.
Ifjunctions are not of an easily recognisable type, driv- Figure 52.1 Junction selection based on different
ers will drive more hesitantly and accident risk may in- combioationsoftraffic news based on UlEpractice.It
crease . Thus the isolated introduction of traffic signals illustrates that at some flow combinations more than
in a rural area, say, could have an adverse effect on road one type ofjunction may be appropriateM Al
safety unless all drivers are fully aware of the meaning
ofthe red signal, respect the signal, and are familiar with
that type ofjunction.
Driving standards and driving behaviour in India are poorer than in many countries and the unwillingness of
drivers to adhere to the most basic driving rules makes some types ofjunction unsuitable for use . As a general
rule, junction should be as simple as possible and designed to guide drivers safely through conflict points.
CRRI,TRL ManualforSafety in Road Deign

5 .4
JUNCTION DESIGN
Sqfer Practice:
The factors affecting safety at each type ofjunction are

considered separately in later sections. Junction choice
will be dictated by these considerations together with
the local site details . In many situations, there will be
little to choose between the alternative junction types
available. Proven designs which have been shown to
work safely and which are familiar to drivers should
generally be used. However, this should not preclude
the introduction of new schemes and designs where
appropriate . Such schemes should be publicised and
closelymonitored . The main factors toconsider injunc-
tion design are:
The delays and capacities can be estimated

using standard formulae and programs, provided Figure 5.2.2 WON laid out jcttionin Gas, India,
they are properly calibrated for local use . butnrdortstdywithout rood martng, m
Capacity, however, should not be provided at
the expense of safety.
Mum roads crossing a major road should be avoided wherever possible and, where space allows, existing
crossings should be replaced by staggered junctions, or offset islands on the minor roads so that minor
road traffic has to stop or slow down.
Simple junction design and 'easy' geometry will cause least problems. Junctions should be compatible
with the type of road and with other junctions along the road to provide consistency.
Expanses of toad not required for capacity reasons should be removed from junction layouts by extending
the footways to prevent haphazard vehicle movements induced by poor driver discipline .
In rural and lightly trafficked areas the cheapest solution is to adopt a "terminating toad" rule, whereby
traffic on the stem of the 'T' (which has to slow down anyway) should give way to the straight through
traffic.
Care should be taken to have unambiguous signs and clearly marked lane segregation .
Sight distances at junctions should be related to the speed of the relevant approach with stopping sight
distance being provided in all cases .
The selection of the junction type for urban and rural roads is discussed in Technical Annex 5.1 . Selection of
pataity roundabout or signals and grade separation in rural and urban areas can be decided based on major road
flow and minor road flow i.e., from Figure 5.2.1 . The advantages and disadvantages of different type ofjunctions
are discussed in Table 5 .2.1 . Provision of Tjunctions for major and minor roads can be choosen by usingFigure
TA 5.1 .1 . The figure explains different type of junctions for different traffic volumes on major and minor roads.
5 .3 Priority Junctions
Overview:
Priority junctions are the most common form of intersection . Control is by a `Give Way' or `Stop' sign on the
minor road with no restriction on the major road. Priority junctions fall into two basic categories: namely T-
junctions and crossroads, with crossroads having the worst safety record .
Problems :
Crossroads often have a poor safety record because of

minor road traffic failing to stop for main road traffic
either because of driver indiscipline or because the driver
is not aware that there is a major road ahead. If the stop-
line is in the dip at the edge of the major road camber it
can be invisible from a distance on the minor road. The
major accident types at priority junctions are accidents
where side road vehicles fail to stop, implying inad-
equate visibility of the junction from the minor road,
and accidents with emerging vehicles, which suggests
inadequate sight lines along the major road.
For all types of priority junction, the problem of delay

exists for minor road traffic which has to give way. lithe
delays are excessive, emerging drivers may take undue Figure 53.1 Poorly designed junction with no road
risks in order to enter or cross the main stream. markings and signs. The layout is not clear.
Slow moving or stationary vehicles turning into a side

road across a main road stream of traffic are often the cause of serious accidents. Problems can also be caused
in urban areas by inadequate kerbs which give an unclear layout and make little or no provision for pedestrians .
India has a significant number of uncontrolled junctions . These are junctions with no priority to any given arm.
Whilst generally the more minor junctions, there are a number of uncontrolled junctions with moderate to heavy
flows.
Many village roads access directly onto National or State Highways. This leads to conflicts between slow and
fast moving traffic . Traffic on the minor road often approaches too quickly with the junction inadequately signed
and marked.
Some village roads are created illegally and join National and State Highways from a low level, eroding the
embankment and shoulders .
Safer Practice:
Although simple uncontrolled and priority junctions are common, the number of such accesses onto main roads
should be limited so as to concentrate the hazards involved at well located and designed intersections .
Substantial studies have been undertaken in developed countries to identify particular accident problems and
remedies . Good practice includes providing adequate visibility and sight distances, clear road marking and
signing, and the provision of islands and bollards to guide and protect drivers . Side road drivers must be aware
that they are approaching a major road and, for crossroads, views from one minor road to the other should be
broken by staggering the opposing arms (minimum offset 50m) or by offset islands at the entries. Local widening
in the centre of the junction can allow protected waiting areas to be provided for turning traffic .
GRRl;71ML _- Manual for Safety in RoadIXggn

5 .6
JUNCTION DESIGN
Flgure53.2 Simplelocalwideniugwithprotectedright
turn lane-suitable for minor village roads . Also Figure 5.3.3 A well marked priority
illustrates ghost islands. 0 junction In the UK. m
Where space permits, staggered junctions are preferable to crossroads on safety grounds. The same effect may
be achieved by the use of offset central islands at the entries . The stagger or offset should always allow mirror
road crossing vehicles to enter the junction by crossing the nearest traffic stream and to leave the junction using
an unopposed turn.
Ghost island width should be a minimum of 3.5 m and physical islands should beat least 10.0 m in width. Where
space allows and the major road has high flows and/or speeds, then an offside diverging lane can be of use . The
length and taper of these depend on the design speed of the major road. Local widening may be requited to
create such facilities.
Priority junctions should only be used where flows are relatively low (up o around 5,000 AADT on the major
road and only 3,000 AADT on the minor road) .
The minor road approach must be designed to show clearly that a major road is ahead and that drivers must yield
priority. Deflection islands, bollards and clear signing are necessary o achieve this. Where high approach
speeds are an issue rumbles strips/speed brokers (properly signed) may be appropriate. If visibility is in any way
inadequate additional advance warning signs must be used. Sight distances must not be blocked by vegetation
growth (Figures 5.3.4 and 5.3.5) .
The minor arm of a T-junction should be sited on the outside of a horizontal curve, if possible, and not on
overtaking sections of single carriageways Y type junctions are not recommended and should be redesigned as
T type junctions.
Other possible safety measures include :
restriction of turning movements ; provision of skid-resistant surfaces; provision of pedestrian/cycle facilities;
good direction signing ; and in urban areas, replacement of priority junction by roundabout or signals.
More details can be found in Technical Annex 5.1 .
, : -" T
AM
- - - ------ - - - ,
~ ("~u"""H W artrK"
"OYtNMW .TO Y"NY
"H0 Oi 7F" ""I"" W0
jl
Figure 53.5 Minimum sight triangle at priority

Figure 53.4 Minimum sight triangle at intersection m
uncantrofledintersection m
Ministry of Surface Transport Rags Silcwk

5.7
CHAPTER 5
5.4 Roundabouts
Overview :
A roundabout is a one-way circulatory system around a central island, entry to which is controlled by `give-way'
markings and signs. Priority is given to traffic already on the roundabout. Roundabouts provide a high capacity,
cause little delay in the off-peak period and require no technical maintenance .
Roundabouts are particularly suitable where there are more than four arms to the junction, although three or four
arm roundabouts are generally used.
Problems :
Few roundabouts are fully marked out according to IRC
standards. This means that they operate incorrectly with
traffic on the roundabout giving way to traffic entering.
This leads to not ouly to lower capacity but uncontrolled
movements lead to unsafe conditions . Driver education
in required .
Roundabout design relates to an old-design philosophy,

which requires updating, this will improve safety and
capacity when combined with driver education about
priority at roundabouts .
Poor visibility on the approaches or across the central

Figure 5.4.1 Wide area roundabout without island can result in drivers making unwise entry deci-
guidanceforroad users sions. High entry speeds can lead to accidents be-
tween entering and circulating vehicles . Poor enforcement of priority rules can lead to high accident rates and
inefficiencies in operation.
Long delays may result when there are substantial differences in entering flows. Flows on one arm may
dominate at the expense of others and the resulting long delays may lead to unwise entry decisions.
The central island may contain concrete and other structures . These substantially increase accident severity for
those vehicles which fail to negotiate the roundabout with too high an approach speed .
Sources of danger in the geometry of roundabouts include: very acute merging angles, poorly designed or
positioned signing and steep gradients or poor skidding resistance on approaches . Accidents between motor-
ised and non-motorised vehicles can be a particular problem because of the speed differences as they move
through the roundabout . especially if it is large, therefore, although the safety record of roundabouts is generally
good there can be problems with slow moving vehicles such as cycles or animal drawn vehicles .
Hoardings are often erected in the central island of loose roundabouts . This practice can restrict visibility and is
not recommended .
Figure 5.4.2 Existing Indian design Figure 5.4.3 Existing Indian design
philosophy B17 m philosophy B65 m
CRR):TRL Manual for Safety in Roa4Design

5 .8
JUNCTION DESIGN
Safer Practice :
Provided drivers observe the priority rules, roundabouts offer a safe, self-enforcing form ofjunction for a wide
variety of conditions . The design should reduce circulating and entering speeds . Good visibility is essential and
chevrons or arrow signs should be placed on the central island . Although roundabouts are generally safe, they
can be hazardous for cycles and other slow moving vehicles. Roundabouts should be avoided where such
vehicles are common unless special provision can be made for them. Solid structures likely to result in severe
injury accidents if struck by a vehicle should not be placed on the central island . High painted kerbs around the
island can increase conspicuity and reduce the risk of the island being overrun .
Low entry speeds may be achieved by deflecting entering traffic with road markings, islands and by
channelisation . The radius of the entry path should not exceed 100 metres.
Visibility for entering drivers must be sufficient to allow circulating drivers a stopping sight distance at the
circulating speed. Visibility must be adequate and care must betaken to ensure that this silhouettes pedestrians
on nearby refuges or crossings.
Enforcement ofpriority is important and additional enforcement resources may be required in areas where driving
behaviour is poor, If drivers fail to give-way to traffic on the roundabout, then it may be both unsafe and
inefficient .
Special provision may need to be made for cycles and other slow moving vehicles . Such movements can be
combined with pedestrians at crossings on the approach arms, so that movement through the roundabout is
avoided (Chapter 5.11).
Facilities for pedestrians to cross the arms of the junction safely should be provided in most urban situations.
These may be incorporated in entry islandfrefuge design for low pedestrian flows.
Other measures which have been found to help safety include : improved provision and siting of signs, making
the `give-way' line more conspicuous, additional chevron signs, the provision of yellow bar markings on fast
dual-carriageway approaches, improved skid resistance (micro-texture is importantat low speeds) and the reduc-
tion of excessive entry widths by hatching or physical means .
Roundabouts are particularly well suited for heavy turning movements which would cause safety problems with
other types of junctions .
General Principles
The principles of roundabout design as they apply to urban arterial

andrural intersections are similar, and consequently will be considered
together. Because ofthe high traffic speeds in rural areas and on some
ofthe higher speed urban arterials, it is much more important to achieve
the criteria designed to control the speed of traffic entering the
roundabout. This is sometimes difficult where multi-lane entry
carriageways are involved. Fortunately, in urban areas where multi-
lane roundabouts are more likely to be required and the cost to achieve
ideal standards in respect to speed control is higher, the consequences , Figure 5.4.4 Correctly marked
of not doing so are less critical. Roundabout 0
In local streets the operational objectives are not the same as those on arterials and because of constraints such
as cost and limited space, the design standards will be quite different to those applicable to arterial roads .
Minis of Surface Transport Ross Sikock

5 .9
CHAPTER 5
Figure 5.4 .5 UK Practice - Typical Roundabout

layout showing entry layout m
Table 5.4.1 Recomendedroundabout layoutm A43
Type Description Use
-Kerbodcentral island with diameter greater than -New developments and construction.
Normal or equal to4m. -Junctions within or at the end of due]carriageways.
-Flared approaches to allow multiple entry lams -To change direction of a new road at ajunction.
-Flush orslightly raised central island less than -To improvetreperformanceofemsting

4m in diameter. Urbanjunctions where space is severely constrained.
-Road markings indicate pattern ofmovenent -Not used in newconsuuction but in conversions from
Mini -with orwithemflared approaches . other roundabout andjunctiontypes.
-No street furniture on central island in -Use at sites subject to a 30 mph speed limit.
order to allow long vehicles to overrun.
-At least onetraffic movement passesthrough the -Urban motorways and divided caniageways .
junction without interruption while theremainder -High speeds capacity road and those with high approach
are brought tomeormommundaboutsatadifferent speed oftraffrc.
Grade ICVCL -New construction where there are high vehicle and podestrian
Separated -Compact designs are favoured flows
-For pedestrians and cyclists : the roundabout is
elevated to allow for a pedestrian and cycle network
below
Signalised -Trafra:entermstheroundabout from meormove -Canincrease thecapacity under cenain

armaissignel-controandforallorpanoftheday opemungconditions.
Gyratory -smaflme-wnysystems where moral land use -Urban areas, especially town centres.
Systems activities anbemaintained onthecentalisland -Safe access totheisland mustbeensured
for pedestrians, cyclist,andpossibly vehicles.
Ceomefdc Design Procedure
The following steps may be followed in laying out a trial geometry for a roundabout.
" Select the general design criteria to be used
" Select the appropriate design vehicle for the site. This will generally be the Design Semi-trailer for arterial
roads and the Single Unit Truck/Bus for collector roads
" Adopt a minimum design vehicle turning radius. This will generally be 15m radius (turning speed 5km/h
to 15km.h) on arterial roads and 12.5m radius on collector roads (taming speed 0.5 km/h)
" Determine from preliminary capacity analysis, using approximation techniques if necessary, the expected
number of lanes required on the entry, exit and circulation on carriageways.
" Identify the needs of pedestrians and cyclists and of any requirements for over-dimensional vehicles
" Identify the location of any site controls such as property boundaries, service and utilities, trees, parking
and access requirements etc. and establish the space available for roundabout including the general
location and alignment of each intersection leg
CRRI,TRL ManualforSafety in Road Design

5.10 ~=
JUNCTION DESIGN
" Select a trial central island diameter and from the number of entry lanes requited at each entry and the
turning path requirements, determine the width(s) needed for the circulating carriageway
" Draw in a trial position for the central island, mark the general circulating carriageway widths and draw in
the inscribed circle (i.e. set out the circulating carriageway)
" Check that the size and shape is adequate to accomodate the number of intersecting legs with sufficient
separations for satisfactory traffic operation, providing adequate space for splitter ialaads and the sired
entry, exit and comer kerb radii, within site controls
" From the approach and departure carriageway widths and entry and exit lane requirements, lay out the
entry and exit geometry, therby defining the general shape and position of the splitter islands
" Check achievement of adequate deflection. If not satisfactory adjust the layout including the positioning
of the splitter islands and the central island as required.
" Check sight distances on each approach and exist.
" Carry out detailed analysis of capacity and degree of saturation using the actual layout geometry proposed.
" With the appropriate turning path templates (or computer plots if necessary) check all turning path
requirements, identify any areas where special treatment is needed to cater for over-dimensional vehicles.
" Finalise the edge of pavement design at each entry and exit including the splitter island details, providing
the appropriate aspects which reduce the safety of these road users.
" Layout the lane and pavement marking required .
" Carry out a lighting design and show the position and types of lights and columns required.
" Identify the requirements for and show the locations and details of all regulatory, warning and direction
signs.
More information is available in Technical Annex 5 .2 and Section 5.11
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Minlso r4fSntface 7tansporr Ross Silcock

~ 5 .11
CHAPTER 5
5.5 Signal Controlled Junctions
Overview:
Traffic signals are widely and increasingly used in urban areas.

Assuming good driver discipline, they are also a relatively safe form
of traffic control and have scope for provision of facilities for pe- traffic cuts at normal crossroads
normal T-function
destrians and cyclists. However, in countries with poor records of --A
driver behaviour and enforcement, capacity is reduced and acci-
dent rates can be high.
Signals can operate under fixed time plans, in response to traffic T
demands (vehicle actuated) or under manual control. They can also phase I-one cut phaseZ-no cuts
he linked together to provide control of a network as a whole. two-phase signal control
Problems can often be reduced by the introduction of a one-way
system . Assuming proper use they area safe form of junction and
are more suitable than roundabouts where there are heavy cycle
flows. Pedestrian crossing facilities must he fully considered to
avoid conflicts. Care must he taken to ensure that signal heads are
visible only to those traffic streams for whom they are intended. 'h...1 Pham 2
one-way woo E with two-phase signal

Problems: control
Driver behaviour is often poor and traffic signals are often associ-
ated with accidents in which one vehicle in a traffic stream runs into
the one in front which is waiting to turn or simply stopping for a
signal change .
PhaseI Ph... 2
Drivers continue into an intersection even after the signals have
two-q'" sited watrol-two cuts m Inch plws
changed to red . This problem leads to particularly severe accidents
in low flow conditions when speeds are high. Enforcement of signal
control is often poor in India particularly during off-peak, and engi-
neering decisions to increase the all red time to allow safer clear-
ante, may result in further incursions into the red phase.
Traffic signals are less appropriate to high speed roads and rural
conditions, where attempting to stop the major road traffic is poten- oIn-war w e E rn-wq w e E
win, dim two new
tially hazardous. WW I prab bitN
Turning vehicles can be responsible for many pedestrian accidents, Figure 5.5.1 How signals reduce
and pedestrians are often not given adequate consideration . Signals conflicts
with left turn on red (not all signals) create more difficulties for pedestrians. Accesses immediately adjacent to a
junction can make driver decisions much more complex and lead to hazardous conditions.
Traffic signals need regnlar maintenance and continuous power supply. Both signals and detection equipment
are prone to malfunction so good maintenance capability is required . It is common to find traffic police manually
controlling signals in the belief that they can improve traffic flows . This is rarely true with cycle times under
police control usually being much too long for optimum capacity . Long delays, driver frustration and potential
hazards result . Signal heads are often obscured by vegetation, signs or hoarding.
Traffic signals generally work well in urban areas where high capacity is needed and where speeds are low
(Mumbai has good experience). However, they are expensive to install and maintain, and also require very high
levels of compliance to be safe. Failure to observe signals can lead to serious accidents and good enforcement
is essential . They are also unsuited to locations with high proportions of conflicting turning movements,
although this can often he reduced by the introduction of a one-way system. Police control is frequent, usually
leading to long delays as saturation periods are not properly utilised.
CRRI,TRL Manualfor Safety in Roo.Apesign

5 .12 =
JUNCTION DESIGN
Safer Practice:
Signal heads must be conspicuous in all lighting condi-
tions so that a driver can stop safely . Signals for com-
peting phases must be located such that they are vis-
ible only to the traffic for whom they are intended .
A driver's path through the junction must be clear from

signs and road markings . Turning vehicles should be
segregated by lane . Separate right turn lanes, particu-
larly where it is separately phased, will assist safety . If
the lane(s) can be physically segregated this would be
advisable.
The phasing of the signals should be as simple as

possible, and enable all allowed movements to take place
safely. The signals should clearly indicate which
movements are allowed at any time . The use of green Figure 5.5.2 Well laid out signalised junction in
arrows aid clarity. Peak and off peak timings should be Delhi, channellsation and zebras but incorrect
developed. markings
Signal timings should be updated each year, based on sound design practice and current traffic flows. Traffic
Engineers should review the timing of each intersection at least annually to ensure that the operations are safe
and efficient. Approach speeds must not be too high . Police should not be involved in control, except in an
emergency but a presence is useful to ensure, drivers obey the signals. Enforcement must include the removal
of nearby parked vehicles . Police control would be reduced if signal timings reflected current conditions through
regular updating of the timings.
Signals must be adequately maintained with weekly inspections and fault response times of no more than a day.
If adequate maintenance cannot be ensured, signals should not be used .
Pedestrian phases should be provided where flows are high, or where crossing would otherwise be dangerous.
Wherever possible, pedestrians should be given a signal that they can cross safely without conflict with vehicle
movements. Left turn on red is not recomended in order to improve pedestrian safety.
Some vehicles will be forced to stop rapidly at signals and the provision of adequate skid resistance is most
important.
Hoardings or advertising should not detract from the traffic signals.
More information is available in Technical Annex 5.3.
Flgure5.5.3 Typical layout oftrai}icsignal Figure 55ADesign offoor arm imtersectionshowlog

imdallstions o B29 zebra crossing and pedestrian phasesm B29
Ministry of Surface ltansport Ross Silcock

5 .13
CHAPTER5
5.6 Visibility
Overview:
In general, the visibility offered to drivers should be sufficient to identify any necessary course of action and
then safely to follow that action. A usual critical requirement is that a driver can stop safely, and this needs an
understanding of speeds, reaction times and deceleration rates. Sight distance requirements are thus related to
geometric design and speed controls, and are inherent in all design standards. Visibility may relate to another
road user, or to an object such as a road sign. Conspicuity, i.e . the ease with which the object can be seen, is most
important.
Main road drivers should also be able to see approaching side road vehicles as early as possible so as to be
prepared and able to take evasive action if necessary. This is one of the reasons why recommended visibility
splays usually involve the requirement for an approaching side road vehicle to be seen before it reaches the stop
or give way line . Pedestrians also need to see and be seen and crossing movements are often concentrated at or
near junctions.
Problems :
The topography of the site may make sight distances

difficult to achieve. A common accident problem asso-
ciated with visibility is where a minor road meets a major
road at a shallow angle. This encourages minor road
vehicles to negotiate the junction at speeds higher than
is compatible with the visibility available to them.
Warning and information signs may be so sited that

they have poor conspicuity, and the detailing of the
road may not provide sufficient additional clues as to
the hazard or decision ahead.
A further problem at angled approaches is caused by

drivers having to turn their heads to see back along the
major road . They may not then see what is happening
directly ahead of them and nose-to-tail collisions can Figure 5.6.1 Dangerous T-junction due to very
occur. poor sight lines in U.P
Even if visibility may be . achieved at the required dis-

tance, there may be intermediate obstructions such as trees or road furniture.
In some areas fog, snow or blowing sand may cause problem of visibility at certain times of the year.
Safer Practice :
Adequate visibility at junctions is crucial to their safe

operation. In common with other aspects of design, the
principles behind visibility constraints are that drivers
should not be taken by surprise . Junctions should be
clearly visible to approaching drivers from an adequate
stopping distance . Visibility along conflicting routes
should be generous so those drivers waiting to emerge
can see, and be seen by, approaching traffic. Warning
signs and street righting are both elements which can
contribute to the safe design and operation of junctions
Figure 5:6.2 Lack of adequate sight distance due
and relate to visibility considerations . This is particu-
to sharp bend may produce hazardous situation
larly important at night and conspicuity can be increased
CRR47RL Manual for Safety in Road Design

5 .14
JUNCTION DESIGN
markedly by the use of reflective road markings and signs.
Permanent and temporary signs must be placed so that they

can" be read and acted upon safely.
At a junction between a minor road and a dual carriageway,

where there is sufficient space in the central reserve for minor
road vehicles to perform their manoeuvres in two stages, the
sight distance need only be provided in one direction at a
time.
The visibility distance should be provided from a point set-

back from the stop line. For priority junctions on main roads,
this should be nine metres, although for simple access roads
on more minor roads it may be reduced to be as low as 2.5
metres, although this will require all vehicles to stop.
The driver's eye height is about 1 .20m (for cars) and visibility
is usually more easily achieved in the dip of a sag curve. Sites
at the crest of hills should be avoided (approach speeds at the Figure 5.6.3 Layout of pedestrian footway at
bottom of a sag curve may, however, be high) . T- junction to ensure visibility splay is
maintained m Al
Obstructions in the visibility envelope must be avoided . Consideration should be given to street furniture,
telephone kiosks, road signs, vegetation (when fully grown) and parking. Maintenance is important and visibility
should be achieved within the boundaries of the highway to allow this.
Visibility requirements at roundabouts are to the next exit (or previous exit) or 50m whichever is the least, from a
point 15m back from the stop line. From the circulating carriageway, the same distance should be provided from
a point 2m from the central island .
Street fighting can contribute significantly to the safe design and operation of junctions . This is particularly
important at night and conspicuity can be increased markedly by the use of reflective road markings and signs.
Adequate advance warning signs will indicate that poor visibility may occur due to weather.
Table 5.6.1 x and y distances for Figure 5.6.4. and 5.6.5 A42
Dense speed of major road 100 85 70 60 50
lmdb
"y" distance in 215 160 120 90 70
x distance 9.0 m for visibility onto major roads
4.5m where light traffic flows
2.4 m absolute minimum
Figure 5AA Visibility splay an curvem Al Figure 5.6.5 Visibility splay on straight
section m Al
Minisayof Swfa^^'nmsport ~= Ross Sikock

5.15
CHAPTER5
5 .7 Junction Signs and Markings
Overview :
Warning signs and warning markings are used to give advance notice of a potential hazard ahead or any
unexpected feature of the road geometry. They are of particular use where a design element is sub-standard,
such as on a bend, on high speed road or on the approach to junction. In such a case the warning may be
accompanied by a reduction in speed limit for that section. Other situations where advance warning would be
appropriate include junctions with inadequate visibility or where a new layout might cause confusion to regular
users .
If all desirable geometric standards are met, then warning signs should be largely unnecessary except to warn of
special features such as pedestrian crossings, and other potentially hazardous locations. In these cases ad-
vance warning of some kind should fort part of the design . This can be a sign and/or a road marking.
As with other elements of design, consistency of signing is important. Drivers should be able to understand
warning signs quickly and in sufficient time to act upon them . For this reason symbols are preferred to words.
This policy also offers advantages to illiterate and foreign drivers. The location of signs is critical so that they
provide adequate warning or information but do not themselves obscure important road features . Overgrown
vegetation obscuring the sign is the commonest problem and so siting to minimise the risk of this is of great
importance . Signs must be visible at all times, thus reflective materials should be used and urban signs may
require to be lit intemally or externally.
Problems :
Signs and markings are frequently absent, missing from

their poles, worn or illegible .
A recurring problem with signs is their being obscured,

either by permanent features such as street furniture
and vegetation or by parked vehicles and, on dual car-
riageways, by moving vehicles in the nearside lane .
Signs can themselves obscure other features and may

be visually intrusive from an environmental point of
view. Too many signs can detract from their objective
by overloading the driver with information leading to
Figure 5.7.1 Junction with no marlting
confusion, or to a situation where the driver ignores
some signs.
Signs may not be visible at night because of poor illumination, lack of regular maintenance or continuous power
supply . Reflective signs not regularly cleaned may not maintain their design properties .
Knowlege of road signs and markings is limited and motorists are unaware of the information offered. Knowledge
is also limited amongst engineers and inconsistent signs not conforming to IRC codes are used .
Safer Practice :
The siting of signs is critical : they need to be far enough in advance of a feature to give sufficient time for the
message to be understood and obeyed, but not so far in advance for the message to be forgotten by the time the
feature is reached. The timing to read a message is dependent on approach speed and further research will be
needed for Indian conditions as vehicles speed increase and expressway are constructed . Technical Annex 4 .3
contains details of sign placement.
CRR47RL Manual for Safety in Road Design

5.16
JUNCTION DESIGN
The placing of advance direction signs before an intersection does not eliminate the need for additional directions
at the intersection . Not only does the drivers memory need re-enforcement but on emerging from the junction the
driver should be re-assured through confirmatory signs that he is on the right road.
Attention should be paid to vegetation (bearing in mind the rapid growth that occurs seasonally) and parking
restrictions which may obscure signs. If this is thought likely due to other moving vehicles then overhead signs
or repeated side-mounted signs should be considered.
Signs must be visible in darkness . In rural areas this can be achieved with reflective signs; in urban areas it may
require externally or internally illuminated signs, depending upon prevailing lighting conditions. Regular main-
tenance is important .
Where warning (and other) signs are associated with junctions, great care should be taken to ensure that they do
not obstruct critical lines of sight.
The stop sign should only be used at intersections where the visibility is poor and it is essential for the driver to
stop on every occasion. Their indiscriminate use will reduce their impact for drivers .
The give way sign is mostly used at crossings where control is not exercised by signals, police or stop signs,
but where there is a need for drivers on minor roads to apply caution so as not to cause inconvenience to
traffic on major road.
Apart from signs wanting of approaching features, there are others for use at the site itself such as direction
chevrons at roundabouts . It is particularly important that they should not constitute a hazard in themselves to
vehicles leaving the road. To this end, recent developments include a variety of knock-down signs which can be
driven over but which spring back into position in the event of a collision (Technical Annex 4.3) .
Figure 5.7.2 Typical sign posting at rural four arm Junction according to IRC. Stack
alga would be better replaced by map signs.
Ministry of Sbrfece 7FARport Ross Mock

3.17
CHAPTER 5
Emphasis should be on simple, clear and uniform signs using minimal wording . Symbols should be ipcluded
where they could aid rapid understanding of the message. Map type signs are preferred to stack layouts as they
are more readily understood.
For advance direction signs on rural roads, the letter size may vary from 8 to 15 cm. In urban areas the letter size
should be from 8 to 10 cm.
On Expressways bigger letters upto 25 cm high be used particularly for overhead signs.
Signs, markings and symbols used must be applied consistently . Uniform IRC design standards should be
applied throughout the country .
Overhead gantry may be appropriate on expressways where verge signing may not be more frequently observed
by high-speed vehicles .
Bottom left hand square comer of

panel etc should not cross this line
Corner of tile should not cross

the diagonal line
rile, panel, patch Tile, panel, patch

or symbol ---i or symbol
(fixed position) ff (fixed position)
Figure 5.7.3 U.K. practice for design ofa Map type advance direction sign. m
CRRI,TRL ManaalforSafety inRoaDesign

5.18
MES, X-HEIGHTS AND STROKE WH)THS
To ensure correct letter spacing when forming a word, the characters in each alphabet are placed on imagi-
nary tiles. The tiles vary in width, according to the size of the charactor, and have a fixed height which
ensures correct line spacing. All design spaces are easured to the edge of the tiles and not the the actual
characters, unless special rules state otherwise. Tile outlines must not appear on the finished sign .
The size of an alphabet is specified in terms of its x-height. This is the height of the lower case letter `X', and
is the same for both the Transport Mrdium and Heavy alphabets. The unit of measurement when designing
a sign is the stroke width (SW) which is one quarter of the x-height and is not necessarily equivalent to the
width of any given character The dimensions shown in this chapter are given in stroke widths unless
otherwise stated.
The basic unit of measurement in sign design is the stroke width. As a general rule, the x-height on any one
sign should be the same for all legends. However, there are some designs where more than one x-height is
used and in such cases the dimensions given in stroke widths will be based on the main x-height unless
stated otherwise.
t
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A 123
Figure 5,7A Dimensions of Map type advance direction sign, p
Ministry of Surface Msport Ross SHcock

5 .19
CHAPTER5
5.8 Channelisation
Overview:
Channelisation by means of road markings, raised kerbs, traffic islands and bollards. can be used to guide
vehicles along a specific path on the approach to and/or exit from a junction . The benefits of this are that
movements are simplified . less confusion arises and the number of conflict points is minimised, Effectively, the
number of decisions required of a driver at any one time is reduced, allowing him to concentSate more on gaps in
the opposing stream .
Traffic islands have the added benefit of providing a refuge for pedestrians crossing the road . They also provide
a convenient location for street furniture such as signs, street lighting and drainage covers .
Urban channelisation schemes can he relatively complex. dealing with large traffic volumes, In rural areas
concern is usually focussed on protecting turning vehicles from faster moving traffic and to position vehicles
correctly on the road .
Channelisation is a useful tool in traffic management . It should be applied to alljunctions on high speed roads .
This may require local widening but the small additional cost of this at the design stage will be offset by future
safety benefits in almost every case . Consideration of the access needs of emergency and other priority vehicles
is required. especially in the event of an accident or breakdown. If provision is not made for this, damage to kerbs
will quickly develop . Channelisation guides the driver through the conflict points, provides safe areas for him to
stop while making a manoeuvre and reduces conflicts between different flows.
Problems :
Physical channelisation has the disadvantage of reducing the available road width which may be critical at the
approach to certain junctions. Local widening may be required at locations where channelisation is desired.
The presence of a raised kerb . island or bollard can form a hazard . Particular problems may occur when a central
reserve is installed over a short section which includes a T-junction . Obstruction due to broken down vehicles
can also be made worse as a result of channelisation .
Good, clear signs need to be provided with channelisation otherwise conflicts could be made worse by forcing
uncertain drivers to make an early lane choice without adequate directional information . If the wrong lane is
selected, some drivers will attempt to rejoin their route by making undesirable or illegal manoeuvres, These can
he extremely hazardous.
Some drivers will ignore painted markings used to define channelisation. This can be particularly dangerous at
high speed locations.
FIgure 5.11.1 Painted road markinp create FigureS,8.2 Channeilsed, priority Intersection,
effective channelisation on a large urban Papua New Guines,separates conNetlng movemens
intersection in Korea m and provides safe turning areas m
CRRr,TFtt Mutual for Safety in Road Design

5 .20, _
`
JUNCTION DESIGN
Safer Practice :
Where space does not permit physical channelisation, the

same effect may be achieved using 'ghost islands' indi-
cated by white hatched markings on the road . These are
not self-enforcing unless every second line is raised to cre-
ate a rumble strip in the same way as physical islands but
the intention remains clear. If local driver behaviour is such
that many are likely to drive over painted islands then raised
kerbs and a physical island become essential .
A refuge for turning traffic at priority junctions should have

a hatched area at least 3.5 metres wide . If a physical island
is used, on high speed roads, 10 metres length for the ref-
uge may be sufficient, and if local dualling is used, up to 30
metres should be provided . However, very short sections
of two-lane dualling at junctions should be avoided to dis- Figure 5.8.3 Plantation in channeliser provides
eye-pleasing environment in Mumbai. 0
courage overtaking at these locations.
Consideration should be given to the potential restriction of movement caused by broken down vehicles within
channelised sections .
Although local widening is likely to be required for channelisation on high speed rural roads, the additional cost
will usually be offset by safety benefits .
a1GNWAYA AND TRAFFIC
Railing-__4
IRIAN (RptS WLN
Railing
I:PFIRIAN la)55 cwh'~ i'
1 ik
Figure 5.8.5 Design of four arm channeWed Intersection

showing arregement for zebra crowing. m H29
Figure 5.8.4 Channelisrtlon options at a

variety ofjunedon types. Version (a) for a Y
typist not rawmeaded. A61
Other relevant sections : 3.8, 5.3, 7.3, 8.9

IndUin relerences: 87, B21, B29
Key external referatlm: Al, A38, A43, A61
Ministry of Surfsc ansport Ross Sllcnck

5 .21
CHAPTER5
5 .9 Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes
Overview :
On major roads where speeds are high, it is beneficial to provide acceleration and deceleration lanes at junctions.
These are used to aid the transition between the high speed of the major road and the low speed required in order
to negotiate the junction . They allow all turning vehicles to speed up or slow down without impeding through
traffic .
Whilst acceleration lanes are restricted to the nearside only, offside deceleration lanes may also be suitable to
assist turning traffic at channelised priority and traffic signal controlled junctions.
Acceleration and deceleration lanes are common in the developed countries and have important implications for
safety. As with other junctions, visibility and signing are very important. Enforcement of parking restrictions in
these lanes is critical to avoid danger and delay should they become blocked.
Problems:
Drivers using acceleration lanes have a narrow

angle of vision with the main road flow . Drivers
merging in a stream of vehicles may have difficulty
in watching both the front vehicle and the stream
into which they are merging. Accidents between
vehicles in the acceleration lanes may occur as a
result .
Acceleration or deceleration lanes may be blocked

by parked or stopped vehicles and this may force
drivers out into the main stream .
It should also be noted that even unobstructed

and well designed deceleration lanes often remain
unused . Figure 5.9 .1 Descending traffic does not have sufficient
length for deceleration before merging with fast and heavy
trafic plying on the main road, Delhi.
Safer Practice:
Acceleration/deceleration lanes provide an opportunity for

traffic entering or leaving a faster stream to change speed
without delaying other vehicles . This enhances safety and
reduces delay.
Good visibility is important and should be maintained

through the lane . In the case of merging lanes in particular,
the lines of sight should be kept free from street furniture
and road signs.
To avoid obstruction of the lanes, parking restrictions

should be implemented and strictly enforced . In case of
breakdowns at critical places, additional parking or wider
shoulders are desirable.
Figure 5.9.2 Insufficient facilities for traffic To ensure more efficient use of the lanes, their existence
accelerating to go up a ramp and intended purpose should be well advertised by
advanced signing. A self-enforcing measure would be to
`-RR4TRI. ~~ Manual for Safety in Road Design

322
JUNCTION DESIGN
provide channelisation at the deceleration lane where space provides . Such a measure would also assist
pedestrians crossing the road and slow moving vehicles going ahead on the major road.
Deceleration lanes can be used in conjunction with protected turning bays to provide a safe location for vehicles
to slow down and wait before making the crossing manoeuvre.
Conspicuity can be enhanced by using reflective road studs of different colours, e.g . green for exit deceleration
lanes and red for entry acceleration lanes on fast dual carriageways.
Table 5. 9.1 Geometric parameters for diverging
lanes (numbers in brackets rifer to Figure 5.9.3)
5'm& 11w Mm Nose Mm Paullel
Irate lace tmo petanr3 lace
RoedClass
envy entry nose lace taper
MW MW taper kwffi
1 2 3 4 5 6
RusiMoluway 1:45 1 :25 1 :15 80 200 1 :20
RusiDiulCmiagmy
Design spend 120tnufi 1:40 1 :20 1:15 70 170 1 :15
DesignSpesdIfhufi 1:35 1 :18 1:15 70 150 1 :15
UsbmRsrds
10Olrshspadlma 1:15 50 125 1:10
801Mhspedfimd J
20 1 1 s2 40 100 1:10
ales Figure 5.9 .3 Diverging lane layouts (numbers in
brackets refer to Table 5.9.1)m All
Table 5. 9.2 Geometric parameters for merging

hum (numbers in brackets refer to Figure 5.9.4)
Single 1W Mm Nose Mm Pua1k1 (Rant
lace lace ygle Imgth petanr3 lace ishnd
RedClme
entry entry nose lace taper kno
taper taper taper knot
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
RudMuuwey 135 1 ..40 1.40 115 230 1:20 180
a"DeaWunogmv
~sa
DeetgnSpxdl201insh 1:40 1 :30 1:30 85 190 1:15 150
DesignSpxd100knA 135 135 1:25 75 160 1 :15 150

o w .w . ..
UfimRsrds
1001Mhspew ls 1:25 1 :20 1:15 50 125 1:10 de
8014epeedls 1:20 1:15 Ia2 40 100 1 :10 de

ides
Figure 59A Layout ofmerging hum (numbers

in brackets refer to Table 5.9.2) m All
Miaisoy Of Since 1}a"port Ross Silcock

5 .23
CHAPTER 5
5 .10 Pedestrian Crossing Facilities
Overview :
In urban areas in particular, walking is an important mode of transport. All road users are pedestrians at some
stage of each journey, and some are pedestrians the whole time . However, often little thought is given to their
needs within the road system, and consequently, many accidents involve pedestrians, particularly children.
Because pedestrians tend to follow traffic routes there are often concentrations of pedestrians wishing to cross
roads at junctions or specific high generators of pedestrian traffic such as hospitals and schools.
As motorisation increases, pedestrians are put at increasing risk and need to be protected wherever possible .
Problems are particularly acute at junctions where pedestrian and vehicle flows converge . Crossing facilities
have great implications for pedestrian safety at junctions if they are correctly used . Refuges and pedestrian
phases at signals are particularly effective. Their use can be actively encouraged by the use of self-enforcing,
restrictive measures such as pedestrian fences at other points . It is particularly important to discourage people
from crossing near bur not on a crossing as this is where drivers least expect to be confronted by a pedestrian .
Problems:
Crossing at junctions can be particularly hazardous.

At intersections visibility may be poor, especially at
night, and the complex traffic movements may be diffi-
cult for a pedestrian to understand . Drivers may not
always signal their intended manoeuvres .
In order to provide additional traffic capacity at junc-

tions, local widening is sometimes carried out. This
increases the crossing distance, again making matters
worse for pedestrians .
Heavy crossing demands may occur away from junc-

tions where vehicle speeds are high . Particular exam-
ples are where footpaths cross rural highways or im-
mediately outside schools. Problems of visibility and
the safe judgement of approach speeds may be ham- figure 5.10.1 Poorly maintained road marking
pered by poor or inadequate sight distances or the facilities for pedestrians in Delhi
presence of obstructions such as parked vehicles . The
provision of underpasses or overbridges may be too expensive and may not be well used .
In India, driver behaviour at crossings is very poor and drivers rarely give way to pedestrians at unsignalised
crossings.
Kerbs are often high and channelising islands planted and protected by railings are unable to be used by
pedestrians . At traffic signalled junctions median islands often stop short of the pedestrian crossings, if present,
or stop line leaving pedestrians unprotected.
Islands and medians are often too narrow to fully protect pedestrians .
Safer NRclice :
The simplest and cheapest method is a central refuge which allows a pedestrian to negotiate one traffic stream at
a time . Refuges consist of physical islands incorporating bollards, lit by the existing street lighting or supplemen-
tary flood lighting. Such refuges should be a desirable minimum of 1 .8 metres width (absolute minimum 1 .2m) and
can often be part of chatutelisation at as intersection .
CRPJ,,TRL Manual forSafety in Road Design

5 .24
JUNCTION DESIGN
Dropped crossings should be provided at pedestrian facilities .

Ramps should not exceed 8% gradient and textured surfacing
will assist blind people .
Small radii kerbing at corners can help pedestrians cross the

mouths of side roads by reducing the speed of turning vehi-
cles and reducing carriageway width. However, this may result
in an increased risk of large vehicles mounting the kerb, so
protective features such as bollards may have to be used.
Continuing main road `footway' across an intersection need

not involve a closure of the vehicles . This measure assists
pedestrians by giving them precedence and prominence by
encouraging drivers to manoeuvre more slowly. The use of
coloured and textured surfaces can be effective in reinforcing
this change in priority .
Figure 5.10.2 UK warrants for pedestrian
At traffic signals, it is possible to include a pedestrian only crossing facilities.
phase. However, if there is a little demand, pedestrians can
make good use of the inter-green periods to cross. This can be further aided by providing central refuges.
Possible provision away from intersections includes crossing patrols, (by police or other official at peak times,
e.g. school tines), bridges, subways and measures to reduce traffic speed such as road humps.
Grade separated facilities are the safest but also the most expensive . Pedestrian fences may need to be used to
encourage their use.
Safe stopping sight distances are essential and visibility must be maintained in all lighting conditions . Temporary
and permanent obstructions must be avoided.
Careful consideration should be given to the siting of bus stops in order to minimise visibility problems .
Table 5.10.1 Sumary of pedestrian facilities at signalised junctions A43
Type of Facility Characteristics

Traffic signals, even without signals for pedestrians, can help pedestrians to cross by
No pedestrian signal creating gaps in traffic streams .
Especially a hcable where there are refuges and on one-way streets .
All traffic is stopped .
Full pedestrian stage Demanded from push buttons .
More delay to vehicles than combined vehicle/ strian stages .
Combined vehicle/pedestrian stage often accompanied by bamiinng vehicle movements.
Parallel pedestrian stage
Useful across one-way streets.
Pedestrians cross one half of the carriageway at a time.
Staggered pedestrian facility large storage area in the centre of the carriageway required .
Stagger preferably to face on-corning traffic .
For junctions close to capacity. - --~~
Displaced pedestrian facility The crossing point is situated away from the junction but within 50 m. l
Normal staging arrangements as above .

5.25
CHAPTER 5
5.11 Provision For Cyclists and Slow Moving Vehicles
Overview:
Cycles and other slow moving vehicles need separate consideration in a road system due to their different
characteristics of movement, poor conspicuity and vulnerability in the event of an accident . Roundabouts in
particular often have a poor accident record for these vehicles, but difficulties can be experienced at all types of
junctions .
Many facilities have been designed and successfully implemented to segregate cyclists from potentially con-
flicting traffic. This is particularly important at junctions where their poor conspicuity and speed difference with
motorised traffic puts them at particular risk. At priority junctions cyclists can be assisted by provision of
channelisation. At signalised junctions they can be given a special phase or a separate stop line ahead of other
traffic to makethem more conspicuous and to give them a head start . The provision of safe facilities is especially
difficult at roundabouts and in the past efforts have usually been made to divert cyclists and slow moving
vehicles to alternative routes or to where they can share facilities with pedestrians .
Problems :
The problems of slow moving vehicles stem from the differences in speed andtheir inability to get clear oftrouble
quickly.
At priorityjunctions, these vehicles are mainly at risk when performing turning movements, but also when going
straight ahead amidst other vehicles making turning movements across their path .
At traffic signals the problems tend to be caused by the general urgency of behaviour shown by other road users
who are trying to minimise their own waiting time.
Roundabouts cause particular problems due to their free-flowing nature . Thus, slow moving vehicles have to
enter streams of traffic moving faster than their own capabilities . Poor conspicuity is a particular problem, with
many accidents on roundabouts being between vehicles colliding with cyclists already on the circulatory car-
riageway .
Shared pedestrian/cyclist facilities are sometimes illegally used by motor-cyclists unless they are physically
prevented from doing so bythe installation of carefully located special barriers.
CRRI,TRL `= Manualfor Safety in RF=Design

5 .26
JUNCTION DESIGN
Safer Practice:
At priority junctions, cyclists can be assisted by segregating their movements by channelisation or by provid-
ing central refuges allowing movements to be made in two stages.
At traffic signals a useful method of assisting slow moving vehicles is to allow them a separate phase (governed
by separate signal heads incorporating a cycle symbol) or to give them a `head start' from a separate stop line a
few metres ahead of the stop line for other traffic (see Figures 5.11 .1 and 5.11 .2 below) .
Problems at roundabouts are much more difficult to solve but the authors have developed a possible design
which could be considered (see figures 5 .11 .4 and 5 .1.1 .5 below) .
For cycles and other small vehicles it is possible to allow shared use of pedestrian facilities where they exist as
a convenient alternative . In the UK, such shared use of facilities with pedestrians has proved a safe measure with
pedestrian and cycle flows up to about 300 per hour (Figure 5 .11 .3).
One-way cycle lanes should be a minimum of 2.0m (2 .5 m for cycle rickshaws) . Two-way cycle lanes should be a
minimum of 3.0 m (5 .0 m for cycle rickshaws) . These figures apply where space allows .
Cycle facilities must be attractive to cyclists or they will remain unused . They should not involve long detours,
steep gradients, steps or dismounting, and should be well maintained. It is important to maintain continuity of
routes so the inclusion of "cycle friendly" facilities such as the roundabout shown in Figures 5.11 .4 and 5 .11 .5
can increase likelihood of cyclist using cycle routes .
STOP us[ I I i t 1 '

s lllpll 1111111 ~-
~J
SIK WALK. z SIOL VALK t l -_~
JIMMIE ="
c
1r ~a-
- -
-
~ 1 SOME YIU! - -y~ rI' iS1K vALK
Spa. LALK \,
it guru' . h
/r-~ .
lfl mx roK crLtta~ } I llli ~
' 'I~ .I ~(
lF j `- stop Our rnt I
I I AI II I I 4 1 1
6rCL1S1
;, PMoCL6i PATH KTII
1 1 1 0i 1111
11, I. I
1 p:TLXIST MI 91`1`4111
, I s
J11~11 lu,l7
SaIE vMX i r _ SIYK V4lK
~IYA ^- / L= ~ CYCLE ?RACK
S~ t I i
WkK
PATH M NOrlr ~. Y ~
1111111
tusnNlf eratan
"I I
u
2. Tim PAT" 1tva
Rgure 5.11 .1 Segregation of cycle traffic at signalised road intersections.m B21
Ministry of Surface 71ansport '- Ross Silcock

5.27
CHAPTER5
It is essential that parking is banned near roadside cycle facilities, as cyclists would otherwise be forced to make
sudden unexpected movements into the traffic to avoid a parked vehicle.
In new developments, many of the potential problems can be removed by the proper design of alternative
segregated pedestrian routes and cycle networks .
These recomendations are also suitable for rickshaws and hand carts which should be encouraged to use the
facilities . Depending on flows of these vehicles it will be necessary to widen cycle lanes.
Figure 5.11.2 UK guidlines for advanced cycle boxes at traffic siguals{] A66
Figure 5.11 .3 UK guidlines for off-highway cycle links at roundabouts . 0 A66
CRRI, Tf- Manualfor Safety in Road Design

5 .28 -
JUNCTION DESIGN
xxv uxE ox 61,1

ROUMMAO" EIYE$ FOP
M1MC.[0Y7 FN,enY.c
.[NICEFS
OF MY . L[K
YS. .O E.ROg
110.0 STVOS
[[OS[ ,OO .,xtn
ON .PIM.[NFS
70 " UEOW
.1 " MOW . .0
,RAM our
,FT
MEE . .1 .... .. .
Figure 5.11A Suggested experimental on-highway cycle lane at roundabout (non-Oared approach).
,.x. w.
[".1x . .,1411
Y51N4
u[0[ ROAD S,IOS
OR MO[,NEn 0141010
.Pr[4 .cN[s
Ao 1 .11 . aroxo Y uss urt
.
.x4 swcm au, n ca .n
[.,w.[x sw.ox4s
Figore5.11.5 Suggested experimental on-highway cycle lane at roundabout (flared approach).
Ministry of Surface T1sesport Ross Silco

5 .29
CHAPTER5
5 .12 Checklist for Junction Design
1. Will the junction be able to carry expected/future traffic levels without becoming overloaded and congested?
2. Have the traffic and safety performance of alternative junction designs been considered?
3. Is the route through the junction as simple and as clear to all users as possible?
4. Is the presence of the junction clearly evident at a safe distance to approaching vehicles from all directions?
5. Are warning and information signs placed sufficiently in advance of the junction for a driver to take
appropriate and safe action given the expected speeds on that road?
6. On the approach to the junction, is the driver clearly made aware ofthe actions necessary to negotiate the
junction safely?
7. "Are traffic islands and channelisers at rural junctions provided with mountable type kerbs and painted?
8. Are different turning movements sufficiently segregated for capacity and simplicity of action by the
driver?
9. Do the decisions which need to be made by a driver follow a simple, logical and clear sequence?
10 . Are the drainage features sufficient to avoid the presence of standing water?
11 . *Is the level of lighting adequate to indicate the junction at night?

12 . **Is the level of advance reflective warning signing and road markings enough to make the junction
conspicuous at night?
13. *Is the level of lighting adequate to silhouette pedestrian and other movements?
14 . Have assessments and counts been undertaken to assess pedestrian and NMV volumes and needs?
15 . Are sight lines sufficient and clear of obstructions, including parked and stopped vehicles?
16 . Are accesses prohibited within 60 metres of the junction?
17 . Are advertising hoardings prohibited within 100 metres of the junction to permit safe movements?
18. *Have adequate special facilities been provided for pedestrians (footways, refuges, crossings, etc .) to
permit safe movements?
19. *Are pedestrian barriers required to guide pedestrians to safe crossing locations?
20. Have adequate special facilities been provided for cyclists and other non-motorised users to permit safe
movement?
21 . Where roads cross, does the design,road marking and signing clearly identify rights ofway and priorities?
22. Is the design of the junction consistent with road types and adjacent junctions?
23. Are there gaps in central islands of sufficient size to store waiting/turning traffic in safety?
24. * * Where a village road joins a National or State road at a priority junction is it always at a "T" junction,
even if it means realigning the "Y"junctions to create a "T" junction?
25. **Where a village road joins a National or State road has local widening been carried out to create safe
protected turning lanes for right turn traffic leaving or joining the major road?
26. **At the termination intersection of a high speed road has sufficient advance warning been given (via
signs/markings and rumble strips) to slow traffic to a safe speed?
* Of particular relevance on urban and suburban roads .
** Of particular relevance on rural roads .
CRR/,TRL ManualforSgfety in Road Design

5.30
SAFETY AUDITS
CHAPTER 6
SAFETY AUDITS

6.1
CHAPTER 6
6 SAFETY AUDITS
6.1 Principles and Issues
Road safety audit is a formal procedure for assessing accident potential and safety performance in the provision
of new road schemes, the improvement and the rehabilitation of existing roads and in the maintenance of
existing roads. It should form an integral part of highway planning, design, construction and maintenance, and
it requires an objective approach to the assessment of accident risk. The principal method of ensuring this
objectivity is through the independent assessment of schemes by persons who are independent of the original
design team.
The main aim is to ensure that all new highway schemes operate as safely as possible. This means that safety
should be considered throughout the whole preparation and construction of any project. All organisations or
consulting firms responsible for designing new or upgrading existing roads should, therefore, adopt a standard
safety audit procedure . It may not be necessary to include in the procedure all the stages outlined below. The
basis for road safety audits is the systematic application of safety principles. Specific aims are:
to minimise the risk of accidents occurring on the scheme, and to minimise the severity of accident that do
occur ;
to minimise the risk of accidents occurring on adjacent roads as a result of a scheme, i.e. to avoid creating
accidents elsewhere on the network;
to recognise the importance of safety in highway design to meet the needs and perceptions of all types of
road user; and to achieve a balance between needs where they may be in conflict;
to reduce the long term costs of a scheme, bearing in mind that unsafe designs may be expensive or even
impossible to correct at a later stage ; and
to improve the awareness of safe design practices by all involved in the planning, design, construction and
maintenance of roads .
It is understandable that some design engineers may perceive safety audits as an unnecessary check on design
skills. However, strict adherence to design standards does not always avoid safety problems . Adverse features
may unwittingly be introduced from a combination of design elements, for example in creating maximum
deflection from entry arms on a roundabout and to ensure channelisation by the introduction of splitter islands
on which vertical delineators have been placed, the latter may obscure the view to the right for approaching
drivers . Safetyneedsmayconflictwithcapacityandenvironmentalrequirements,forexample,buildingpavement
extensions to make the road crossings task simple for pedestrians, and others physical barriers designed to
reduce existing road width to help produce lower vehicle speeds may reduce the capacity of the road. Necessary
relaxations of standards due, for example, to terrain, may give rise to safety problems. Furthermore, design
standards often lag behind the application of the latest international and national research findings. In view of
such issues, a structured safety audit can usefully identify potential problems and make practical recommendations
for alleviating them . As such, a safety audit is an aid to optimum design .
The safety audit procedure includes within it feedback loops to auditors and designers so that designers are
aware of the implications of their design on safety . This frequently assists future designs by the design engi-
neers avoiding simple pitfalls and generally creating fewer problems .
Where schemes are designed by outside consultants they should also be responsible for organising the safety
audits at the correct stages. This does not mean they should necessarily carry out the audit which may be
undertaken by either another consultant (preferred option) or a fully independent team form the design consultant.
Initially, the safety audit experience may be within a research institute.
CRRI,TRL - Manna!for Safety in Road Design =-E

6.2
SAFETY AUDITS
6.2 Procedures and Practices

Schemes that should be audited cover a wide range of types THE kae'RKl'pk OB a1SIok E~
anal sizes, on different classes of roads, in urban and rural Snmcornw M, . .kntnh which ~ .nl nnha::[e 5al[ny [an w:i:in[ to
...v :atct, poblelm R: ...mpk.
areas. These include:
major new road schemes ;

major new rehabilitation schemes;
* minor improvements ;
4~ traffic management schemes;
development schemes;
* maintenance works; and t Pn mter[e[VOn on Ma w:l~:k at a IlonionlL :nwe pwgea 5ood
* existing roads . haunnla snl G,tvcn Rvm the vM raW.
Although it would be desirable to subject all schemes to a

safety audit, both financial and personnel resources will
be limited and it may not be achievable. It is, therefore,
important for there to be a clear procedure for prioritising
schemes, which defines the types of schemes and the
appropriate level of audits required.
3. A dttekulum lam obwv vehkks In .bw down [tear of the Ilnnu[h
It is suggested that initially safety audit procedures be VaFH[ kne.'M.ng ILe dirt of .OTto.tao K[i:kn".
applied only to all new roads and all rehabilitation road

schemes on National, State and municipal roads .
Eventually as experience is gained and more safety auditors
become trained/ available, the Safety Audit Process could
be extended to other areas listed above.
It has been found from experience in the UK where the

audit procedure was first developed, that during the design
B. Butcombnmtitm.mtwoekmene,canryolinakftturning ~dr
and construction process (whether new road or rehabilitated I~iOi: :g a tolkwmr we:u k. l :A yypne [ornSbna : :an ol road an0
mR[ua rn afgn.-lenL rhF9lt ht an& xrkMla inn rtViM
road) there should be options for up to four stages of audit,
some or all of which may be relevant for each scheme .
Figure 6.2.1 Interaction of Design Elements.
These are:
m A61
Stage F - Feasibility/initial design ;
Stage I - Preliminary design/draft plans;
Stage 2 - Detailed design ; anal
Stage 3 - Pre-opening.
Stage F - Feasibilityrnitial design
For major scliemes, it is important that safety implications are considered when evaluating conceptual design
proposals, in respect of route choice, standards, impact on the existing network and continuity with it, and
junction provision.
Stage 1- Preliminary designldraft plans
On completion of preliminary design or draft plans the main requirements are to assess the horizontal and
vertical alignments, sightlines, layout and land implications ofjunctions, slip roads and lay-bys . Major changes
to the scheme after this stage are limited since land acquisition may be difficult. It may also be useful to
examine the concept of road marking and signing at this stage in relation to alignmenta and overtaking strategy.
Stage 2 - Detailed design
During or on completion of detailed design and ideally before the preparation of contract documenta, the im-
portant aspects to assess are the details of junction layout, markings, signs and signals, lighting, and impact
protection.
Ministry of Surface Transport aIwlt- Ross Silcock

6.3
CHAPTER 6
Stage 3 -Pre-opening
Shortly before opening, it is essential to drive, cycle and/or walk through the scheme, as appropriate, in order to
see it as the road user sees it . The scheme should be examined during the hours of darkness as well as in
daylight, and possibly in inclement weather. This stage is often found to reveal potential problems that are
difficult to detect at the previous stages.
The concept of "drive, ride, walk" is vital to understanding the scheme in relation to all road users. Even when
there are only initial plans available, the auditor should imagine driving, riding and walking through the scheme,
as this will ensure that the needs of vulnerable road users such as pedestrians and cyclists are considered at an
early stage and given the same consideration as motorised vehicles.
For some schemes it may be possible to omit or combine stages . For example, stages 1 and 2 can be combined
for smaller improvements, or for traffic management schemes stages F and 1 combined . The Table 6.2 .1 sets
out guidelines for organising the road safety audit system .
Table 6.2 .1 Guidelines for organising the road safety audit system
Stage F 1 F+1 2 1+2 C 3

Scheme Typ e
Major road schemes * # # # #
Major rehabilitation schemes # # # # #
Minor road schemes # # #

Traffic management schemes, * * #
including traffic calming
Accident remedial schemes # #

Major maintenance schemes * * #
Major development schemes # # # #
Minor development schemes * * #

Temporary traffic management of n,oyo, scnew~ # #
Note : C during construction
The roles and responsibilities of the client, project manager, design engineer and auditor may vary from one
organisation to another, in response both to the resources available and to local procedures for highway design
and implementation . However, the most appropriate division of roles and responsibilities is seen as follows :-
Client
The process of road safety audit commences with the client organisation commissioning those audits at appropriate
stages in scheme preparation . The client organisation must view constructively the results of the audit and be
prepared to act upon them wherever possible. The preparation of clear terms of reference, setting down the
whole range and scope of the audit, is needed to ensure that the auditors satisfy the client's requirements .
Project Manager/Design Engineer
The project manager or design engineer would initiate the safety audit process for each scheme and respond to
the audit. He/she will provide a brief supported by the necessary plans and information and will receive and
assess the audit report, deciding what actions will be taken, particularly the possible need for redesign . At this
latter stage, some decisions may need to involve referral to the client .

6.4 =
SAFETY AUDITS
Auditor
Working within the Terms of Reference, the primary role of the auditor is to identify any potential safety
problems and should not be evaluating the principles of the project or be tempted into re-design . Nevertheless,
there may be occasions where particular categories of road user may appear to be placed at risk by the lack of
dedicated facilities. In these cases it would be appropriate for the auditor to suggest that further consideration be
given to their needs. The auditor should provide constructive recommendations, based on safety engineering
expertise, as to how any potential design difficulties can be resolved.
This process is summarised in Table 6 .2.2 and expanded further in the following section.
Table 6.2.2 The Process of Road Safety Audit : Roles and Responsibilities
Commissioning Audit Client

Identify and prioritise schemes requiring audit at different stages
Specify terms of reference
Approve audit team
Initiating Audit and Provision of Brief Project Manager/ Design Engineer
Select audit team
Provide terms of reference, and previous road safety audit and exception report
Provide background information covering general description and objectives, plans, departures from standards, traffic
and accident records
Undertaking Audit Audit Team
Assess information provided in brief
Inspect scheme on site
Formulate safety implications, potential problems, and recommendations
Check through an "aide memoire" list of features
Present audit report
Establish and maintain a documentation, storage, and retrieval system for all audited schemes
Responding to Audit Project Manager / Design Engineer
Consider audit report
Agree changes in design to meet concerns and submit for re-audit
Make exception report on issues where no action is proposed to meet concerns
Collate audit information
Finalising Action Client

Finalise decisions on changes to be made
Refer any re-design to audit team
Complete necessary documentation to demonstrate audit recommendations have been considered and acted on (copies,
as appropriate, to Project Manager/Design Engineer)
Overall - set up a procedure for monitoring through keeping a register of all schemes audited
Terms of Reference
The roles and responsibilities of all those concerned, and the range and scope of the audit should be specified in
clear terms of reference . They should include any special requirement of the audit, for example, a night visit to
the site or coverage of the adjacent road network which may be influenced by the scheme, and the format to be
used in presenting the results of the audit. A sample Terms of Reference (TOR) is presented in Technical
Annexe 6.1 : A simplified TOR is given overleaf and this also illustrates how the report should be presented .
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Sileock

6.5
CHAPTER 6
Example
The nominated road safety expert(s) shall provide a comprehensive road safety audit for the new extension to
NH 66 from km 257 at Bagepally to km 299 at Robisuri in accordance with the Indian Standards listed below.
Special attention should be paid to facilities for pedestrians and the safety ofall functions with NH 66 particularly
at night time .
The audit report should clearly identify the scheme, the audit stage and audit team members . Each identified
potential problem location should provide a standard problem/recommendation format as suggested in the
example in Figure 6-2-2.
NH66 through Bangapori Halli
House I Nee , AM I oar I %OP 9q
= PNPacd lift Of Pdemian Ml*

N ------- -------------- .... _....................... - .-......... .. --------------------------- ------------- ------------------------ --
u Nq Shop
1.1 Problem
The location ofthe pedestrian crossing immediately outside the bar may encourage pedestrians under the influence
of alcohol to step into the path of moving traffic. Children crossing to the school from the houses on the north
side of the road are unlikely to use the crossing . Traffic turning left from the side road turns straight into the
crossing
Recommendation
(i) The pedestrian crossing could be moved to the east side of the junction .
(ii) Alternatively the crossing could be moved away from the bar entrance / exit to the west of its current
position and guard rails could be installed on the north side of the road to encourage school children to use the
crossing.
1.2 Problem
Pedestrians, particularly the elderly are vulnerable when crossing wide roads .
Recommendation
The crossing should be narrowed down by building out the kerbs or installing a raised refuge .
1 .3 Problem
Buses stopped at the bus stop to the west of the crossing could mask pedestrians stepping onto the crossing for
drivers travelling eastbound .
Recommendation
The bus stop should be moved to the east side of the crossing.
1.4 Problem
High speed traffic approaching the crossing may have difficulty in stopping when the road is wet . This could
lead to nose-to-tail accidents or pedestrians struck on the crossing.
Recommendation
Improve the road surface texture on each approach.
CRRLTRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

6.6
SAFETY AUDITS
6.3 Code of Good Practice
Managing Safety Audits
No one method of managing a safety audit is "correct". The roads authority must decide for itself what is the
most appropriate way of organising and carrying it out. However, the following principles should always apply:-
The scope and organisation of the audit should be clearly defined in terms of reference ;
Audit team should wherever possible be independent of design team;
Audit team must have up-to-date knowledge of safety engineering and an understanding of the safety
implications ;
Findings of team should be fully documented and reported at each stage as a series of "Problems and
Recommendations" ;
* The reasons for each element of audit advice should be fully documented;
The reasons for not implementing any element of audit advice should be documented in an exception report;
and
A clear procedure to determine ultimate responsibility for final decision on each recommendation should be
established .
Expertise in "safety engineering" requires a combination of competence in techniques of accident investigation

and remedial design with a sound knowledge of safety principles and relevant practices .
Selecting the Tearn
The team needed to undertake an audit depends on the size and type of the scheme, the stage of audit and, of
course, resources available. However, as a guide, the following are good examples: -
Team for Stage F (Feasibility Initial design) and Stage 1 of Major Schemes (Preliminary design)
Road Safety specialist with experience in accident investigation, safety management, applying safety
engineering principles, and has the ability to assess potential user risks;
Road design engineer who is fully familiar with road design standards and has ability to visualise 3-
dimensional layout from 2-dimensional plans ; and
* Person with safety audit experience and/or specialist knowledge of any unusual aspect of the proposal .
Team for smaller schemes
* Above team of only 2 people (with safety specialisation)
Team for Stage 2 (detailed design)
In addition to the safety specialist it maybe desirable to involve other specialist skills depending on the type
of scheme ; e.g. experience in traffic signal control or facilities for cyclists and pedestrians .
Team for Stage 3 (Pre-opening)
Additional representatives are recommended : -
Ministry of Surface Transport - Ross Sitcoek

6.7
CHAPTER 6
* Police officer experienced in traffic and safety
* Engineer who will be responsible for maintenance of the scheme with experience of similar roads.
Person familiar with road user needs for schemes which are particularly relevant for vulnerable road users.
Information required
The project manager or design engineer should supply the audit team with : -
* Terms of reference for the range and scope of the audit
General descriptions of the scheme : its purpose and how it fits into the surrounding infrastructure (for audit
team to ensure flexibility) .
Scheme plans[] : 2500 minimum (interurban schemes) but larger scale (1 :500) maybe needed forjunctions
etc.] incorporating detailed features .
* A departure report proposals for relaxation s/departures from standard need to be carefully reviewed .
* Traffic flow and composition (including pedestrians, cyclists, other NMVs etc .)
Accident records at the location of current scheme and adjacent road lengths (particular attention needs to
be paid to points where the old road joins the new sections .)
* Any previous safety audit and exceptions reports relating to the scheme .
It is helpful for the team to review the information together in that this `brainstorming' or sharing of expertise
leads to a more constructive and realistic appraisal.
Most of the information contained in this manual should be of use and the principles can be applied when
carrying out an audit (e .g . junction design, access control, horizontal and vertical alignment and cross section) .
Many of the Indian Standards include aspects of road safety (e .g . ref. B4, B 13 and B28) . Also, there are now a
number of safety audit guides produced by different countries which are likely to be useful for the auditor (see
ref. A4, A5, A6, A8, A9, and A54) .
Audit Recommendations
The project manager and or design engineer must respond to the audit report. In urban areas, it may be useful
for the audit report to be reviewed by an experienced officer from the Traffic Police Department . For Stage 1
and 2 audits, recommendations should be given as to how each problem can be alleviated. Once any redesign
has been completed the audit procedure should be repeated . Where any action is not accepted, this should be
clearly explained in an exception report which must be endorsed by the person with ultimate responsibility (i .e .
the client).
For a Stage 3 audit, the response to the audit should be similar, though the urgency will be to implement
changes rather than re-designs . An exception report and endorsement of action are still required.
Monitoring and evaluation
Monitoring, both the performance of individual schemes and the overall procedures and practices is essential.
The quantitative assessment of an individual scheme can be undertaken through analysis of the accident records,
CRRI,TRL Manualfor Safety in Road Design

6.8
SAFETY AUDITS
which may also indicate any problems which have been missed during the audit. However, it should be noted
that most schemes would require a period to "settle down" as road users become used to the new system .
Additionally, the auditor should "drive, ride, walk" the scheme, a) shortly after opening, b) after any accident or
incident and c) shortly before the end of the maintenance period, to check that the perception of safety to
different road users is up to expectations, this effectively adds a further audit stage - a post-implementation
audit. Additionally, comments from the general public may also give useful feedback . The project manager and
designer of the scheme should be informed of the evaluation .
More broadly, regular monitoring and evaluation of the procedures and practices will assist in updating them
and ensuring that the audit process remains robust . This will be achieved through the keeping of a comprehensive
record of the safety audit process . Part of this process is to record common deficiencies identified at different
stages of the audit process and on different types of scheme . This will provide a feedback to design engineers
for future schemes and alert auditors to look out for similar problems .
Respurce costs for each stage of the audit of a scheme, together with additional costs arising out of redesign or
remedial action, should be recorded .
Accident monitoring will add to the understanding of basic safety principles . Case controlled studies of groups
of schemes should be planned to provide estimates of the accident savings potential and thus to enable the costs
and benefits of road safety audit to be quantified .
Together, these elements of monitoring will give feedback to provide a more effective and efficient system .
Ministry of Surface Transport - Rou4dcock

--6.9
CHAPTER 6
6.4 Checklists
The use of checklists is highly recommended as they provide a useful "aide memoire" for the audit team to
check that no important safety aspects are being overlooked . They also give to the project manager and the
design engineer a sense of understanding of the place of safety audit in the design process. The following lists
have been drawn up based on the experience of undertaking systematic safety audit procedures overseas. This
experience indicates that extensive lists of technical details has encouraged their use as "tick" sheets without
sufficient thought being given to the processes behind the actions. Accordingly, the checklists provide guidelines
on the principal issues that need to be examined during the course of the safety audits .
Table 6.4.1 Stage F-During Feasibility Study
1. The audit team should review the proposed design from a road safety perspective and check the
following aspects
CONTENTS ITEMS
Aspects to be checked A. Safety and operational implications of proposed alignment
and junction strategy with particular references to expected
road users and vehicle types likely to use the road .
B. Width options considered for various sections .
C. Departures from standards and action taken.
D. Provision for pedestrians, cyclists and intermediate transport
E. Safety implications of the scheme beyond its physical limits
i.e . how the scheme fits into its environs and road hierarchy
Al : General D. Departures from standards

D Cross-sectional variation
D Drainage
D Climatic conditions
D Landscaping
D Services apparatus
D Lay-byes
D Footpaths
D Pedestrian crossings
D Access (minimise number of private accesses)
D Emergency vehicles
D Public Transport
D Future widening
D Staging of contracts
D Adjacent development
A2 : Local Alignment D Visibility

D New/Existing road interface
D Safety Aids on steep hills .
A3 : Junctions D Minimise potential conflicts
D Layout
D Visibility
A4 : Non-motorised road users D Adjacent land

Provision D Pedestrians
D Cyclists
D Non-motorised vehicles
A5 : Signs and Lighting D Lighting

D Signs/Markings
A6 : Construction and Operation D Buildability
D Operational
D Network management

6.10 a~E
SAFETY AUDITS
Table 6.4.2 Stage I - Completion of Preliminary Design
1 . The audit team should review the proposed design from a road safety perspective and check the
following aspects
CONTENTS ITEMS
Aspects to be checked A. Safety and operational implications of proposed alignment

andjunction strategy with particular references to expected
road users and vehicle types likely to use the road.
B. Width options considered for various sections.
C. Departures from standards acid action taken .
D. Provision for pedestrians, cyclists and intermediate transport.
E. Safety implications of the scheme beyond its physical limits ;
i.e . how the scheme fits into its environs and road hierarchy.
BI : General D Departures from standards
D Cross-sectional variation
D Drainage
D Landscaping
D Lay-byes
D Footpaths
D Pedestrian crossings
D Access (minimise number of private accesses)
D Emergency vehicles
D Public transport
D Future widening
D Staging of contracts
B2 : Local Alignment D Visibility
D Safety Aids on steep hills
B3 : Junctions D Minimise potential conflicts
D Layout
D Visibility
B4 : Non-motorised road users D Adjacent land

D Cyclists
B5 : Signs and Lighting D Lighting
D Signs/Markings
B6 : Construction and Operation D Buildability
D Operational
Ministry of Suraccmnsport Ross Silcock

6.11
CHAPTER 6
Table 6.4.3 Stage 2 - Completion of Detailed Design
1 . The audit team should satisfy itself that all issues raised at Stage 1 have been resolved . Items may
require further consideration where significant design changes have occurred .
2. If a scheme has not been subject to a Stage 1 audit, the items listed in Checklists B 1 to B6 should be
considered together with the items listed below.
CONTENTS ITEMS
Aspects to be checked A. Any design changes since Stage 1 .

B. The detailed design from a road safety viewpoint, including
the road safety implications of future maintenance (speed
limits ; road signs and markings ; visibility ; maintenance of
street lighting and central reserves).
C1 : General D Departures from standards
D Drainage
D Landscaping
D Lay-byes
D Access
D Skid-resistance
D Agriculture
D Safety fences
C2 : Local Alignment D Visibility
C3 : Junctions D Layout
D Visibility
D Signing
D Lighting
D Road markings
;w T, X, Y- junctions
D All roundabouts
D Mini roundabouts
D Traffic signals
C4 : Non-motorised road users D Adjacent land
D Cyclists
C5 : Signs and Lighting D Advanced direction signs
D Local traffic signs
D Variable message signs
D Other traffic signs
D Lighting
C6 : Construction and Operation D Buildability

D Operation
CRRLTRL Manual for Safety in Rgg_a[Design

6.12 =
SAFETY AUDITS
Table 6.4 .4 Stage 3 - Completion of Construction (Prior to opening)
1 . The audit team should check that the design drawings have been accurately translated into the scheme
constructed and that no inherent safety defect has been incorporated into the works.
2 . Particular attention should be paid to design changes which have occurred during construction .
CONTENTS ITEMS
Aspects to be checked A. That previously agreed recommendations have been
incorporated .
B. That there are no previously unidentified problems, so far
is possible (signs obscuring visibility, misleading information
conveyed to motorists/pedestrians etc).
C. Check to be carried out in daylight and at night.
DI : General D Departures from standards
D Drainage
D Access
D Skid resistance
D Safety fences
D Bridge parapets
D2 : Local Alignment D Visibility
D3 : Junctions D Visibility
D Road markings
D Mini roundabouts
D Traffic signals
D4 : Non-motorised road users D Adjacent land
D Cyclists
D5 : Signs and Lighting D Signs
D6 : Operation D Maintenance
Ministry of SurfalEL71ansport Ross Silcock

6:13
CHAPTER 6
Table 6.4.5 Existing Roads
1 . The audit team should check the existing road from a road safety perspective and check the following
aspects .
CONTENTS ITEMS
Aspects to be checked A. Safety and operational implications of alignment and

junctions, with particular reference to road users and veh icle
types currently using road .
B. Departures from current standards.
C. Provision for pedestrians, cyclists and intermediate transport.
D. Road safety implication on maintenance.
E. Check to be carried out in daylight and at night.
E I : General D Departures from standards

D Drainage
D Landscaping (maturity)
D Access
D Skid resistance
D Safety fences
D Bridge parapets
E2 : Local Alignment D Visibility
D Safety Aids on steep hills
E3 : Junctions D Layout
D Visibility
D Road signs markings
D T, X, Y-junctions
D All roundabouts
D Mini roundabouts
D Traffic signals
E4 : Non-motorised road users D Adjacent land
D Cyclists
E5 : Signs and Lighting D Lighting
D Signs
E6 : Operation Maintenance

6 .14
CHAPTER 7
MANAGEMENT OF ROAD
NETWORKS
CHAPTER 7
7 MANAGEMENT OF ROAD NETWORKS
7.1 Introduction
Apart from the opportunities which engineers and planners have to influence road safety during the planning
and design of new roads and networks, there is also scope on existing roads to rectify earlier insensitive designs
by better operational control and the application of accident reduction countermeasures . Through selective use
of traffic management and other techniques it is possible to create safer, less congested and more efficient road
networks . The use and operation of the existing roads can be optimised without recourse to major reconstruc-
tion . Such an approach is particularly relevant to the needs and financial resources of developing countries.
The general approach is applicable to both new and established urban areas and is based upon recognition of
several underlying principles:
Potential for conflict and accidents will exist wherever access is provided to roads carrying moving
traffic and wherever roads intersect ;
Safety will be improved if road users clearly and unambiguously understand which road has priority at
intersections ;
Pedestrians, cyclists and slow-moving vehicles (e.g. animal drawn) should be segregated from other
moving vehicles ;
Effective land-use controls can avoid many of the road safety problems which would otherwise occur
with unrestrained development ; and
A safe road network is one where there is maximum differentiation between roads intended primarily
for access and roads intended primarily for through journeys (or movement) .
In the industrialised countries, efforts are made to encourage and direct major traffic flows on to streets which
have previously been designated as being primarily for through traffic, leaving residential and shopping streets
to carry only local traffic . Specialist traffic engineers within municipal engineering departments work full-time
in monitoring operational aspects of the road network for which they are responsible . Problem locations,
whether in terms of congestion, parking, road safety or environmental nuisance are identified through surveys
and site visits and studies are undertaken to find ways to improve any deficiencies . Consultations are held with
the traffic police and town planning authorities to devise suitable traffic management countermeasures to over-
come any deficiencies which have been identified . Implementation is normally undertaken in close coopera-
tion with the traffic police . Often a very high traffic police enforcement presence is provided for the initial few
weeks after implementation until drivers become familiar with the new system. Considerable advance public-
ity is normally organised through the newspapers, TV and radio stations. Consultations are also normally held
with local residents, shopkeepers and others likely to be affected by the proposals. All are given an opportunity,
to comment upon the proposed schemes during the development stage so that, as far as practical, the final
scheme which is implemented takes into account local fears and concerns .
CRRT, TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

MANAGEMENT OF ROAD NETWORKS
Successful and safe operation of road networks, therefore, depends upon professionals within municipal engi-
neering departments working with other interested professionals, such as traffic police and town planners,
constantly to monitor the system in order to identify deficiencies and potential problems . They then devise
suitable traffic management schemes, in consultation with those affected such as local residents and shopkeep-
ers, to improve the situation. It should be noted that local governments in developed countries usually have
strong municipal engineering departments which include traffic engineers. The traffic police in such countries
tend to concentrate more on the day-to-day operational and enforcement aspects to ensure safe and orderly flow
of traffic . In developing countries, by contrast, traffic police often have the dominant responsibilities for the
traffic engineering and operational aspects of the road system. Where this is so they should take the lead in co-
ordinating activities with engineers and planners.
This section discusses a number of operational aspects of roads which can lead to safer use of existing roads .
Many of the principles of safety-conscious planning and design outlined in sections 3, 4 and 5 can also be
applied in road operational terms. These are identified in subsequent subsections .
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silcollr

CHAPTER 7
7 .2 Maintenance and Safety
Overview :
As the highway network increases, increasingly larger amounts of money and effort are required to maintain it
in a safe and operational condition. It is important that design engineers are aware of features that may require
a higher than normal level of maintenance to keep the highway in a safe condition and ensure that these features
are minimised, or if unavoidable. are only used sparingly.
Engineers should be aware of features of design which may lead to potholes forming through the failure of the
carriageway surface. Potholes can cause damage to vehicles leading them to swerving, or to two-wheelers
being turned over . Failure can begin with water penetration beneath the carriageway stemming from un-kerbed
or incorrectly supported edges . Drainage ditches must be designed to remain as free as possible from obstructions
to their flow and to retain their shape and stability. so that surface and ground water may drain away from the
road surface. Trees and vegetation may groN~ rapidly. obscuring sight lines, signs and traffic signals. Poor
material specification or site supervision may lead to deteriorating skid resistance from poor surface texture.
Traffic control devices must be located to minimise their chances of being obscured or becoming covered in dirt
thrown up by traffic. Estimates of the longer-term implications of nest' and rehabilitated roads, and the "whole
life" cost of the scheme must be made known at the time of feasibility studies.
Problems :
In India there is often not even enough money to cover routine and periodic maintenance so roads deteriorate
increasing safety hazards.
Running surfaces become uneven as covers for inspection chambers for the public utilities are not raised when
being resurfaced, leading to problems for two wheelers and causing other vehicles to swerve .
Inadequate support for shoulders .
Road markings and signs are allowed to deteriorate without remarking, cleaning or replacement . They are a
cheap and cost effective ways of improving road safety .
Signs become obscured by rapidly growing vegetation.
Signs are mounted too low and become dirty.
Figure 7.2.1 Well re-surfaced road laid without raising

manhole cover produces a particular hazard for two-
wheelers
_ CRW, YRRL. Manual for Safety in Road Design

7.4
Safer Practice :
The key areas of maintenance for road safety are:
" Road structure: Potholes which could damage vehicles or cause them to swerve suddenly must not be
allowed to develop. Surface texture and skid resistance must also be maintained .
" Drainage : Drainage ditches must remain free of obstructions and retain their intended cross sections and
grades. Surface and ground water should be able to drain away from the road or under the road .
" Shoulder: Ensure that the pavement has adequate side support, that traffic can use the shoulder at speed
without danger, that parking of vehicles is possible and that surface drainage from the carriageway to the
ditch is possible .
" Slopes : Ensure that side slopes are protected against the damaging effects of water, so that they retain
their shape and stability.
" Bridges: Check that bridges are in sound structural condition and safe for traffic. At bridges over water,
the water must flow unimpeded at all flood levels without damaging the bridge or the waterway.
" Traffic control devices: These include signs, reflectors, guideposts, kilometre posts, guardrails and
pavement markings . Check that traffic control devices are in a good and usable condition. Ensure that
they remain correctly located, properly mounted, fixed, stable and visible at all times. Where necessary
vegetation should be cut back .
" Drainage gulleys: These should be designed so that they can be easily raised, avoiding the problem of
"ditches" being created adjacent to the kerb, restricting carriageway width, as the carriageway is resurfaced.
" Signs and markings : Remark and replace worn signs and markings . Undertake a "sign audit" of existing
roads to ensure that the signs erected are correct, still required and correctly located . Additionally, are all
hazards marked?
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross SilcoL9lF

7.5
CHAPTER 7
7.3 Traffic Management
Overview :
The term "traffic management" is used to describe the general process of adjusting or adapting the use of
existing road systems to improve traffic operations without resorting to major new construction . Traffic man-
agement usually seeks to improve traffic flows, reduce accidents, improve environments or provide better
access for people and goods.
These aims can sometimes be in conflict with each other and compromises may have to be made, depending
upon the priorities in any particular road or area. However, most traffic management schemes would seek to
improve road safety as a by-product even if this was not the main objective.
Many of the traffic congestion and road safety problems in Indian cities can be attributed to inefficient use of
road space, poor enforcement, uncontrolled conflicts and the poor design of traffic and pedestrian facilities .
Experience in the developed countries has demonstrated that traffic management techniques are a highly cost-
effective way of alleviating congestion problems and can play a vital role in improving road safety . It is,
however, important to recognise that effective enforcement and maintenance capability is a prerequisite for
success and this often cannot be guaranteed in developing countries. Traffic management schemes should
therefore be designed to be as self-enforcing and as maintenance free as possible .
Problems :
The absence or insufficient use of modem traffic man-

agement techniques in India results in congested and
unsafe road networks for road users. Often in these coun-
tries, pedestrians are particularly at risk and little or no
effort is made to improve conditions for such vulner-
able road users. Traffic signing and road marking is
often inadequate, guidance to road users via
channelisation is often non-existent and law enforce-
ment is often ineffective .
Whereas these factors were not so critical when traffic

volumes were very low, such deficiencies are now of-
Figure 7.3 .1 Lack of trafic management creates
ten a major contributory factor to the very poor road
chaotic road condition for road users in Delhi
safety conditions and the high degree of congestion and
traffic problems faced in many of the urban areas of
India .
Pedestrians being slow and unprotected are particularly at risk in the chaotic traffic conditions which exist and
this is clearly shown by the fact that they often constitute high proportions of road accident fatalities, e.g . 40-
45% in India and 75% to 90% in some metropolitan cities like Mumbai and Calcutta . The non-motorised traffic
fatalities are 60-65% of the total reported fatalities .
Figure 73.2 Haphazard movement of vehicles

before improvement on Anna Salai in Chennai. p
CRRZ 7RL IMaual for Safety in Road Design

7 .6
Safer Practice:
The main traffic management options are described below, all of which can have benefits for road safety :
Parking and loading controls on main traffic routes, at least at peak times and near pedestrian crossings,
can relieve congestion problems and improve safety . Visibility for and of pedestrians is significantly
increased so that road crossing is safer. Alternative sites for parking should also be provided nearby .
Traffic control measures seeking to minimise conflicts. The range of measures is wide and they are
usually applied on a comprehensive basis along a route corridor or in a specific area of the city .
Traffic circulation measures including bans

on certain conflicting movements, road
closures and rerouting schemes. They can
be used to prevent non-essential, through
or undesirable traffic from entering
specified areas (e .g. congested central areas,
residential areas etc.) . One-way systems can
result in a reduction of conflicts and should
improve safety but care must be taken to
ensure that resultant increased speeds do not
erode the safety benefits .
Segregation schemes separating pedestrians

from moving traffic by special crossing
facilities or guard rails enhance road safety . Figure 7.3.3 Traffic management banning entry at
spec hours of day in Calcutta M
Junction improvements with traffic signals. and/or channelisation can increase capacity and create safer
crossing opportunities for pedestrians via a pedestrian phase of traffic signals and via safe pedestrian
waiting areas on refuges or islands in cases where channelisation is introduced.
It must be emphasised that maintenance and enforcement are extremely important for the success of many of
the above treasures. Consequently, efforts should be made to design such schemes to be as maintenance free
and as self-enforcing as possible.
Figure 7.3.4 Orderly movement of traffic after

improvement, on Anna Salal in Chennai. p
Ministry of Surface 7Msport Ross Silcock

7.7
CHAPTER 7
7.4 Enforcement Of Traffic Laws
Overview :
Traffic law enforcement is meant to achieve the safe and efficient movement of all road users, including pedes-
trians . It seeks to do so by enforcing traffic legislation. Enforcement of traffic legislation is the area of activity
aimed at controlling road user behaviour by preventive, persuasive and punitive methods .
Although driver discipline and respect for traffic laws are reasonably good in industrialised countries, this is
not always the case in India with driver behaviour at traffic signals, pedestrian crossings and priority junctions
generally very poor . Traffic law, if it is to stay relevant to the needs of rapidly motorising societies, needs to be
updated periodically and the traffic police need to be capable of enforcing it .
Enforcement is one of the key factors which can have a major influence on road safety . Traffic police seek to
influence driver behaviour but this can only be done successfully if the traffic police personnel are. themselves,
adequately trained and equipped . Traffic police forces should have clear career possibilities for those who
wish to specialise and all personnel should be trained to drive. Opportunities should be taken where possible to
modernise the Traffic Police force . Close cooperation with the relevant highway authorities will enable much
more effective and high profile traffic policing to be undertaken . In particular . more use should be made of
small task force units to carry out random checks on tyres . brakes and lights at different times and places .
Problems:
Traffic law enforcement is fast deteriorating in In-

dia. The human and vehicle population has risen
quite substantially whilst the enforcement machin-
ery is neither numerically sufficient rior well trained
or well equipped to deal with the present day re-
quirements . No guidance on the provision of re-
sources for traffic police exists and as a result, traf-
fic police departments are poorly equipped, with a
lack of vehicles and radios hampering enforcement.
Furthermore, traffic police officers are often un-
trained and low paid with no guarantee of career
advancement for those wishing to specialise in traf-
fic. Accident recording and investigation is mostly
not within the jurisdiction of traffic police itself
but with the general police and this does not help
Figure 7.4.1 Traffic policeman controlling traffic
in properly planning road safety countermeasures.
Madurai 0
There is a disproportionate emphasis placed on
static violations compared to moving violations such as gpeeding . Further practical problems for traffic police
departments include inadequate powers, ineffective traffic rules, lack of selective enforcement strategies and
lack of coordination among different supporting agencies .
Heavy vehicles ate often overloaded . This damages the pavement construction leading to pot holes and the
consequent safety implications . More importantly, overloaded vehicles will have longer stopping distances
leading to an increased risk of accident .
CRRI,7Rh - Manual ft~-Safery in Road Design

7.8
Safer Practice:
Enforcement needs to be uniform and consistent

across the country and applied equally to all road
users if there is to be respect for the law. The key
aspects to consider include the following:
" Restructuring of the traffic police as a

specialist division with clear career
opportunities for officers to move up the
ranks to senior positions.
Traffic police personnel engaged in

enforcing Traffic Regulations, should be
able to drive so that they can better
understand and appreciate the difficulties
of the driver. Regular specialist training Figure 7.4.2 Training of traffic police personnel
courses and refresher in-service courses enhances road safety m
need to be devised for traffic police
personnel so that they can be given
specialist training .
" Traffic police should be well trained and well equipped with modem equipment and facilities to carry
out their tasks. They require vehicles equipped with radios, radar speed checking devices and alcohol
testing devices. They need to be trained in their use to enforce traffic laws effectively .
" Enforcement techniques, while certainly greatly assisted by having modern enforcement equipment, do
not need to be wholly dependent upon such resources. Much can be done with small teams of traffic
police acting as mobile task forces to enforce particular safety-related topics, (e .g . brakes, tyres, parking)
for short periods at a variety of sites each day.
" Technical assistance and funding for equipping and modernising traffic police forces is now often available
from international aid and lending agencies, who have recognised that effective traffic law enforcement
can improve traffic conditions, congestion and road safety .
" The strengthening of traffic police forces allied to modernising of legislation and increased cooperation
between traffic police and municipal engineering departments can make a marked difference to the
degree and effectiveness of enforcement. Enforcement should be highly visible in order to deter and act
as a warning and reminder to other passing motorists. TRL experiments in Egypt have shown very
marked reductions in accidents as a result of increased enforcement.
" Use of automatic enforcement devices like speed or red-light cameras will only work if they are well
maintained, used regularly, and there exists a rapid means of tracing vehicle owners in order to issue
summons .
Other relevant sections: 2.6, 7.2, 4.28

Key external references : A2, A31
Ministry of surface 7tansport Ross Silcock

~ 7.9
CHAPTER 7
7.5 Safety Practices During Road Works
Overview:
In industrialised countries with extensive road networks already established, increasingly larger amounts of
effort need to be devoted to maintaining the existing network to keep it in a safe and operational condition.
Typically, up to half of highway authorities' budgets are set aside for routine and periodic maintenance activi-
ties and these include cutting back of vegetation regularly to maintain visibility, replacing or repairing dam-
aged signs and badly eroded road markings and repairing potholes before the damage becomes too severe .
During both maintenance and construction works it is very important to ensure as safe an operating environ-
ment as possible for both workers and road users.
Problems :
India is gradually extending its road networks in re-

cent years. There is often insufficient funding to pro-
vide adequate maintenance to keep them in a satisfac-
tory condition. The costs of rehabilitation have be-
come very substantial . Badly maintained roads con-
tribute to the growing road safety problems of India
and significantly greater resources (manpower, equip-
ment and funds) need to be applied in this area to en-
sure that the safety-related elements of the roads are
kept properly maintained. The key areas of particular
concem and which require maintenance for road safety
purposes are road structure, drainage, shoulders,
slopes, bridges and traffic control devices.
The problem is particularly acute in the case of road

markings and road signs since `structural' elements of
the road tend to be given priority when any funds do
Figure 7.5.1 Improper signing creates more
become available. As a consequence road markings
problems at constructon zones in Harayana
and road signing in many countries tends to be in poor
condition or even non-existent in many cases.
Research from other countries had indicated that

accident rates are usually higher at road works sites
and these accidents tend to involve more vehicles than
are found on normally operating sections of a network .
It is thought that this is largely due to drivers being
caught unaware of a roadworks ahead, which is a
particular hazard during the hours of darkness . Road
workers are particularly vulnerable as they frequently
work with little protection close to fast-moving traffic.
The majority of road works are poorly signed, both

in advance and through the work site with no safety
zones and lead in tapers .
The practice of laying sub-base on the surface of the

existing road and using traffic to compact the material Figure 7.5.2 Gradual changes in speed limit on
is unsafe . Diversions routes are often not provided or approach to construction zone . 0
signed .
.CRRI, 7RL Manual for Safety in Road Design

Safer Practice:
During the construction of roads workers should obviously follow the safety procedures relating to the plant
they are operating, and during rehabilitation work or maintenance, where the road is still open to traffic, greater
care is needed. Those responsible for the work should always ask themselves the question :
"will someone coming along the road or footway in either direction,
understand what is happening and what is expected of them?"
This means ensuring that road users are given adequate warning of the danger ahead with ample time for them
to take appropriate action .
Figure 7.5 .3 shows the basic layout of a site which, as well as having the appropriate reflective signing, should
have a "lead-in taper", a "working area", a "work space' around this, and an outer "safety zone". The clear-
ances and length of taper, number of cones etc. required will vary with the speed of traffic and, as a guide, the
regulations used in the UK are given in the Tables 7.5 .1 and 7.5 .2 . Variations on the basic layout for other
simple sites are shown in figure 7.5 .4 to 7.5 .6 .
Safety practices during road works are covered in more detail in a separate manual .
Figure 7.5.3 Basic layout for signs at a road works site, including work space and a safety zone showing
UK practice and UK signing. m A65
Miaisp*of Surface 1hnsport Ross Silcock

7.11
CHAPTER 7
Traffic control by Priority Signs
FE-.c smvff
Figure 7 .5A Traffic control by Priority Signing. UK practice A65 p
Works on footways
Figure 7.5.5 Works on tootways showing barrier protecting pedestrians and minhnum tootway width.
UK practice m A65
CRRL 7RL Manual for Safety in Road Dew,

7 .12
Works on footway with temporary footway in
End
Figure 75.6 Works on footway with temporary footway in carriageway. UK practice A65 0
Table 75.1
Speed restriction Mininsaniongways Mininarn sideways

(mph) clearance (L) (metres) clearance (S) (metres)
30 or less 0.5 0.5

40 15 0.5
50 30 1 .2
60 60 1 .2
70 100 1 .2
Minictryof S 7tanspat Ross Silcock

7.13
CHAPTER 7
Table 7.5 .2 Size and siting distance : Details of signs and cones
Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum

and clear size of Might of
maximum visibilif, signs cones
suing to fact Imml ( .in,
distance sign Details of lead-io come ropers
Of of first I metms l
sign in (but see Nae = below I
advance o
lead-In
taper
Imetresl
Wi dth of hazard Imetresl
I t 4 5 6 7
All-purpose single 2) Length of taper (7r to metres U 26 to 52 65 78 91

caniagessa, mad urban to W 600 450 Minimum number of cones 4 4 6 7 9 10 12
reaucud w 50 katill, or less 46 Minimum 9o. &I ., at mgbl 5 6 8 9 11
.ill-pupou single 46 I<ngih of taper (T~ in manes 20 40 60 e0 100 1=0 140

eriagexa)road.usvicted to W 750 450 Minimum umber of cones 4 6 8 10 17 IS 17
10 65 hrulb less 110 Minimum No. of lamps at mgln ? 7 9 12 14 16
All-pulpou dual canegeaa) 110 1<nplh of laps (TI m metres 25 50 75 100 125 IS(I 175
road . rosmmed to 65 nab or 10 60 '50 450 M1mmu umber of cones 4 10 I7 I5 18 21
leas _7 . Almlmum So. of lamps a1 mutt 6 9 11 14 17 20
All-pumou single 275 Lengu of upn ITI m metes - 50 75 10) 125 150 175
smug .. .. road. wslh speed to 75 750 4511 Minimum number of stores s4 l0 17 15 IS 21
limit m 80 hrulb or mine 458 Minimum No of lamps a matt 6 9 I2 14 17 30
.All-purpoudust catfagewa5 7?2 1-cogthoftaper1Tnomere . 32 64 96 128 160 192 224

road. with speed limn of m 105 1217 750 Minimum number of cones 9 L 16 19 2? 26
80 bulb or more 1610 Minimum No. of lamps a1 mart 4 8 I I 15 I8
NOTE '
1 On roads with speed limits of 80 km/h or more all advance signs should have plates giving the distance to the works in metres or
kilometres .
2 Lead-in tapers used with traffic control . and all exit tapers . shall be about 4511 to the kerb line with cones spaced 1 .2 metres apart.
3 The maximum spacing distance of cones in longitudinal lengths of coning shall be 9 metres . but no less than 2 cones shall be used
in any length between tapers .
4 The range of siting distance (D) is given to allow the sign to be placed in the most convenient position bearing in mind
available space and visibility for drivers .
5 It may be appropriate to use the next larger size of cone in lead-in tapers i .e . 750 font cones in tapers where 450 mm ones are
indicated in the table. If 1 metre high cones become available, these are recommended for expressways and high speed roads.
Other relevant sections: 4.18, 7.2, 4.15, 4.16, 8.14, 8.18

Key external references: A35, A66
CM 7RL Manual for.Wety iii Road Design

7.14
COUNTERMEASURES
CHAPTER 8
COUNTERMEASURES
ACCIDENT BLACK-SPOT INVESTIGATION

:. .----- .___----------- ----------- __---
ACCIDENTS SITE REMEDIAL

STUDY MEASURE
A v v
REPORTS IDENTIFY EVALUATION

AND SELECT
Minism-of Surface Transport Ross Silcock

E S .1
CHAPTER8
8 COUNTERMEASURES AT HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS
8.1 Introduction to Accident Investigation and Prevention
It is well known by highway engineers and traffic police that road accidents tend to cluster together at certain
locations, commonly termed "accident blackspots" . At such sites, it is likely that some aspect ofhighway design,
layout, state of road or traffic control is a contributory factor in most accident occurrences . As a consequence,
it has been well established that considerable safety benefits may result from the application of appropriate road
engineering or traffic management measures, that is, accident countermeasures.
The potential for accident reduction through low-cost, engineering measures at hazardous sites is particularly
high . Simple measures can significantly reduce problems at such sites. For example, the use of road signs and
markings to channelise traffic through complex junctions, or to provide safe waiting areas for turning vehicles,
can often result in substantial reductions in accidents. Yet, because of a lack of funds and poor maintenance
capability, known hazardous locations are often left untreated and remain the cause of accidents.
Drivers are often presented with misleading information or no advance warning, sightlines may be inadequate,
pedestrians may not be catered for, and accidents may occur because of a driver's inability to cope with the
particular combination of circumstances and environment. By identifying and eliminating the features which
make sites hazardous, engineers can improve road safety . This often means reducing the complexity of a junction
or enabling manoeuvres to be made in stages . Reducing the number of decisions drivers must make at any one
time simplifies the driving task and helps drivers to progress in safety and comfort with a min imum ofconflict with
other road users.
In order to bring about a reduction in accidents, many governments or authorities have found that setting a clear
accident or casualty reduction target can produce effective results (see figure 8.1 .1). To achieve a significant
target reduction at the national level, it is essential that a systematic approach is adopted for the identification of
the most hazardous features contributing to road accidents and appropriate treatments are selected and
implemented at the local level throughout the country.
In 1987 the UK Transport Minister set

casualty reduction target:
32912 = average 1981-85 casualties
32n/o
u
220,000 = casualties by the year 2000
Figure &1.1 National road accident casualty reduction in the United Kingdom m
CRRI,TRL Manual for Suftty in Road Design

8.2
COUNTERMEASURES
A guide entitled Àccident Investigation and Prevention Manual for Highway Engineers in India' (AIP Manual,
reference CI), has been produced . This Guide is designed to bean easy-to-assimilate outline of procedures that
have been found to be effective in many countries of the world. The subsequent Sections (8 .2 to 8.6) of this
document summarises the contents of this Guide which includes a discussion on the accident database, a
fundamental measure of safety and a very necessary requirement to investigating and improving the situation. It
also contains a step-by-step approach (totalling 10 steps in all) to tackle the safety problems within a road
authority's area.
Accidents are in most cases mufti-factor events . There are three basic categories of factors:-
4 road user errors
4 road and environment faults
4 vehicle defects
It has been shown that road user errors are by far the most prevalent factor but often another factor(s) is present.
For example, "adverse environment" implies a situation where a driver has had difficulty manoeuvring a vehicle
safety. Drivers are frequently provided with insufficient or unclear information with respect to signs and markings.
Sometimes poor design can cause a driver to have a misleading visual impression ; and occasionally defective
tyres, brakes or steering can contribute significantly to causing an accident .
An assessment of the factors in the chain of events leading up to an accident could indicate which road and
environment factors may benefit from safety engineering remedial measures.
Recent research undertaken for MOST, and reported in reference C25, notes the main causes, effects and locations
of accidents on National Highways to be
a) occurring on straight stretches due to high speed ;

b) occurring at four arm junctions due to insufficient sight distance, lack of traffic guidance, absence of
markings and poor road geometries;
c) head on collisions due to high speed and bad overtaking practice ;
d) that pedestrians are most vulnerable due to insufficient pedestrian facilities, poor knowledge of traffic
rules and making errors ;
e) that the main recorded cause of accidents is driver error;
t) that night time conditions lead to the most accidents being to trucks;
g) that negligence and overspeeding is as high as 90%; and
h) that maximum casualties are in cars, followed by pedestrians and trucks.
There are generally four basic strategies for accident reduction through the use of countermeasures and these
are:
Single sitesMiackspots
The treatment of specific types of accident at a single location, [e.g. usually junctions, but could be areas 200 m
-400 m in diameter or 300 m - 500 m stretches ofroad]
Mass action schemes

The application of a remedy to locations with a common accident problem, [e.g. skidding on wet road surface,
head-on collisions, excessive speed approaching roundabouts]
Route action plans

The application of remedies along a route with a high accident rate.
Ministry of Surface Transport =_ mss Sileock

8.3
CHAPTER8
Area-wide schemes
The application of various treatments over a wide area of town/city, [e .g . including traffic management and traffic
calming (speed reducing devices) in areas bounded by links on a network, housing areas or 1 km squares having
higher accidents than a preset level] .
Blackspot treatment is likely to be the most effective and straightforward as a starting point with the road
authority perhaps moving to the other wider types of application as experience is built up .
All these strategies rely on the availability of data which contain full information about accidents and their
locations so that common features, which have contributed to the accidents, can be identified . Accident data
and the use of collision and stick diagrams (key analysis tools for the traffic engineer) are discussed in the
following Sections .
Safety Management
One of the most effective initiatives in improving safety has been found to be the setting of realistic accident
reduction targets around which all authorities can properly plan reduction programmes .
It is recormnended that a realistic target should be set based on experience which has proved achievable in other
countries. If we assume that a reduction of 30 per cent in fatalities is achievable over a period of 15 years with a
relatively low vehicle growth rate, and apply this to current figures (1993) . then this gives a target of reducing
fatalities in the year 2008 by 18,120 .
From Figure 8.1 .2 it can be seen that the numbers killed on the roads is still predicted to rise substantially above
the current level over this period, despite this target representing a considerable and worthwhile saving in lives.
With the current very high traffic growths rates, it is believed that this target will still be a challenge to achieve.
If, however, it is found that this target is being met relatively easily then it can and should be amended accordingly
in future years.
Figure 8-1-2 Road Accident Reduction Targets p
-7!=CRRI,TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

8.4
COUNTERMEASURES
Although aimed at fatalities, it is likely that any accident countermeasures employed will also help to reduce the
levels of severely injured casualties . Safety management should allow the national target (which needs to be
disaggregated into State and local targets) to be reflected in safety initiatives for each local area .
It is recommended that each road authority produces an Annual Road Safety Plan in which the local casualty
reduction target is stated and a strategy for achieving the targets is developed. The Plan should be a comprehensive
document containing photographs, graphs and figures and should be made available to the public .
A sample of the contents of an annual Plan published in the UK is included in the AIP Guide (reference C1) . The
Plan should include:-
background to the road accident situation in the authority area (accident trends with respect to road user
groups, road features etc.)
" aims of the Plan (casualty reduction targets)
" summary of proposals planned (including major capital schemes . smaller remedial measures engineering
work, safety audit, maintenance, costs, relationships with other agencies, safety publicity, traffic law
enforcement)
" methods for monitoring and evaluation
" report of previous year's work and effect on accidents .
It is most important to set a series of achievable casualty reduction targets (shon and long-term) that can be
monitored and can help boost the morale of staff working in the safety improvement team when treatments are
shown to have a direct effect on accidents. It will . of course, be necessary to provide the increased resources that
will inevitably be required .
This chapter first discusses the data requirements which highway authorities will need . then how to identify and
analyse accident problems, followed by illustrations of how low-cost countermeasures can be used to improve
hazardous locations and reduce accidents.
Figure 8.13 An information sign indicating accident prone zone on

National Highway in Gujarat . However, the length of the accident
stretch is not indicated. p
Ministry of Su~WTransporr Ross Silcock

8 .5
CHAPTER 8
8.2 Accident Data
Accident data is the base measure of safety and without it the scale and nature of safety problems cannot be
established with certainty . The existence of a reliable accident database is thus a crucial element in the management
of road safety and the preferred situation is described below. Where data are not readily available from Po12e;
interim arrangements will have to be made (as described on the next page) until the preferred situation occurs.
As outlined in the previous section, experience from many countries of the world has demonstrated that despite
the random nature of accidents, much can be done to tackle and improve locations where accidents cluster as a
result of environmental factors to prevent similar accidents occurring in the future. However, to be certain that
the correct factors have been diagnosed, it is necessary to look for particular patterns of accident and to
recognise features which are amenable to treatment. It is, of course, not feasible to do this unless the particular
factors about each accident have been recorded properly and consistently . That is, the existence of a reliable
database is a pre-requisite to improving safety efficiently.
The accident investigator needs to acquire as much relevant knowledge as possible from the data to help prevent
accidents of similar nature from occurring in the future . One of the best ways of achieving this, as already
mentioned, is to identify particular problems which are treatable and for which specific appropriate action can be
designed. In order to do this it is not only essential to have a reliable accident database, but also one which is as
comprehensive as possible .
Accident remedial measures which are found to be effective in one country may not necessarily work well in
another (e.g. solid white lines which may prevent dangerous over-taking in developed countries may be far less
effective in India where poor overtaking behaviour is normal practice) . There is therefore a need to evaluate the
effect of safety schemes and a reliable database is also essential for this purpose . Without proving that remedial
work has been effective in reducing accidents or demonstrating that certain trial countermeasures do not work
well, it is likely that money and resources will be wasted or certainly not spent to maximum benefit .
The best source of validated accident data will be the Police force: either the policemen attending the scene ofthe
accident or the officer at a police station who receives the report by the involved parties/wituesses. It must be
noted that there will inevitably be a substantial number of road accidents that are not reported to the police at all.
The level of this under-reporting will vary in different parts of the country, though it is likely that the level will
tend to be lower with increasing severity of injury .
Some police authorities produce an annual statistical report containing simple tables of types of accidents and,
perhaps, regional variations. Whilst these contain useful background information they rarely contain sufficient
detail for the identification ofhazardous locations or accident analysis. For these tasks it is essential that data are
available at a local level to those carrying out the investigation and the design of countermeasures .
To satisfy fully all the needs ofthe accident investigators and others involved in accidents or safety improvement
it may be necessary to record a rather large number of features about every accident. In practice, the Police
obviously need to strike the right balance between the amount of detail they record about each accident and their
ability to do so in terms of their available time and, in certain aspects, their expertise (e.g. all policemen are unlikely
to have been trained to recognise relevant unsafe engineering features) . The prime objectives of the data for
police use (i.e. prosecutions and enforcement strategies) will inevitably have a strong influence on the details
recorded. Other information, which is perhaps ofgreater value to engineers or researchers, will need to be kept to
an absolute minimum, otherwise the paperwork for the police will become too onerous a task and thus less likely
td be complete or reliable.
Ideally, the information required for each accident should be completed at the scene on an easy-to-complete form
or booklet . It is also recommended that, if possible, a single form be designed for all purposes (i.e. used for court
procedures, filing and computer data entry) obviating the need to transcribe data onto, for example, a computer
coding sheet. The form or booklet will also need to provide space (or forms for attachments) for driver, pedestrian
and witness statements, written summary ofthe accident, and sketches . An example ofthe form currently being
pilot-tested in Karnataka is shown in Technical Annexe 8.1 . This is designed as a local language form on top with
an English language copy as carbon copy. This indicates the items considered most useful for detailed accident
analysis.
CRRf,TRI"_- Manualfor Safety in Road Design

8 .6
COUNTERMEASURES
To be of value it is essential that the accident report includes an accurate geographic location of the accident,
basic information describing the accident and its victims, the events leading up to the accident and summary
information regarding the road at the accident location . It is essential for efficient use of accident data in safety
improvement that the roads authority has a close working relationship with the local police . This should help
ensure prompt and ready access to the database, and the roads authority can in turn help validate the data (e .g .
to check that the accident location coding is accurate).
The data should be utilised at the local level to identify particular problems and tackle them specifically . The rapid
rate of development ofmicrocomputers, and their relatively inexpensive costs, makes them attractive for accident
data storage and analysis . TRL have developed a Microcomputer Accident Analysis Package (MAAP) especially
for applications in developing countries. Designed primarily for use at regional or local level by staff with little
or no previous computing experience, MAAP is now in use by Police and road engineers in many countries. It
is currently in use in part of Karnataka providing some of the most comprehensive and accessible accident data
available in India. It is particularly helpful in the processes of identifying accident blackspots and accident
analysis. The process of identifying locations with high numbers of accidents can be done very quickly. The
analysis of the accidents at a particular site, especially searching for patterns or high risk locations (where many
accidents occur) is made much simpler.
MAAP may be available free through the British Government Department for International Development (DFID)
for suitable donor recipients . Other commercial accident analysis packages are available . For example, key
accidents from key systems and accident maps from Buchanan computing, both in the United Kingdom . These
rely on detailed map bases and accident statistics being available and have only been used so far in the United
Kingdom.
Accident data is the base measure of safety and without it the scale and nature of safety problems cannot be
established with certainty. The existence ofa reliable accident database is thus acrucial element in the management
of road safety .
Interim Arrangements until Comprehensive Police Data are available to Engineers from Police Computers.
Unfortunately accident data are simply not available at present to many Indian engineers as Police accident data
systems in most States are not yet well developed. Where information is not readily available the following
interim approach should be adopted.
Road Engineering Departments in consultation with Police identify the "worst" 10 intersections or
sections ofroad on the National, State or Municipal roads for which they are responsible . Forconvenience
these are denoted "blackspot" locations.
2. For each "blackspot" location the engineers visit the local Police station nearest to the location (from
where the police accident reports were sent to Police HQ).
3. With Police help, look through the Road Accident log book kept at the local police station to identify
serial numbers of the First Information Report (FIR) for the accidents which happened at that nearby
blackspot and add up the total number of accidents, deaths and injuries at that location in the previous
year. (Each entry in the logbook has information on where accident occurred, time, date, persons killed,
injured etc .) The available summary information along with its unique accident number and FIR report
number for each identified accident at the "blackspot" location should be copied as individual entries
in a list.
Ministry of SurfWTransport Ross Silcock

- 8 .7
CHAPTER 8
4. Now that the unique serial number and FIR number for each accident are known a request should be
made to see the Accident Dockets. These contain more detailed information about the accident such as
drivers' statements, witness statements etc., and give basic details about how the accident occurred .
(These are held at the reporting station.) These are normally only prepared for the more serious (i .e .
death or injury) accidents.
5 Field engineers should take with them 30-40 copies of the English language Accident Data Form given
in .Appendix D and use them to collect as much information as possible on each accident reported i.e .
one form should be used to record (by circling or ticking appropriate boxes) data from one Accident
Docket .
6. There will be some items which cannot be completed because information is not available in the Docket
but complete as many of the items on the form as possible, including the unique accident serial number
or FIR report number.
7. Once all relevant accident information is transferred onto the Accident Form the Engineer has all available
accidents for that particular accident "blackspot" .
The Engineer should then visit the "blackspot" site and fill in site details about the location, type of
junction, type of road surface etc . This need only be completed on I or 2 forms and the location
indicated in large letters on the other forms and cross referenced to the one form on which site details
have been entered.
9. While at the site the engineer should just observe traffic for 15-20 minutes to see if drivers seem to be
facing any problem or if they are making illegal manoeuvres . This may give insights into what if any
problem exists at that location .
10 . Once the forms are available back at the office, accident procedures can continue in the same way as
described in the following pages.
11 . It should be noted that MOST may be able to provide funds for implementing improvements if suitable
countermeasures can be developed to improve road safety at the identified "blackspot" .
CRRI,TRL MaWlfor Safety in Road Design

8 .8 = _
COUNTERMEASURES
8.3 Accident Investigation
The main objective of accident investigation in the engineering context is to identify sites wham common
patterns of accident can be prevented or, at least, their severity reduced by the introduction of improvements in
the road environment . These engineering changes need to be introduced in the most efficient manner (owing to
limited available budgets) so that the maximum benefit in terms of accident savings is gained.
The Accident Investigation and prevention Manual (ref. Cl) describes ten steps to the whole process, where the
first four could be regarded as investigation . These are summarised below:-
Step 1: Investigation to Identify and Prioritise Sites

it is generally recommended that a minimum period of 3 years of accident data is studied to smooth out any
abnormally large random fluctuations at individual sites . However, ifthis is not available, shorterpaiods can be
used as long as caution is exercised over the conclusions made.
The major priority is to reduce the number of accidents and, as blackspots are easier to identify and potentially
offer the sites where accident savings can be maximised in the most cost effective way, blackspot treatment is
recommended as the best approach. Once a blackspot improvement programme is producing good results, then
effort can be extended to include " route", "area" and "mass" actions. -
The first step is to look at the data in a logical manner in order to rank problem sites . This initial ranking will be
modified subsequently to produce a priority list of 'treatable" sites. To rank sites it is first necessary to decide on
the type of action sites being considered (e.g. single sites/blackspots, routes, mass action sites or area-wide
actions as in section 8 .1), and then to define a "reaction level" above which the investigatior takes souse actitms.
Although it could be argued that traffic volume should be considered in comparing the relative safety of sites,
this will rarely be available in sufficient detail (e.g. turning manoeuvre counts atjunctions) and it is recommended
that blackspots be identified as the basis of accident totals.
1) Number of Accidents 2) Type of road unit 3) Time period
e.g. (a) All injury accidents e.g. (a) Kilometre length e.g. 12-month periods
(b) Severity points weighting (b) Within 50 m ofjunction (consecutive months,
(c) All pedestrian accidents (c) Links (Mid block road not necessarily a
sections) calendar year)
(d) Roads in a defined area
Thus an example of a reaction level would be :-
5 injury accidents within 50 m of a junction within the last 3 years
Or 15 points per year on a 200 m road section maintained over 3 years.

The aforementioned MA" software can be used to quickly produce a listing of the worst nodes or links in a
town for blaekspot action (as long as accidents have been linked to nodes in the database), or can produce
histograms of the worst kilometres (or even 100 m sections) on specified routes.
Step 2 -Arelinrinary Accident Analysis
Before embarking on an in-depth investigation at any site, it is advisable to check that the site has a statistically
higher number of accidents than might be expected from the norm a average . Those sites which have more.
accidents than the mean plus one standard deviation should be the first to be singled out for further investigation.
Other simple statisfcaltestswhich ran be applied andforwhich examples are given mtheAccident Investigation.
Manual, include the Poisson test. This test is commonly used to determine whether a recent increase in accidents
at a she is due to random fluctuation only and is likely to return to previous levels, or whether there is some other
reason, e.g. a problem with a new road layout.
Ministry of Suiface7hsnaport Ross Silcoake-

8 .~
CHAPTER8
Another simple test is the Chi-squared test commonly used to :-
determine whether the number of accidents of a particular type is significantly higher than at similar sites, or
check whether there has been a significant change in the number of accidents at a site after it has been 'treated' .
After applying these tests to produce a new priority listing of sites the accident data for each site can quickly be
reviewed using MAAP "Stick" diagrams can be used by the investigation as a simple visual way of displaying
each accident as a column of data of key features to assist the search for common patterns of accident (see fig.
8.3 .2). Again the MAAP software can provide this facility and can sort the sticks or columns by any recorded
factor.
1 11 30 5 7 8 6 4 12 2 3 14 9 13
MH 03 10 08 02 03 064 02 07 11 04 05 09 06 12~
DO 01 06 30I 10 15 1 12 11 15 05 03 03 29 11
DAY 2 3 1 2 1 1 4 5 1 6 6 6 4 6
HH 13 13 14 15 15 16 19 20 08 10 13 16 17 22
PEO PEO PED PEO PED PED PED
SEV I I I I I I F I I I I H 1 F
81X BIK Bix SIX SIX BlK SIX BlK SIX BlK 8IK Six 8IK BlK
)b >b
SS SS SS SS SS
AN1
0/C
DO
DRK O RK DRK
IDI " Month DD = Day of Month DAY= Da y of Meek HH = Hour beg

PED" Pedestrian S EY = Severity BIK= Bike/Bicycle >-<= Head-on
>->= Rear-end >* I = Side impact SS ! Sideswipe AN1= Animal
0/C= O'cntrl/roll D&D= Dawn B Dusk DRK= Nighttime
Figure 8.3.1 Anaysis using MAAP in Figure 83.2 Example of stick diagrams from MAAP
Bangalore
At this stage the investigator needs to get a "feel" for the type of accidents occurring at each site to provide an
indication of what to look for during a preliminary site visit .
Step 3 Preliminary Site Visit
The site visit is a very important element of accident investigation to familiarise the investigator with the site,
check that available plans are up-to-date, visualise the recorded accident to try to identify contributory features
for example, sight lines, street furniture, road surface condition. It may be necessary to make visits at different
times of day (e.g . peak hours, darkness or wet conditions) in accordance with factors revealed in the stick
diagram.
'Following all preliminary site visits it may be possible to further rank the sites into two groups : "easy" or "hard"
to treat. Easy sites are those where effective remedial measures can be readily identified and are of low-cost . Hard
sites are those which do not provide a clear indication of appropriate treatment or where this is likely to be very
costly. In the formercase the site should be selected for further, more detailed investigation if it has high numbers
of accidents. In the latter case it may be necessary to include the site in a capital works programme for the area .
It should be possible to obtain copies of the accident report forms from either the local police station nearest the
accident or from the State police headquarters.
~ARr,TRL . Manualfor Safery in Road Design

-$:10
COUNTERMEASURES
Having obtained these, the next action is to produce collision diagrams at each site by drawing an approximate
plan, preferably to about 1 :200 scale showing the main site features, e.g . kerb lines, street furniture, trees and
buildings, and road markings . Details for this should have been noted/drawn during the initial site visit (Step 3) .
The position of each accident should be marked on the plan together with the approach and intended departure
paths of the vehicles involved. An example of such a collision diagram for a crossroad is shown in Figure 8.3 .3 .
The most important use of the collision diagram is to provide a starting point for the classification of each
accident into clusters or groups, though it is important not to try to assign a single cause to each accident during
the initial examination of data. To do this could mask underlying factors, which can often be treated by simple low-
cost remedial action. In practice an accident can be assigned to many underlying factors . For example, the right
mm collision type shown in Figure 8.3.3 might be assigned to any of the following accident factors :
" approach visibility restricted

" violation of mandatory sign
" overshooting give way line
" collision on restart from give way line
" obscured give way sign
" give way line wom away or concealed by uneven road surface
" junction ahead not apparent from side road
" excessive speed of main road traffic
" uneven lighting concealing main road vehicles
This list is not exhaustive, but illustrates the fact that a single collision type can be classified according to many
factors or accident types . Some of these may suggest a suitable treatment whereas others may not; thus the aim
should be to assign accidents to a class for which there is a remedial action . Unfortunately, many of these
underlying factors may not appear in the accident report or original police file . There is a need to re-classify the
accidents to produce a dominant accident type in which there is at least one common factor, which could be
treated. Again a stick diagram is useful for thus but using a standard stick format may be too restrictive.
Although other sticks can be produced and automatically sorted using a software package like MAAP, the
investigator is restricted to using only the computer-coded items present on the accident data form. Even if
MAAP or other software packages were used, manual checking against the original report forms is almost always
necessary to verify, and perhaps add, data to the computer grid . For example, in Figure 8.3 .2 additional information
has been obtained by reading the accident report text description, looking at the sketch diagrams, and from
observations during the site visit. This has been incorporated by adding extra symbols (such as the "obscured
vision" and "double cross over") .
Htigure 833 Collision diagram for simple T Junction p

8.11
CHAVM 8
Accident No . 1 2 3 4 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
F H 1 1 1 H 1 H 1 1 H 1 F
seveft
Ped . Wised
aerate ~~
am
Left turs -}
Nose-totail
Darhoess
Wet srnOce W W W W W W 1W W
Wet skid
Excessive speed
Overtake parked Veh
Double X over
Visimtortobscured `Q ~0 ~~ = wa ~~
Figure 8.3.4 Manually produced and sorted stick diagram IZI

In the example it can be seen that the eastbound and westbound accidents reveal different characteristics . The
westbound direction accidents have their visibility obstructed by parked vehicles and trees, and the remedial
action may involve new or enforced parking restrictions and tree lopping.
On the eastbound approach, all accidents occurred on a wet road surface, the wet surface condition for the whole
site being statistically no worse than the "norm" . The further data required in this case are skid resistance
measurements and any possible reasons why the eastbound approach may be wetter than westbound.
The road engineer must also be aware of the importance of human factors because the roadside environment
constantly presents visual cues to the driver as to the nature of the road ahead. Drivers tend to drive on
expectancy in that when they see a wide, straight road ahead with nojunctions they will increase speed, and they
may use a line of trees or telegraph poles to gauge the sharpness of a bend ahead and sojudge how much to slow
down . Sometimes, however, the environment gives false visual cues . These are known as "perceptual traps" and
are where some drivers are misled by the visual appearance of the road . commonly failing to recognise the
presence of a give way junction or a bend ahead. Suitable signing would solve this problem.
Figure 8.3.5 Example of false visual cue in Haryana where main

road does not continue straight but bends to the right p

8.12
COUNTERMEASURES
8.4 Problem Diagnosis
Having identified and produced the initial priority listing of blackspots or problem locations along a route, the
next step is to establish the nature of the problem(s) leading to the poor safety record. It is rare for there to be a
single `cause' of an accident. Indeed, the tern should generally be avoided and traffic police and engineers
should be trained to think in terms of `contributory factors'. Accidents are complex events and many factors
must usually combine for an accident to occur. Even at blackspots accidents are rare events : the great majority of
the millions of vehicles a year passing through a particular junction do so safely and only occasionally, when a
particular set of contributory factors combine, does an accident occur . Accident analysis for problem diagnosis
is primarily concerned with identifying common features and contributory factors, especially objectively reported
features such as vehicle manoeuvres, day/night light conditions or road surface condition .
Step 4: Collection of Further Data and Analysis
This step includes gathering together any existing data on each site including accident report forms traffic flow
data and dates and details of any changes made to the site. Attention should be focused on fatal and injury
accidents as these are usually the most reliably reported. If accident patterns are not obvious from these accidents
(discussed below), then it may be helpful to include damage only accidents as well.
It is strongly advised that the actual accident report forms are retrieved, using the accident reference numbers for
each accident, so that any sketch plans and accident descriptions can be inspected. The accident reference
numbers are the values ofparticular deta items, which will uniquely define a particular accident record (i .e . year,
State, district and police station codes and First Information Report (FIR) numbers) .
Step 5: Site Studies and Analysis
Before embarking on expersive new data collection studies it is important to ensure that all existing data about
the site has been obtained. Having studied this, together with the accident analysis above, it should then be
possible to decide on studies, which are relevantto the actual safety problems at the site. Some ofthe most useful
questions an investigator should ask are:
" Are accidents being caused by the physical condition of the road or adjacent property, and can the
problem be eliminated or corrected?
" Is a "blind" comer or restricted sight-line at a junction responsible? If improvement is impossible, have
steps been taken to warrr drivers?
" Are the existing signs, signals and markings performing the job for which they were intended? Have
conditions at the site changed since the devices were installed? Are replacements needed? Could the
devices be causing accidents rather than preventing them?
" Is traffic properly channelled to minimise accident occurrence?
" Would accidents be prevented by the prohibition of any single movement such as a right turn at a minor
road?
" Could some ofthe traffic be diverted to other (safer) streets where problems are unlikely to be transferred?
" Are nighttime accidents out of proportion to daytime ones thus needing special nighttime protection, e.g.
reflectorised signs, street lighting or traffic signals?
" Are there any particular times of day, year or weather conditions when accidents are common?
" Do conditions indicate the need for additional levels of law enforcement?
Ministry of Surface Yransport Ross Silcscir-

8. IT'
CHAPTERS
Other ohservational measurements
It is obviously desirable to have as much information about a site as possible when making decisions about how
best to improve its safety . It is, however, recognised that additional observation studies may be difficult for some
road authorities to carry out for reasons of cost and manpower, and in some cases they may be unlikely to yield
any further useful information about causes of accidents or possible countermeasures.
Table 8.4 .1 gives a list ofthe more common types of accident problems with studies that are likely to be appropri-
ate . However, it must be noted that this list is not exhaustive and all studies will not be essential in every case.
Further details of site studies and a full study example with results is given in the AIP manual (ref C 1)
Table8.4.1 Studies that maybe appropriate for particular accident problems
Studies
Predominant Accident
Type classified Approach Traffic Skid Additional
,,,,,mum speeds conflicts resistance
lbw
Junctions
Right angle/sidewipe r r r Observance of control devices

overshoot Sight line distance
Right Phase timing if signalised
Right angle/sideswipe - Sight line distance

early start r r r Supervelevation
Origin-Destination if staggered
Phase timing if signalised
Skidding/loss of control r r Surface drainage
overloaded heavy vehicles
Darkness r r r Surface luminance

Signing and delineator inventory
Pedestrians Pedestrian
Crossing flows
d d Crossing times
Safety gaps and kerb delays
2-wheelers r r s Sight line (other vehicles blocking)

Rear-end r r r r Gap/headways
Phase timing if signalised
Non-junctions
Skidding/loss of control r r Drainage
Overloaded heavy vehicles
Darkness r Surface luminance
Delineator inventory
Pedestrians Pedestrian flows crossing and along

Frequency and position of
crossing/standing centre road
2-wheelers r Road width
Bend r r r Super-elevation
Speed at apex
Overtaking r r Frequency and position of overtaking

Passing sight distance
Rear-end r r r d Gap/headways
Single vehicle run off r r Road inventory
CRRI,TRL ManualforSafety in Road Design

8 .14
COUNTERNMXSURES
8 . .5 Selection and Implementation of Countermeasures
This section includes the steps for selecting a package of possible countermeasures for a site, prioritising the
potential treatments, and also for the implementation of the measures.
Step 6: Countermeasure Selection
It is important to be clear about the objectives of a countermeasure scheme. For India, the precise objectives for
the four accident reduction strategies outlined in section 8 .1 will need to be decided based on local experience;
but those adopted in the UK are given below as a guide . Note that the First Year Rate of Return (MM) is a
measure of the net benefits in terms of accident reductions from the scheme expressed as a percentage of the
total capital cost. This is defined fully in Step 7 .
Single site objectives
To achieve an accident reduction of at least 33% at treated sites.
To obtain a significant FYRR.
To carry out the remedial work at a cost per site not exceeding a fixed maximum amount.
An average FYRR of 50% for schemes should be achievable nationally. Initially schemes will produce very high
FYRR, possibly many hundreds of percent. As time goes on schemes with a smaller FYRR may be worth
considering provided that they meet the other two objectives .
It is suggested that a maximum cost of works for the first application of accident remedial work should be
determined after an initial settling in period . This maximum may be increased to include larger schemes or those
with a lower FYRRbutwith potential for long term accident savings .
Mass action objectives
To achieve an accident reduction of at least 15% at treated sites for each plan .
To obtain a FYRR of not less than 40%.
To carry out the remedial work at a cost per plan not exceeding a fixed maximum amount.
The maximum scheme cost is likely to depend on the type of measure used and the number of sites covered.
Route action objectives
To achieve an accident reduction of at least 15% at treated sites for each plan .
o To obtain a FYRR of not less than 40%. ,
To carry out the remedial work at a cost per plan not exceeding a fixed maximum amount .

8 .15
CHAPTER8-;;--
Area-wide objectives
To achieve an accident reduction of at least 10% within the area covered by the plan.
4 To obtain a FYRR of 10% to 25%.
To carry out the remedial work at minimum cost. The maximum sum will depend on the area size and
inclusion of environmental enhancements .
Having identified dominant accident types at a location or area under study, this will hopefully give an indication
of an appropriate remedial measures (or package of measures if there is more than one accident group) .
It is desirable to consider a number of alternative proposals for each site. For every proposal it should be checked
that:-
a) The measures are likely to decrease the type of accident at which they are aimed.
b) No further increase in other types of accident is likely to occur as a result of the selected measure .
c) There are not likely to be any unacceptable effects on traffic movement or the environment.
It should be stressed that safety at the site under study should not be the only consideration when choosing an
appropriate countermeasure . The effect of that measure on the surrounding network should be estimated. For
example, a self-enforcing speed reducing device like a series of road humps on a local collector road may have the
effect of making a large proportion of drivers choose an alternative route along quieter residential streets. As well
as being undesirable by residents of these streets, the safety will also most probably be worsened by the
increased traffic flow .
A list of possible accident countermeasures for common safety problems is included in the AIP manual (ref C 1)
and many are discussed in the subsequent Sections of this chapter and in Tables 8.8 .1 to 8.8 .3 . Where available,
the average percentage reduction in accidents that has been achieved should also be included . However, the
average accident reductions that can be expected from the measures in India are not known. It is thus very
important that all remedial measures are properly monitored and evaluated, and results published or, at least,
centrally recorded so that a similar list based on actual Indian experience can be built up .
If more than one group of accidents has been identified at a site, then the remedial work may consist of a package
of measures with each one designed to reduce a particular accident group .
Where accidents are widely dispersed, often in urban areas, over several square kilometres rather than at obvious
individual sites, an area-wide treatment may need to be considered . There is a wide variety of treatments that are
applicable to distributor roads and those at the lowest end of the road hierarchy, that is, in residential areas but
good consultation with local residents is always strongly recommended .
Traffic calming can generally be regarded as away in which vehicle speeds can be reduced from an average of 50
km/h down to 30 km/h The safety objective is to reduce both the number and severity of accidents, especially to
vulnerable road users. This is usually done with self-enforcing speed reducing measures like chicanes, traffic
throttles, road humps or speed tables
The main principle of traffic calming techniques is that they still permit motorised traffic to use the same route
which may not be possible with more restrictive measures like road closures, turning bans and one-way traffic.
Although limited use can be made of these latter measures they are rarely popular with residents and can lead to
accidents being transferred to other areas, which have become "rat-runs" .
CRR7,TRL Manualfor Safety in Road Design

8.16
COUNTERMEASURES
Figure &5.1 Lane narrowing and chicane used as traffic

eaiming device on distributor road in Denmark m
It should be remembered that solutions to a detailed study at a site may not exclusively involve civil engineering
works. An integrated approach to improving road safety should really be adopted . In this approach safety
education and training may need to be combined with an engineering measure. For example, the introduction of
a new signal controlled pedestrian crossing may require a local publicity campaign to inform pedestrians and
drivers how to use it. Training for children in the local school(s) may be needed .
Step 7. Prioritise Treatments and Sites
This step involves the prioritising of the selected sites and potential treatments from a package of possible
countermeasures for each site. The selection of countermeasures to be implemented should be based on achieving
satisfactory accident reductions whose cost savings match or exceed the expenditure planned.
The standard approach for the ranking of treatments is to carry out a cost-benefit analysis based on estimated
benefits of the schemes and simply place these in priority order of the expected best returns . An economic
assessment of proposed schemes is important to ensure that the likely benefits will be greater than the cost of
implementing and maintaining the scheme so that the best value for money is obtained.
However, if there is currently little or no data on which to make an estimate of the likely effectiveness of a
treatment, then perhaps the best way to proceed is to implement the lowest cost schemes first as these are likely
to provide the greatest overall benefit . If the least cost scheme proves in practice to be ineffective, then the
alternative schemes in order of increasing cost should be tried. In most cases a pessimistic estimate of likely
accident savings can be assumed to be an average reduction of around 25-33'% of all accidents.
There are two methods of economic assessment used.
First year rate of return (1YRR),

and
h) Net Present Value (NPV).
MinistryIMWrface-Transport ~= Ross Silcock

8.17
Both methods need the following basic information :-
a) The capital cost of the scheme .
b) An estimate of all benefits (accident savings expressed as monetary value) expected to result .
c) An estimate of all disbenefits (if any).
First Year Rate ofReturn (FYRR)
FYRR is simply the net monetary value of the accident (and any other) savings and drawbacks expected in the
fast year of the scheme, expressed as a percentage of the total capital cost It is, of course, necessary to have
realistic accident costing and, at the time of writing, the available accident costings for India are those produced
in 1990 by Kadiyali et al . These include an added amount dependent on the type of vehicle involved in the
accident . However, to determine overall average costs for each severity of accident we need to make assumptions
about the relative involvement rates of different vehicle types in accidents. Thus, with Kadiyali figures as a
starting point, the following Table 8.5 .1 has been calculated . The Table also includes an estimate for 1996
assuming the national inflation figures since 1990 . Applying national inflation figures since 1990, the costs for
1996 are also estimated
1996 after
1990 costs inflation on Latest accident
Accident Class
(Rs) 1990 costs costings
(Rs)
Fatal 229,500 411,600
Serious 49,500 88,800
Slight 20,600 37,000
Damage-only 3,000 5,400
Figure 8.5.1 Monetary costs of accidents
The national figures for the fatal, serious and slight injury categories of road accidents are not published.
However, using corresponding ratios from samples of accident data where this breakdown is available (i.e. from
a special National Highway study and also the Bangalore city database), the average cost of an injury accident
for 1996 was calculated to be approximately Rs 39,900 . It is likely that this figure is nevertheless an underestimate
and a study needs to be conducted soon to determine more up-to-date and realistic values for India.
Tire Net Present Value (NPV)
This method of evaluation expresses (in a single lump sum) the difference between costs and benefits of a
scheme which may occur over a period of several years. Unfortunately, it would be incorrect to simply assume
that the year 1 benefit can be summed to obtain the overall benefit over the life of the scheme. This is because
society, in general, prefers benefits which occur sooner rather than later. Future benefits must therefore be
adjusted, or "discounted" before being summed to obtain a "present value" .
Let us assume that the current discount rate used by the Planning Commission for highway schemes is 11%,
which means that for each Rs 100 ofbenefit occurring this year, if this also accrues next year then this is valued
at I I % less, i.e. Rs. 89. A further year's delay will reduce the benefit again by 11 % ofRs. 89, i.e. Rs. 79 and so on.
These figures can be summed over the life ofthe scheme to obtain the Present Value of Benefits (PVB) .
CRRI,TRL Manaalfor Salrp.in Road Design

8 .18
COUNTERMEASURES
The overall economic worth of the scheme is then obtained by deducting the Present Value of Costs (PVC)
(these may also have to be discounted if they are spread over more than one year from the value of benefits):
NPV=PVB-PVC
The scheme is only usually considered worthwhile if this figure is positive .
The economic criteria for scheme assessment using the NPV approach are:-
all schemes where NPV is positive are worthwhile in economic terms;
" for a particular site, the most worthwhile option is that with the highest NPV;
" all options are ranked in order of their NPV/PVC ratio [the highest ratio at the top ofthe list].
If funds are limited, those with the highest NPV/PVC ratios are preferable on economic grounds.
Using a NPV/PVC listing ofdifferent sites, a line can be drawn for a particular annual budget and if the authority
is receiving local political or other pressures to treat a site which is outside this list or below the cut-off level, then
the table can be used to point out that this will not achieve the best contribution to the nations casualty
reduction target .
Step 8: Detailed Design and Implementation
The next stage after selecting an appropriate remedial measure will usually be detailed design . This is likely to be
carried out by a different unit to that investigating the problems. The design drawings will need to be based on
the proposals/outline plans of the accident investigators and this same team should also remain actively involved
with the designers throughout the design process .
Road safety audit
Although it is assumed that national standards will be followed in any design unless unusual local conditions
dictate a departure (which may need special approval), a combination ofelements perhaps close to their respective
recommended minimum standard, may combine to create safety problems . Safety audit discussed in Chapter 6,
seeks to address such problems, and thus an audit should also be carried out on safety remedial work, both at the
design stage and again immediately after the scheme implementation : that is, prior to opening to normal traffic.
During the installation of the scheme it should be remembered that accidents tend to occur at a higher rate at
roadwork sites and involve more vehicles than on normally operating sections of the road network . A study of
major roadwork sites in the UK found that, despite the fact that the sites were generally well signed and laid out,
accidents still occurred 1 .6 times more frequently than on non-roadwork sections, and the percentage ofaccidents
involving 4 or more vehicles was 29% compared with only 8% without works. It is suspected that the ratio may
be considerably higher than this in India, particularly at sites where advance warning signs are non-existent .
It is very important, therefore, that countermeasure installations themselves are made as safe as possible . The
road engineer must ensure that contractors erect temporary signs at their roadwork sites. Often with relatively
short-term work, warning signs are not set out sufficiently in advance of the works site or are too few in number:
this is particularly hazardous where drivers vision of the site may be obscured by a bend or other traffic.

8.19
CHAPTER 8
Attention should be paid to the use of adequate lengths of "safety zone" or "buffer space" which provides an
escape area if drivers fail to notice the advance warning signs and protects the men in the work area .
In India, tapers of traffic cones to close off a lane before the work area, or to move traffic into other contraflow
lanes, are not used and thus road work can itself create a real hazard particularly at night.
It is important to keep a record of the precise dates of the beginning and completion of major parts of the remedial
work for all jobs . This is essential for the monitoring of the scheme (see following section) .
Similarly, details of all costs involved, including variation orders, must be kept. The actual costs often differ
considerably from original estimates, and this record will facilitate a more reliable cost-benefit analysis .
CRR/,TRL ~~ Manualfor Safety in Road Design

8.20 =- _
COUNTERMEASURES
8.6 Monitoring and Evaluation
Having introduced a countermeasure or package of measures, it is important to establish the effectiveness of the
safety engineering work carried out ; first to check that nothing has gone wrong and that it is working as intended,
and later to learn lessons which may influence future decisions on improvements . The later evaluation process
involves carrying out simple statistical tests to explain the result obtained.
Step 9: Monitoring
The treated site should be observed immediately after completion ofthe construction and regular visits made in
the following days, weeks or months until the team is satisfied that the scheme is operating in the way expected .
It is strongly advised that any earlier behavioural measurements that were made during the investigation stage
of Step 5 (e.g., traffic conflict counts, speed measurements, skid resistance) are now repeated as this will lend
weight to any argument for making further changes at the site or, indeed, proving success . It can happen, for
instance, that some feature of a scheme may produce an unforeseen reaction in drivers which creates a potentially
hazardous situation . Monitoring should highlight this problem at an early stage so that appropriate action can be
taken quickly to remove this danger.
It is essential to carry out the monitoring effectively, not least to avoid the "bad publicity" which could occur if
a road safety scheme was seen to be actually causing accidents by making the situation worse than it was before
the work was implemented
Recording the results of the monitoring measures is also important to build up a database of types oftreatment
and the effects they produced. This will provide information for future safety engineering work.
For monitoring or measuring the effect ofa safety improvement, the technique employed is usually a "before" and
"after" analysis. The most important measure of success is, of course, whether the safety work has improved the
accident situation at the site. This will always need to be assessed for a scheme and statistical methods for
evaluation are discussed in the next Step, though it will be necessary to wait 2 to 3 years before this can truly be
assessed . A simple visual method that could be used in the shorter term if accident numbers are sufficiently high
is that of cumulative accident number plotting. In this method, the number of accidents (and types ifrequired) are
plotted on a monthly basis as a cumulative frequency, together with their cumulative mean, for the period before
the workswere done and for the period after. The after period cumulative mean is simply a continuation of the
before mean monthly average such that the drift apart of the two lines during the after period represents the
change in accidents that the measure is producing (see AIP Manual reference CI).
Behavioural Measures
It would, of course, be impractical to carry out detailed behavioural studies for all minor alterations, but studies
may be particularly important for expensive schemes like area-wide or mass action treatments . It must be noted,
however, that non-accident variables have the disadvantage that they do not give direct measures of the size of
safety improvement. There are practically no variables for which the precise relation to accidents is known . This
means that a measured reduction in mean speed, for example, cannot be translated into an estimate for the number
of accidents saved: this is a considerable drawback.
Ifspeed reduction is one ofthe objectives of the scheme then speeds should obviously be monitored . Similar and
appropriate locations should be carefully chosen for the before and after studies preferably using automatic
equipment. If radar guns are used then these need to be Unobtrusive otherwise warning signals invariably given
by drivers in the opposing direction will yield unreliable results.
Ministry of Surface rt - '=- Ross Silcock

8.21
The t-distribution can be used to compare whether any
changes in the mean speeds in the two periods of meas-
urement are statistically significant (Ref C1).
Traffic conflicts are generally of use only at junctions.

The "after" study should be carried out in the same con-
ditions and for the same periods as the "before" study,
and preferably using the same observers (to minimise sub-
jectivity between individuals) .
The frequencies of occurrence of conflicts can be

analysed in the same way as the methods used for
accidents, as outlined in the next Step .
Fygure 8.6.1 Axle detectors linked to roadside

Traffic flow equipment to monitor flow and speed In Egypt IZI
Data should be collected throughout the local network if the measure is expected to affect manoeuvres at a
junction or drivers choice of route in any other way, then it is desirable to collect traffic flow data throughout the
local network.
If the measure is expected to affect manoeuvres at a junction or drivers choice of route in any other way, then it
is desirable to collect traffic flow data throughout the local network.
It may also be necessary to expand this survey to provide origin and destination information so that estimates in
through-traffic can be obtained to determine how this has been affected by the scheme .
In some cases monitoring may require an estimate of changes in travel time for residents and through-traffic . This
will be important where traffic severance forms part of the scheme, and traffic is being re-routed .
Public perception should be considered by the highway authority. Often one of the main reasons why an area-
wide scheme has been implemented is due to campaigns by residents for something to be done . One of the most
important parts of an area-wide scheme, therefore, is public consultation . Thus, an important monitoring measure
is how the residents and other road users feel about the safety elements of the scheme after implementation .
Effects on other areas
It is important to examine whether the scheme has, as an unwanted side-effect, led to an increase in accidents,
traffic speeds and volumes in adjacent areas.
Collecting control data in the comparative "before" and "after" studies is necessary to take into account other
factors not affected by the treatment which might also influence that measure. Examples are: a change in speed
limit on roads which include the site ; national road safety campaigns; traffic management schemes which might
affect volume of traffic. These changes may be compensated for by comparing the same "before" and "after"
periods with accidents (or other measurements) at "control" sites which are untreated.
When choosing control sites:
they should be as similar as possible to treated sites;
they should not be affected by the treatment;
there should be more than 10 times the number of accidents at the control sites.
CRRI,TRL Manual for Safety in Road DOW

8.22
COUNTERMEASURES
Step 10: Evaluation
This final step of the procedure focuses on evaluating whether the treatment has been successful in achieving its
objective ofreducing the number of accidents . This, therefore, requires comparison of the number of accidents in
the target group "before" the treatment with the number "after" treatment (with the assumption of a similar before
pattern if nothing were done), and to study whether any other accident type has increased.
The main problem when using accident data for evaluation (even assuming high recording accuracy) is to
distinguish between a change due to the treatment and a change due to other sources. Unfortunately, there are
a number of confounding factors that need to be considered and these are briefly outlined below :-
Changes in the environment
As mentioned in the last Step (9), a change in the environment or driving habits can affect the accidents occurring
at the study site. For example, a change in the national speed limit for the class of road at the site, or closure of a
nearby junction to the site producing a marked change in traffic patterns .
Changes like this can often be taken into account by the use of control site data but it is important that these
control sites experience exactly the same changes as the site under evaluation .
Random fluctuation
The rare and random nature of road accidents can lead to quite large fluctuations in frequencies occurring at a site
from year to year, even though there has been no change in the underlying accident rate. This extra variability
makes the effect of the treatment more difficult to detect; but a test of statistical significance can be used to
determine whether the observed change in accident frequency is likely to have occurred by chance or not .
Regression to the mean
This effect complicates evaluations at high accident or blackspot sites . Accidents at these sites tend to reduce
even when no treatment is applied. Even if a 3-year total is considered at the worst accident sites in an area, it is
likely that the accident frequencies were at the high end of the naturally occurring random fluctuations, and
subsequent years will yield lower numbers. This is known as regression to the mean. Research in the UK has
indicated that this effect may occur for between 5 and 26 percent of the recorded accident saving in the year
following implementation of a scheme depending on the period of time considered . Hence allowance should be
made when calculating the actual reduction in accidents the countermeasures alone have produced (see ref. C1).
Accident migration
There is still some controversy over whether or not this effect exists but it has been reported by several researchers
that an increase in accidents tends to be observed at sites adjoining a successfully treated site giving an apparent
transfer or "migration" of accidents. It is unclear precisely why this effect occurs but is suspected that drivers are
"compensating" for the improved safety at treated sites by being less cautious elsewhere .
Risk compensation
This is an even more controversial effect, though related to the previous section. The philosophy of "risk
compensation" or "risk homeostasis theory" suggests that road users will change their risk-taking behaviour
thereby offseting any improvements in road safety . That is, road users tend to maintain a fixed level of accepted
risk, so will take more risks when given greater accident protection ; for example, ifprovided with seat beltsor anti-
lock brakes. Whilst again the extent of this effect is extremely difficult to monitor, the engineer should be aware of
the possibility of risk compensation when introducing countermeasures . Some simple statistical tests are outlined
below with more detail contained in ref. C I .

8 .23
CHAPTER 8
Standard tests of accident changes
In evaluating a treatment the answers to the following questions will usually be required :
1 Has the treatment been effective?
1 If so, how effective has it been?
Before and after periods at the treated site should be identical to that at the control site and the period during
which work was carried out should be omitted from the study .
The before and after period should ideally also be three years (so as to remove, as far as possible, random
fluctuations) . However, results are often required much sooner than this. A one year after period can initially be
used but sensitivity is lost and the estimate of the countermeasure's success should be updated later when more
data becomes available.
The "k" test can be used to show how the accident numbers at a site change relative to control data in the before
and after periods .
The Chi-Squared test is used to answer the important question of whether the change in accidents was indeed
produced by the treatment or whether this occurred by chance . This test thus determines whether the changes
are statistically significant .
initial inveshnent
Cowrtermeasure Cost benefit ratio
Group ofsites with same treatment (as innullions)
nelnet wear law in India 2005 12,6
For a number of sites, which have had the substituting public tratspon for 2- 1 .3
31500
same treatment, the overall effect is a rather wheelers in India
more complex calculation . It first involves Renwving encroachment in Delhi 2o 45 .6

determining whether there has been a sig- Improving sidewalks in Delhi 640 14 .9
nificant change at the site by calculating
Proiding bicycle fncilides in Delhi 512 2.9
standard error and comparing with the Stu-
Painting bicycles yellow in Delhi 565 6.7
dent's t-distribution . It is then necessary to
test whether the treatments are producing Installing gmernos in heavy vehicles in 864 24 .4
Delhi
the same kind of effect at all sites by calcu-
lating the Chi-Square value . Training progranune of traffic police 3 .5 I5 .0
personnel
Table 8.6 .1 Cost-benefit ratios and initial investment required

Economic evaluation
for the various countermeasures proposed .
For every scheme the evaluation should include an indication of the benefits actually achieved in relation to cost .
Again First Year Rate of Return is a suitable comparative measure.
Evaluating overall effectiveness
This chapter has concentrated on evaluating the effects of specific schemes. As mentioned in section 8.1 it is
strongly recommended that the highwayrauthority produces a regular strategy document (Road Safety Plain)
which includes within it a summary of the overall achievements of road safety programmes (examples included in
ref C I and see A23) .
As background information in the strategy document it is normal to present and examine aggregate accident
statistics over the State, District or Municipality, broken down in various ways by, for example, class of road user,
class of road. However, as schemes are usually localised, their effects are often difficult to detect among much
larger accident totals . Hence in the strategy document or Road Safety Plan it will probably be better to also
include a summary listing of the effectiveness of all the low-cost schemes . This is more informative than a single
overall figure as it displays the range of safety efforts taking place and the relative success of the various
methods used, and also provides a record for future reference.
CRR/,TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

8 .24
COUNTERMEASURES
8.7 Development of Countermeasures
The emphasis in this manual is on low-cost engineering measures, which have proven very successful in many
industrialised countries . Examples of typical countermeasures are described and discussed m the subsequent
sections. It is important to recognise, however, that the circumstances under which each will, or will not be
appropriate, tan very quite widely. Often there will be a choice of countermeasures and that choice must be
based on an analysis of the common features and the identification of contributory factors, as discussed in the
preceding sections. Countermeasures are problem-oriented and the choice of measure(s) for a particular set of
contributory factors must be aimed at resolving problems . Ideally, some knowledge of their likely effectiveness
in similar conditions is required .
As with many problems, there are often several points ofview. It is sometimes difficult to get people to think from
alternative perspectives in order to identify a range of possible solutions. Consider a simple situation by way of
example. A major route curves around a hill, which obstructs visibility of a pedestrian crossing . Accident
records show pedestrian/vehicle accidents and suggest excessive speed to be a contributory factor.
The problem is pedestrian/vehicle conflicts to which poor visibility and excessive speed make major contributions .
Potential solutions - and hence the basis for countermeasures - are of three types :
" remove the conflict ;

" improve visibility; or
" reduce speeds .
From the drivers' viewpoint removing the conflict, implying stopping pedestrians from crossing, is preferable -
but this would not meet the apparent need for crossing the road. The pedestrians would like speeds reduced, but
drivers' would generally resist this. Improving visibility may give drivers and pedestrians more chance of
avoiding conflicts but could result in vehicles travelling faster.
A balance of interest must be struck, depending upon traffic volumes, between the extent of pedestrian demand
and the cost-effectiveness of countermeasures . Possibilities under each of the three headings are:
Remove the conflict improve visibility Reduce speeds

* prevent pedestrians * move the hill * speed limits
crossing
* protect pedestrians * move the crossing * speed hump or other
whilst crossing physical device
The contrast can perhaps be seen most readily with the two means of improving visibility. Many waildsay that
if the problem is that the crossing cannot be seen, then move whatever is in the way - a'move the maintain" .
approach. Yet it may well be just as effective and & good deal cheaper to relocate the crossing to a place where
it can be seen more easily. There is nothing sophisticated nor technical in this- just a requirement to think around
alternative solutions to a problem and occasionally to think laterally .
Practical experience is needed to confirm the way in which countermeasures can be applied and work in a
particular context . Experience in this respect is largely restricted to industrialised countries and it cannot just be
assumed that what is effective, say in the UK, will be effective elsewhere . Over time, however, a body of expertise
will build up and it should become increasingly possible to rely on this if monitoring is carried out
(see section 8.6) .
Because of this there are significant benefits to be gained from an experimental approach as discussed above. A
temporary installation, using cheap materials, will enable ideasto be tried out and minor modifications to a layout
to be made at negligible cost. This should not be interpreted as lacking conviction in the merit of a scheme, but
a recognition of the need to learn from experience in a local context and to respond to changes which will occur
when a scheme is implemented . There is also advantage in fine-tuning until the scheme is working as required.
Schemes should always be closely monitored, however, to ensure that the "improvement" implemented has not
inadvertently worsened the situation .
Ministry of Surface 7remport ~= Ross Silco

8.25
Figure 8.7 .1 Experimental alternative of island to provide larger pedestrians refuge and
deter undertaking on exit from roundabout, UK . These concrete blocks can be moved
about to get the best layout. Once the best layout is identified kerbing or other permanent
materials can be used to create the channelisation island . 0
Some of the examples and diagrams presented in this document to illustrate concepts and approaches are drawn
from overseas, so many use materials and road furniture may be considered too expensive for Indian conditions .
Readers are strongly advised to experiment with local lower cost alternatives especially when implementing
temporary schemes. Use of concrete kerbing, heavy wooden beams. concrete blocks or even large stones or tyres
(painted white) may provide low cost options to implement similar schemes.
One very effective low cost solution is to use oil drums cut in two and filled with earth. These can be planted with
vegetation and, if painted white. can provide very visible and attractive barriers to prevent vehicle access
(see figure 8.18.2 on page 8 .49) .

8.26
COUNTERMEASURES
8.8 Problems and Remedies
Each accident site will have its own set of contributory factors which define the problem(s) to be overcome.
General prescriptions for treating blackspots must therefore be taken with caution . Nevertheless, there are a
number of commonly occurring situations which have been dealt with successfully in the past - mostly in
industrialised countries . In many ofthese, accident numbers have been reduced substantially, often py 40 to 50
per cent and in some cases by as much as 80 per cent Tables 8.8.1-8 .8.3 identify some ofthese common accident
situations and list remedies which have proven successful in the UK. The references given refer to sections of
the document where the remedies are discussed . Some have already been dealt with earlier in the document
under chapters on design and operation . Others receive more detailed consideration in the following Sections .
Figure8.8.1 Sponsorship of traffic bollards-allows additional equipment for traffic

management m

8 .27
-CHAPTER 8
Table 8.8.1 General accident situations
General Accident Potential Remedy Relevant section(s) in this Manual

Situation
Skidding - restoring surface 4.11
texture
Collisions with - better delineation 4.12,4.13,4.14, 4.16, 4.17, 4.19, 420, 5.7, 5.8, 8.16
roadside obstacles - guardrails 4.16,4.17,429,8 .23
- safety fences 4.16,4 .17,8.23
- frangible posts 4.14,4.18,426
Pedestrian/vehicle - pedestrian/vehicle 3.8,3.12,4.19,420,421,422,5 .10,8.20
conflicts segregation
- facilities for 3.10, 4 .10, 4.19, 4 .20, 821, 824
pedestrians
- pedestrian protection 4.16, 821, 8.22, 823
Loss of control - road markings 2.5, 4 .13, 4.19, 429, 5 .8, 8.14
- delineation 4.14,4.20,5.8,8 .16
- speed controls 3.10, 425, 428, 7.4, 8.17,
- guardrails 4.16,429,823
Darkness - reflective signs 4.12, 4.18,4.26, 5.7, 5.8, 8.14
- delineation 4.12,4.13,4.14,4 .16,4.17,5.8,4 .20,5.8,8 .16
- road markings 4.13, 5.7, 8.14
Poor visibility - conspicuity 4.3, 5.6, 5.7, 8.11
- improved sightlines 4.3, 5.6, 8.13
Poor driving - road markings 4.14, 4 .16, 429, 5.7, 5.8, 8 .12, 8.14
behaviour/lane - enforcement 5.5, 5.7, 7.4,
discipline - median barriers 4.16,4.17,429, 8 .15, 8.23,
Table 8.8.2 Rural accident situations
Rural Accident Potential Remedy Relevant seMion(s) in this Manual
JUNCTIONS
Turning movements - turn prohibition 7.3, 8.19
- channelisation 5.8, 8.9
- acceleration / 5.9
deceleration lane
Overtaking - protected turns 5.8,5.9,8.9
- markings 4.14, 5.8
- advance warning 5.7
Overshoot from - junction conspicuity 5.8, 5.9, 8.11, 8 .14,
minorroad - channelisation/ 8.9, 8 .14, 8.17
road markings 89,8.14
- speed reducing 3 .10, 425, 8.17
devices
- junction control 5.8, 8.9, 8.19
LINKS
Overtaking - prohibition/ 4.29,8-13
lane markings
- overtaking zones 4.8,8-13
- median barriers 4.16,4.17
- well maintained 4.10
hard shoulders
Roadside stalls - enforcement/control 3.5, 3.11, 7.3, 7.4
- provision of off 3.9, 3.12, 3.13, 428
road facilities
- relocation 8.7
Ribbon development - bypass 3_4,3 .11

8 .28
COUNTERMEASURES
Table 8.8.3 Urban Accident Situations
Urban Accident Potential Remedy Relevant section (s) in this Manual
JUNCTIONS
Turning movements - channelisation 4.13, 4.14, 5.8, 8.9, 8.14, 8.19,
- signals 5.5
- turn prohibitions 8.19,
- roundabouts 5.4,8 .10
Overtaking - channelisation 5.8,7 .4
- markings 4.13
Pedestrian/vehicle - refuges 822
- crossing facilities 821
- underpass/overbridge 824
- guardrails/fences 823,4.16
Poor visibility due - parking controls 3.5, 3.12, 4.24,428, 5.6, 7.3
to parking
Darkness - lighting 4.18, 5.6
- reflective signing/ 5.7, 8.14
marking
LINKS
Parked vehicles - parking controls 424,7.3
parking provision 428
Speeding - speedlimits 425
- enforcement 7.4
- speed control devices 8.17
Pedestrians - access controls/ 8.18,8.19
road closures
- crossing facilities 5 .10,820,821,824
- guardrails/fences ' 4.16,4.17,823
- wider footways 4.19
- underpass/ 8.24
overbridge
Ministry of Surface Transport - Ross S ck

9
CHAPTER 8
8 .9 Junction Layout : Channelisation
Overview:
Junctions are potentially hazardous because they are the places where traffic movements conflict. Traffic
streams which must cross, or merge, are more prone to accidents than those travelling in parallel or diverging.
Reduction of conflicts by separating traffic streams either simply by road markings or by small islands to
channelise traffic, is a very effective measure to improve safety and can be applied under a wide range of
circumstances, ranging from uncontrolled rural junctions to busy urban signal-controlled junctions .
Problems :
Most accident blackspots occur at road junctions . Accidents are more likely if conflicting manoeuvres at a
junction all occur in an undefined open space in the centre . If the channelisation is at a priority junction then
compliance with `give-way' or `stop' signs is vital. If drivers do not obey such signs then the effectiveness of
the channelisation will be reduced.
Channelisation guides the driver along a desired path and must be carefully designed to ensure that the motorist
is not exposed to danger at any point of his manoeuvre. Often channelising islands are not wide enough to
protect turning vehicles, leaving them pro-
truding into through traffic .
Where the channelisation is created by road

markings alone it requires regular
maintenance and high quality reflective
paint/thermoplastic to remain visible at all
times . This can cause a maintenance
problem.
The geometry of the channelisation must

ensure safety for large vehicles . Care must
also be taken to allow adequate turning radii
at comers and clearance from street furniture.
Channelisation will often require local

widening . This may result in some drivers
eying to overtake at the junction where the
road has been widened, especially if only
paint is used to define the channelisation .
Islands are preferable if local driving
behaviour is likely to lead to problems .
Figure 8.9.1 Example of collision diagram at urban

blackspot. Note problems of turninglcrossing manoeuvres
and rear-end shunts on some arms [22
CRRI,TRL ManualforSafely in Road Design

8 .30
COUNTERMEASURE S
Sqfer Practice:
Channelisation is often used as a countermeasure in order to separate traffic streams to make clear to drivers
which vehicles are about m make which manoeuvre . If space permits traffic streams can be separated so that
potential conflicts occur ftuther apart. giving drivers more time and the opportunity to concentrate on one
problem ata time .
Channelisation may be an appropriate remedial measure in situations where the following contributory factors
appear consistently in accident records at a junction:
" Collisions between through traffic and slow moving or stationary vehicles waiting to turn into the minor
road(s) .
" Conflicts between traffic turning into and out of the minor road(s) .
" Vehicles overtaking at a junction .
" Confusion amongst drivers about the

manoeuvres being made by other vehicles .
Channelisation can often be achieved simply and

at low cost with road markings alone whilst islands
and raised median strips can be installed initially.
on an experimental basis. with cheap local materials .
e .g . old tyres painted white and adjusted as
necessary until an optimum layout is determined at
which point it can be made permanent .
It may be necessary to modify street lighting at

some sites to ensure prow illummatim Permanent
islands will also need `keep left signs .
Advance signing is necessary to ensure that drivers

select the correct lane for the manoeuvre. which Figure &91 Chancefsation at a major junction in an
they intend to carry out . Without adequate signing. urban area in Gaa. m
inappropriate and probably dangerous vehicle
movements will occur when drivers attempt to
correct their pre%ious mistakes .
Other relevant sections: 5.2, 5.8, 7.3, 2.8, 4.29, 5.10, 5.11, 8.20
Indian references: B 7, B21
Kev external references: A44
Ministn.of Surface Transport Ross Silcock

8.31
8.10 Junction Layout: Roundabouts
Overview:
The use of roundabouts as an accident

countermeasure is not commonplace although
they can be effective under certain
circumstances. They are likely to be most
appropriate as countermeasures in situations
where traffic flows on all arms are similar,
turning movements are high and accidents at
the site frequently involve turning traffic .
Roundabouts (sometimes termed rotaries or

gyratories) are intended to remove many of
the conflicts present in ordinary junctions . As
the diagram illustrates, a normal crossroad has
32 conflict points where traffic streams merge,
Figure 8.10 .1 Conflict points al straight cross roads and
cross or diverge . The principal of a rounda-
roundabouts 10
bout is, by introducing a central island around
which all traffic must travel in the same direction, to reduce the number of conflict points . Just 8 conflict points
remain with a conventional roundabout .
On fast principal and rural roads, roundabouts usually need to be relatively large in order to maintain the integrity
of a route but in urban areas small or mini roundabouts can be used . Careful design is essential to ensure safe and
appropriate vehicle routes through the junction.
Problems :
The most obvious problem regarding the more

widespread use of mundabouts is the lack of familiarity
of drivers with the proper use of this type of traffic
control . In India there appears to be uncertainty with
the 'give-way' or `yield' rule in the traffic code .
Roundabouts depend upon drivers entering yielding
priority to vehicles already circulating . Failure to do
this can "lock" the roundabout .
Large roundabouts have large land requirements and

can be costly to implement, but are more likely to offer
safety benefits . Small or mini-roundabouts require
sensitive design and good driver behaviour if they are
not to introduce as many problems as they are intended
to overcome. All roundabouts but especially mini
roundabouts, introduce hazards onto the road and
require clear advance warning so that approaching FiguireS.10.2 Improperly designed roundabout
drivers can see that there is a roundabout ahead . without supporting road markings does not give
sufficient weaving length and is ineffective p

8.32
COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Practice :
Roundabouts are especially suitable at junctions where traffic flow volumes en all entries are similar and turning
traffic is heavy (say 20% or more), particularly if this applies in both directions and 'hooking' turns would
otherwise result ( a hooking turn is where two vehicles turning right pass offside to offside).
As accident countermeasures, they may be appropriate where the following contributory factors appear
consistently in accident records :
" A high proportion of turning manoeuvres ; and
" Excessive speed through the junction .
The presence of the central island and the requirement for traffic to circle it introduces deflection and reduces the
speed of through traffic . Hence the consequences of accidents which do occur are reduced.
Lane markings and islands should be used to ensure that vehicle paths are deflected on entry. This will minimise
the probability of traffic passing through the junction at high speed in straight lines. High kerbs around central
islands prevent over-running but such kerbs should be brightly painted (white or striped) so that approaching
drivers can see the island ahead more clearly. Roundabouts must slways be well marked en the central island to
give advance warning to approaching motorists. There should slso be "give way" markings and signs en the
approach from every arm leading onto the roundabout.
Roundabouts can be of various sizes, defined most simply in terms of the diameter of the central island. In rural
areas they are often quite large, with long weaving sections permitting moderate speeds to be maintained. In
urban areas central islands can be reduced substantially in size, often being little more than a slightly raised circle
of paint, three metres in diameter.
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silcock ~" 33

8.11 Junction Conspicuity
Overview :
Many accidents occur at junctions because the junction is inconspicuous and as a result drivers may not see the
junction soon enough or may misjudge the manoeuvres required. To avoid the high concentration of traffic
conflicts that often occur at junctions. the junction must be clearly defined. A driver approaching a junction
must first be made aware that there is a junction . and secondly. what type of manoeuvres he may make and what
type of manoeuvres he can expect others to make . This is especially important on roads where traffic is travelling
at high speeds and where the consequences of misinterpretation are potentially disastrous .
Making a junction more conspicuous may be an effective accident countermeasure if accident records suggest
that drivers are not seeing the junction early enough or are misinterpreting a junction .
Problems :
A junction may not be visible sufficiently far in

advance because of topography or road alignment.
In such circumstances making the junction more
visible is likely to be very costly and warning signs
may be the only remedy . The frequent absence of
road markings and warning traffic signs. absence of
lighting on most rural and many urban roads and the
limited use of channelisation in India often results in
poor conspicuity of junctions and hence danger to
approaching drivers.
This can be particularly dangerous if a driver on a

minor road approaching a major route does not Figure 8.11.1 Inconspicuousjunctiononbend,UK
appreciate the fact until he is too close to stop .
Problems may be particularly acute at night .
Roads often intersect at acute angles (e . Y-junctions) leading to accidents at high speed when minor road
.g
traffic fails to give way to major road traffic.
CRRI.TRL g ~3 A- Ma nual for Sa fen in Road Design

COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Practice:
By making the junction more conspicuous to road users the potential for accidents can be reduced. Improving
conspicuity is likely to be beneficial where accidents with the following characteristics are found:
Excessive speed on junction approaches;
1 Failure to observe traffic signs or controls;
1 Minor road traffic failing to stop or yield and overrunning into major road; and
" Night time accidents.
A variety of techniques can be adopted to make junctions more conspicuous. In some cases, simply ensuring
that vegetation growth is kept low so as not to encroach on sightlines may be sufficient . In others lane markings,
painted kerbs. give-way lines and prominent signs may serve to initiate action and maintain alertness amongst
drivers. Depending upon the road surface and standards of maintenance, reflective paints and/or road studs can
be used to highlight the presence of a junction .
In more difficult situations minor realignment of the

junction may be necessary to reinforce priorities and to
create a deliberate break in the apparent continuity of
the toad for drivers on the minor route. Where roads
intersect at right angles, offsetting channefsing islands
on the minor road can make it impossible for minor road
traffic to cross without slowing down or stopping .
Where roads cross at an acute angle, it may be possi-
ble to realign the minor roads to make a staggered junc-
tion (i.e. T-junctions). Generally. for driving on the left
hand side of the road as in India, right/left staggers are
safer.
Junction conspicuity at night time can be greatly

improved by the provision of lighting . If urban streets junction to mve cnrerpicuity m
are not lit, street lighting should first be provided at junctions. Where streets are lit, junctions with many night
time accidents could benefit from better illumination, especially if a high proportion of pedestrians are involved.
Lighting is unlikely to be an option in rural conditions . In unlit conditions the use of painted kerbs and road
markings plus reflective road signs placed to break the sight-lines of drivers can give early warning of a junction
ahead. Splitter islands should have the small sign facing the driver and the main, central, roundabout island
should ideally have chevron signs facing the entry.
Other relevant sectionp 4.21, 53, 5.7, 4,15, 4.16

Indian references:
Key external references: A1, A15, A16, A18
Mimstrmof Surface Transport Roas-Silcock

8.35
8.12 Driver Expectancy
Overview :
Driver expectancy is an important determinant of driving behaviour. The road and its environment are constantly
providing drivers with visual cues about the road ahead and the driving tasks which they may need to perform.
Drivers develop expectations from these and a coherent road design should be consistent with them. Drivers
should not suddenly be faced with unusual or unique circumstances. which do not conform with their expecta-
tions. If they do meet such situations, then many will take longer to react, and some may react inappropriately or
not at all and hence become involved in an accident .
Problems :
If misleading information is provided to drivers, or none

is available, hazardous situations can result . In a situa-
tion where a line of utility poles or trees runs parallel and
adjacent to a long section of straight roadway, this cre-
ates the expectancy that the straight alignment with no
junctions will continue . An expectancy violation occurs
when something unexpected suddenly intrudes, such
as an unmarked junction shown in Figure 8.12.1 . Treat-
ments at such locations must change the expectancy
earlier by giving advance warning of the junction ahead.
Another more common problem is of a long straight road
with a sudden sharp change in direction. By showing
alignment ahead with signs, pavement markings and
delineators, the driver expectancy of a straight road ahead
can be eliminated . Figure 8.12.1 Lack ofadvance warning and straight
over view results in drivers failing to stop at cross
This example illustrates the principles involved. Road roads, Ghana 53
geometry, surrounding buildings or trees, markings and
the general driving environment combine to inform the driver of what conditions to expect ahead. These
influence his driving, his preparedness to take particular actions and the manoeuvres he intends to make . If some
or all of the surrounding features and messages mislead or confuse the driver, false expectations will result and
this can lead to hazardous situations and accidents. If no or inadequate information is provided regarding
potential hazards ahead then drivers will be unprepared for the potential danger.
Figure 8.12.2 Inadequate information regarding

potential hazards ahead create dangers to drivers

8.36
COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Practice :
The selection of countermeasures in these circumstances

should aim to improve the 'readability' of the road and to
encourage drivers to react in a way that is consistent
with the potential hazards ahead. In some cases this
requires the removal of misleading conditions . as in the
example quoted . In others it may require the introduction
of signs, markings . channelisation or measures intended
to modify driving behaviour, often in terms of speed con-
trol. An example of this is the use in the UK of yellow bar
markings on the approaches to junctions on high speed
dual carriageways (ref 44).
Drivers and pedestrians must be given consistent and

coherent information if they are to be expected to behave drivers, Singapore
in a consistent and safe manner . This information will
come from the road geometry . signs. markings and other
aspects of the traffic environment . Factors contributing to accidents which are indicative of driver expectancy
problems are:
" Unexpected or apparently wrong manoeuvres or actions by road users.
Mega] behaviour .
Speeds and otter aspects of driving inappropriate to the conditions.
On interurban roads and main traffic routes, it is important to ensure consistency of road characteristics and
delineation . In urban areas. a clear definition of the road hierarchy and who has priority at every junction . is very
important. Drivers. especially those on the minor roads, must be given clear guidance regarding which traffic
flow has priority. In this way the risk of conflicts is minimised as drivers are prepared for circumstances ahead
and take appropriate action .
Note on Yellow Bar Markings
In the UK at the termination of high speed roads, usually at a roundabout, a series of yellow transverse markings
have been used to indicate to drivers the approaching junction . The markings become closer together as the
hazard is approached giving the impression of the vehicle travelling faster. Their application followed extensive
trials in UK conditions of traffic mix . vehicle speed and vehicle braking performance. They are not used on all
roads or at all junctions. They may be applicable at some locations in India but only following extensive research,
trials and monitoring .
J
Other relevant sections: 8.11, 8.17, 7.3, 7.4
Indian references:
Hey external references : Al, A43
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silcoc rT

8.37,
8.13 Overtaking Zones
Overview :
Overtaking is an inherently dangerous manoeuvre, especially on single carriageway roads where it creates the
potential for head-on collisions . Even if the oncoming vehicle can be seen, judging its approach speed and the
amount of time available to pass the slower moving vehicle in safety are among the most difficult driving tasks.
Accident blackspots often prove to be locations where drivers repeatedly misjudge these. or where they attempt
to overtake at locations with inadequate visibility, for example, on bends and before bridges.
Whilst the provision of dual carriageways with central medians overcomes the problem of poor judgement of
gaps in traffic . it is expensive, especially if land purchase is required . Overtaking zones offer a cheaper alternative
approach and they can sometimes be achieved within the existing road structure at relatively low cost.
The basic principle is that of local widening of the carriageway in one direction, usually to provide two lanes
rather than one. If the overall road width is adequate for three lanes of traffic, then this will not require new
construction . it can be achieved with lane markings alone, or with the introduction of a narrow median .
Problems :
In India. overtaking behaviour is generally poor with

drivers consistently overtaking with inadequate sight
distance with the expectation that oncoming vulner-
able traffic will take evasive action . There is an obvious
potential risk if traffic travelling in the opposite direc-
tion (i.e . without the overtaking lane) is likely to cross
into the overtaking zone, perhaps itself to overtake a
slower vehicle. If local driving behaviour and absence
of enforcement is such that these manoeuvres are likely
to be prevalent. then consideration must be given to
the construction of a physical barrier between the two
directions of travel (see Section 8.15, lane dividers).
Due to a general lack of signs and markings , especially

Figure 8.13.1 Dangerous over
at the start and end points of such zones, (and of course,
specified no overtaking zones), drivers may not be fully
aware of the facility provided.

8.38
COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Practice :
Overtaking zones, as a countermeasure, are likely to be appropriate as part of the comprehensive improvement of
a route, as well as at specific blackspots . Whilst they are targeted at accidents in which overtaking was a major
contributory factor, they can also offer substantial economic benefits in reducing delays caused by slow moving
traffic . If carefully located along a major route, typically providing overtaking opportunities for each direction of
travel in turn, (i.e. alternating the provision of overtaking facilities), they can reduce journey times along a route
as well as improve its safety.
Overtaking zones are most suited to rural roads where traffic flows do not warrant full dualing, but where delays
caused by slower traffic lead to impatience and dangerous overtaking manoeuvres. In addition to the overtaking
section(s) itself, periodic advance signing advising drivers that overtaking opportunities exist not too far ahead
can persuade some drivers to be patient and to wait for safer opportunities to pass vehicles .
Clear definition of where overtaking is permitted, and where it is not, is essential. This should be done with traffic
sips and with distinctive lane and centreline markings . Regular maintenance of the signs and markings is
essential, especially at the start and finish points of the zones .
This treatment can be particularly useful where there is a mix of slow and faster traffic using a road. By offering
regular opportunities for overtaking, drivers may be less inclined to overtake at hazardous locations, being
content to wait until they reach the next purpose-built overtaking zone . There are also particular locations where
isolated overtaking zones may be appropriate, for example on the uphill side of a steep gradient where traffic
could otherwise be delayed by, and risk overtaking, a slow moving heavy goods vehicle. Such locations are often
called `crawler' lanes since HGV traffic tends to slow down significantly as it climbs the hill.
Ministry Of Sarface7Nnsport Ross Silcock .

8.39
8 .14 Road Markings
Overview :
Traffic capacity and safety almost invariably increase if traffic streams are separated into clearly marked lanes by
the use of road markings painted on the road surface. Road markings are an essential component of almost every
accident countermeasure on metalled roads, but cannot, of course, be applied on gravel or other loose surfaces .
They are cheap ways of imparting information to drivers and other road users. Markings should be durable,
visible by day and night, skid resistant and unambiguous. They give drivers clear information to guide them
safely along the road and through any potential conflict points such as junctions.
Problems :
Markings are nearly always less distinctive in wet road

conditions. It is difficult to specify a fixed interval for
renewal or cleaning . Wear is affected by many factors:
the product used ; the amount of traffic: oil deposits;
climate: sand and dust .
Where a single, solid centre line is used to prevent

overtaking, e.g . approaching the brow of a hill, the
prohibition applies to both directions of traffic, yet it
may often be safe to overtake in one direction. This
tends to lead to abuse of the restriction .
The excessive use of stop lines at a junction often

become self-defeating . Drivers generally will not come
to a full stop if there is no apparent need - for example
when approaching a junction with good visibility when
no other vehicles are in sight.
Figure 8.14.1 An example of good marking and
In both the above cases. drivers lose confidence in the delineation on a curve although ideally centre line
markings, begin to ignore them and on some occa- marking could be a solid line to convey no-
sions, possibly expose themselves to unnecessary overtaking situation 0
danger as a result . Using a single type of marking in all
circumstances leaves little flexibility to the road engineer to convey appropriate information .
CRRLTRL Manaal for Safety in Road Design

8.40
COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Practice:
There are many circumstances in which markings can be used as countermeasures, or as components of counter-
measures. Road markings are often basic components of channelisation.
Longitudinal markings (along the road) can be applied in many circumstances where lack of lane discipline
prevails. Both edge and centre line markings can be used to give clear information to drivers as tothe correct
position on the road. They can also be used to modify behaviour. For example, the likelihood of vehicles
crossing to the wrong side of the road on a bend is reduced if a clear, perhaps extra-wide, centre fine is marked.
A double centre line is preferred to a single line . One side can then be broken or dashed to show where
overtaking is permitted as shown in reference B7 . The reflective studs improve visibility at night and provide an
audible warning to drivers if they stray across the marking .
Lateral markings across the direction of travel by their

very presence indicate a potential need to stop or take
care and can be used to position vehicles at the safest
point from which to make a manoeuvre. Because the
driver's view is foreshortened lateral markings must be
wide . A minimum width of 300 mm is desirable. At
junctions `Give-way' and `Stop' lines can be very cheap
and effective accident countermeasures. They clearly
define to drivers the presence of ajunction with a major
road and that other traffic has priority. In urban areas
with frequent intersections, the use of `Give-way'
markings is essential to define the road hierarchy.
Pictorial markings, especially turn arrows or symbols

on the carriageway to warn of hazards ahead, are ap-
propriate as parts of many countermeasures.
Regular maintenance of markings is essential and re-

quires good management and strong institutions . The
Figure 8.14.2 Lane marking with reflective studs
materials and skills involved are straightforward if road
on abridge 0
paint is used. With thermoplastic material special equip-
ment and skilled operators are required, but it lasts about
8 times longer.
Other relevant sections : 4.13, 4.14, 4.16, 4.17, 5.7, 7.3, 7.4, 8.9
Indian references : B7
Key external references : Al, A41
Minirtrr of Surface Transport Ross Silcock

8.41
8.15 Lane Dividers and Median Barriers
Overview:
Whilst the longitudinal centre line markings discussed in the previous Section allocate space on the carriageway
between directions of travel, there are situations in which a more substantial barrier is necessary to separate
traffic streams.
In situations where lane discipline is poor and accidents occur because drivers habitually cross onto the wrong
side of the road, a median barrier of some kind can virtually eliminate the problem. These require accurate and
secure installation and particular care with the end details. A simple raised kerb may be almost as effective if the
more expensive barriers are not available, provided it is conspicuous in darkness and designed not to damage
tyres if struck .
On high speed and/or high volume highways, the result of a vehicle crossing the centre-fine, perhaps not by
choice but as a result of being hit. is often a head-on accident and the resultant injuries are usually very severe .
The installation of a median barrier will virtually eliminate crossover, head-on accidents of this type .
Several types of barriers are used in industrialised countries to prevent median crossover by passenger vehicles .
These median barriers have been designed to minimise the possibility of injury to the occupants and the likelihood
that the vehicle will be thrown back into the traffic.
The three main types of barrier are classified as flexible, semi-rigid or rigid (see ref 45). The flexible systems
require much space in which to deflect when struck, the semi-rigid systems require less space and the rigid
systems require no space.
Problems:
In India, perhaps not enough use is made of lane

dividers and median barriers to separate opposing
streams of traffic . Sometimes this is because of the
cost and the absence of specialist skills to install such
facilities accurately.
Particular care must be given to the end of barrier

details, to reduce the risk of serious injury if the end of
a barrier is struck head on by a vehicle.
Figure 8.15.1 Wide, ill maintained and unprotected

medians pose safety hazards
CRRI,,TRL Manual for Safer) in Road Design

8 .42
COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Practice:
Median barriers as countermeasures will only .be effective in cases where head-on accidents predominate. In
such cases they are highly effective . They can be used as a general countermeasure, along the length of a major
route, especially as traffic volumes increase or as the route is being upgraded. This approach is relatively costly.
In certain circumstances it may be more appropriate to install short lengths ofbarrier, for example on a bend where
head-on accidents are frequent.
In some connt es other means have been adopted which, whilst not meeting the same design criteria as the sorts
of formal barriers used in industrialised countries, can nevertheless be effective in preventing most crossover
accidents . These usually consist of a raised kerb of some kind, sufficient to define the centre line clearly and to
discourage crossing, but not so substantial as to cause serious damage if struck. If funds or equipment availability
constrain the use of purpose designed barriers then such an alternative may be an acceptable interim solution .
Concrete barriers have the advantage of being difficult

to remove and of less value if stolen than steel barriers .
Pre-cast concrete units can be joined together simply
to make temporary barriers which can be useful in urban
conditions . Here, impact speeds are likely to be lower,
thus permanence is less important for safety. Temporary
barriers, which can be moved, are useful to protect road
works and to define temporary layouts at junctions.
Reflective road studs along the centre-line, although

not a barrier, can be used to war motorists they are
straying over the centre-line .
Section 4.16 and 4.17 illustrate this topic in more detail .
Figure 8.15.2 Median barriers are effective where

head-on accidents are predominant m
Other relevant sections : 4.16, 4.17, 4.20, 4.32, 5 .7, 8.14, 8.18
Indian Codes: B23, C8
Key external references : A40, A41
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silcack

8.43
CHAPTER 8
8 .16 Delineators
Overview:
Delineation is intended to give drivers a clear indication of the road alignment for some distance ahead of them .
Delineators usually consist of either reflective road studs placed at the edge of the carriageway or, more fre-
quently, of lightweight posts about one metre high, set a metre or so from the edge of the carriageway, with a
reflective unit set near the top. They are particularly useful at night when equipped with reflectors, or if painted
with reflective paint.
An OECD report in 1975 suggested that delineator posts should meet the following requirements :
low cost, easy transport, easy maintenance, resistance to severe atmospheric conditions,
no safety hazard to road users and
4 no psychological obstacle to road users with regard to keeping the vehicle in a correct position near the
road edge .
Furthermore, they should be designed to ensure a width adequately visible at long distance, and a high enough
position so as not to be soiled by mud. Table 8.16.1 gives some general indications of spacings in a number of
industrialised countries when installed in general use along major highways .
Clear definition of the road ahead is an important contribution to road safety . In situations where accidents occur
because of unexpected road geometry or junctions, then edge of carriageway delineators should be used to
improve drivers' expectancy of the circumstances ahead. Delineators are especially useful at night when equipped
with reflectors or painted in reflective paint. Delineators should not be so substantial as to cause damage or
injury if struck by a vehicle. Care must betaken to ensure that they break off easily . Carriageway delineation can
also be achieved by road markings and reflectorised road studs placed at the edge of a carriageway . The spacing
of delineators should be carefully designed to give smooth continuous guidance at the speed of approaching
traffic.
Problems:
Although individual units are cheap, when installed in

thousands along an entire route the total cost becomes
substantial .
In some countries there is a tendency to make new

street furniture, including delineators, very substantial .
This is done to reduce the likelihood oftheft, and some-
times, to protect it from damage caused by being struck
by vehicles . With frequent, regularly spaced roadside
obstacles such as delineators, it is clearly counterpro-
ductive if these were to become accident hazards them-
selves when struck . Care must be taken to ensure that
they break off easily if struck by a vehicle.
Figure 8.16.1 Painted concrete posts as edge
In the commonly found situation where the edge of the delineators could cause serious damage or injnry
carriageway is crumbling, or poorly maintained, road if struck
stud type delineators cannot be used and post type
may be the only alternative .
CRRI,TRL Manual (or Safeq in Road Design

8.44
COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Practice :
It is not suggested that delineators be used along an entire route as a countermeasure, but that discrete sections
of mad which are known to be accident blackspots should be delineated. This is most likely to be effective on
bends and on the approaches to junctions, where it is particularly important to give clear indications of the
alignment ahead .
If loss of control is a prominent contributory factor in the accideat records, then advance warning of changes in
alignment, as provided by delineators, can be effective .
Delineation can be achieved by a variety of means in addition to delineator posts . Lane markings, painted kerbs
and reflectorised studs are in common use. Painted markings and reflectors are particularly useful on bends.
Road studs, however, require a good quality road surface to ensure a good bond between the stud and the
surface and regular and vigilant maintenance to replace any studs which have became loose . This is often
difficult to achieve when maintenance budgets are limited .
Low cost solutions are often appropriate and the use of white paint on trees as well as painted wooden or
bamboo posts can be effective .
Curve radious (m) Delineator spacing (m)

30 5
50 8
100 12
200 20
500 35
fable : &16 .1 Spacing of Delineators at Curves
Figure 8 .16.2 Flexible reflective deliuestor which returns to original

upright after being struck 0
Other relevant sections: 4.14, 4 .17, 8.12, 8 .14, 5.8, 8.9

Indian references: B23, CS
Key external referencesAl
Minisin- of Surface Transport Ross Silrock

8.45
8.17 Speed Reduction Devices
Overview :
Excessive speed and driver inattention are two of the most commonly occurring contributory factors in road
accidents . Reducing speeds, therefore, is Likely to offer substantial safety benefits. As discussed earlier, speed
Limits are widely abused in many countries and police have insufficient training, manpower and equipment to
enforce them.
This suggests that self-enforcing physical measures are necessary to encourage, or force, drivers m slow down .
A number of methods have been developed to achieve this and given in Roads and Traffic in Urban Areas UK (ref
43). Self-enforcing devices, such as speed breakers, are especially desirable in residential areas where enforcement
is limited and there is often widespread abuse of regulations.
Problems:
While the other methods are not commonly in use, the

concept of speed breakers seems to be accepted in
India. However, their design and construction is often
very poor resulting in them becoming ineffective or
dangerous . In many cases speed breakers are too short
and sharp and drivers, at the risk of serious damage m
their suspension systems, can drive over them fast with-
out experiencing discomfort . It is only the long, low
angle of elevation humps (Chapter 3 .10) which result in
progressively greater discomfort to drivers as vehicle
speeds increase . Such humps are more costly and'more
difficult to construct, but are the most effective in pre-
venting high speeds while also being one of the safest
devices .
Figure 8.17.1 Use of series of speed control humps
There are disadvantages to speed breakers such as an on a residential street fn Fame although road
increase in noise and ground vibration in buildings sited marking is Incorrect. m
close to a hump .
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8 .46
COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Practices:
Road humps are likely to be most useful in residential areas where pedestrian/vehicle conflicts occur, or to slow
down vehicles on long rural roads at points where they pass through isolated communities or trading centres. It
is important to indicate the transition from high speed roads to a low speed area by road narrowing, perhaps with
a hump. and then to continue the low speed treatment throughout the area . The presence of humps will slow
traffic and provide safer locations for pedestrians to cross . They may also be used on approaches to schools, to
slow traffic in the presence of children . ,
Physical measures such as speed breakers always require advance warning so that motorists are given ample
opportunity to slow down . Bar markings rely for their effect on the visual impression of speed given to drivers as
they pass over them . The closer spacing gives a greater impression of speed and produces a natural tendency
for drivers to slow. This is effective on the approaches to junctions on high speed dual carriageways where they
can be an effective countermeasure . Although producing only very slight reductions in vehicle speeds, they
serve as an alerting device and have been found to produce good reductions in accidents.
Rumble strips, jiggle bars and rumble areas adopt a similar principle to bar markings but provide a sound stimulus
to drivers. As the vehicle passes over the rougher texture, noise levels increase. The intermittent nature of
rumble strips alerts drivers and creates an impression of speed. If the texture is sufficiently rough, as with jiggle
bars . then vibration also occurs . which generally causes drivers to reduce speeds markedly . These methods are
most appropriate on the approaches to accident blackspois or settlements where high speed and drivers'
inattention have been found. Typical examples may be on the approach to a trading area on a major rural route,
or to a dangerous junction .
Speeds can also be reduced and pedestrian safety improved by making changes to the road alignment, for
example by narrowing or modifying junction layouts to slow traffic down and to reduce the width of road to be
crossed. Indeed. where fast relatively high volume roads pass through villages, these other speed reducing or
traffic calming devices like the lane narrowing and chicanes may be much more acceptable than road humps .
Other relevant sections : 3.10, 4.2, 4.28, 5.18, 3.10, 5.5, 7 .3, 4.24
Indian references : B28, B36, C8
Key external references : Al, All, A15, A19, A27, A28, A40, A41, A43
Minism. of Surface Transport Ross Silcock

8.47
CHAPTER 8
8.18 Limiting Access and Street Closures
Overview :
Limiting access by street closure is usually done for two rea-

sons . First is to limit the number of side roads joining a major
route, in orderto reinforce a road hierarchy and to concentrate
potentially dangerous turning movements at a single junction
which can then be properly designed for such movements.
The second reason is to reduce through traffic in a residential
area, by making the route into and through an area tortuous
and long . Only those requiring access will continue to enter.
These situations are predominantly urban, although there can

be examples of trading posts on major rural routes where a
number of direct access points occur at closely spaced inter-
vals . Such locations are often accident blackspots, due to
uncontrolled turning movements and pedestrian activity . By
closing most (or all but one) of the accesses, turning
movements can be concentrated at one point where other
measures can be applied to deal with them more safely . The
benefits and disbenefits of street closures are summarised
below.
Foo
Problems : Mbgbqp
The difficulties which might be caused by street closures are L.

shown below. Figure 8.1 & 1 Illustrations of types of street
closure m
~ Street closure at intersections. If a street is used by
significant volumes of non-local traffic its displacement
onto other streets and arterials may lead to congestion and controversy elsewhere and increased local
travel distance-
Mid-block street closure. This increases some local travel distances, interferes with service vehicles,
displaces traffic onto other streets and makes it difficult to provide turning space .
Diagonal closure of intersection . This causes extra local travel and problems with space if full width
pavements are taken around corners.
Half closure at intersection . This is not self-enforcing and is open to abuse .
Footway widening at intersection . This can cause some problems with space required for turns, if road-
width reduction is close to the junction .
CRRI,TRL Manual far Safety in Road Design

8.48
COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Practice:
Street closure is a predominantly urban countermeasure to remove through traffic from residential areas, thereby
reducing pedestrian-vehicle conflicts . it can also have similar effects to turning restrictions (see Section 8.19) by
eliminating turning movements . Because access needs must still be met, street closures can rarely be applied in
isolation and are usually part of a package of measures designed to serve a larger area. Can; must be taken to
ensure that displaced traffic does not generate greater problems elsewhere than its removal has solved.
The benefits of each type of closure are summarised below.
4 Street closure at intersection reduces the thirty-two conflicts and merges of an intersection down to only
nine, is self-enforcing, can be an opportunity for improving visual character of a street, provides a
positive means of clarifying network and directing vehicle paths, helps resolve priority at intersections
and reduces total non-local traffic in the vicinity.
Mid-block street closure provides a means of deterring all non-local traffic and an opportunity for
landscaping .
4 Diagonal closure of intersection allows control of traffic without complete restraint on movements,
reduces or eliminates conflicts, can be adapted for emergency vehicles, deters non-local traffic and can
provide safer pedestrian crossing opportunities.
Half-closure at intersection can greatly reduce conflicts, enables control without full restrictions, reduces
through traffic and offers opportunities for landscaping.
4 Footway widening at intersection provides protection for parked vehicles, emphasises minor street role
and character and reduces width to be crossed by pedestrians.
Figure 8.18.2 Physical barrier to prevent vehicle

access can create safer pedestrian environment
The various options available have different benefits and disbenefits and final selection will depend upon the
particular characteristics of the area and the specific site concerned.
Other relevant sections : 4.24, 7 .3, 8.19, 8.15, 4.30, 5.3, 4.11
Indian references : C27
Key external references : Al, A6
Minism of Surface Zranspon Ross Silcock

8.49
CHAPTER8
8.19 Banning Turns and Cross Movements
Overview :
One possible way of reducing accidents where one particular turning movement is prevalent in the accident
records is simply to ban that turn at the junction and/or to relocate it to a safer location . The most common
restriction is 'no right turn' . as turns across on-coming traffic on the priority route, or turns out of a minor road
which cross busy traffic. are amongst the most dangerous manoeuvres .
Concentrating turns at one location wnere adequate turning facilities can be provided is generally safer than
dispersed turning movements all along a street .
At traffic signals it may be necessary- to ban turns so that pedestrians man cross safely . especially if there is not
sufficient time in the signal cycle for them to have a protected phase. Turn bans can be introduced by signs. or
with physical barriers of some kind .. To be effective they must either be self-enforcing . b% the use of physical
barriers . or be subject to active. high profile-enforcement by the police . The banned manoeuvres will, of course-
be displaced to elsewhere in the network . A package of measures must be introduced to cater for these safely to
ensure that the problem is not simply transferred elsewhere. Generally banning turns at locations where they are
undesirable and/or unsafe should be ahvays accompanied by Provision for such displaced nu,vemems at ail
alternative location nearby where such movements can be made insatet\ and without impeding other trafti : .
Problems :
Turn bans can lead to a number of problems :
" Turns banned by signing also affect legitimate local traffic. They are not self-enforcing and. if not oheyed .
could encourage abuse of turn bans elsewhere . The need for policing can make control of turns by signs
alone an unreliable means of local traffic control.
" Turns banned by physical barriers may not always be possible as roadspace may be inadequate . and
smaller installations may present visibility problems . It also may not be possible to control'left in' or'left
out movements .
Figure 8.19.1 Banned right turn reinforced by splitter

island, though insufficiently long to discourage
infringements, Malaysia 0
CRRLTRL Manual,lor Safen in Road Design

8.50
COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Practice:
The use of turn bans as an accident countermeasure is clearly directed at situations where turning traffic is
involved in a disproportionate number of accidents relative to the respective traffic volumes, or where a turn is
inherently dangerous, for example due to restricted visibility. In addition to particular problem junctions, turn
bans can be applied more comprehensively to concentrate turning movements at a few locations where facilities
such as signals or roundabouts can be installed to make them safer. Care must be taken to ensure that compliance
is high - eitbw by adequate enforcement or by the use of self-enforcing restrictions.
A particularly useful form of turn ban at minor junctions, can be achieved by a median barrier on the main road or
even a long refuge across the mouth of the junction . Traffic to/from the side roads cannot then cross or turn
through the main road traffic . This reduces the number of conflicts involving crossing vehicles and pedestrians .
It may, however, require U-rum facilities to be provided further along the route if other access routes are not
available:
" 1Srrn bans by signing if observed, could limit entry of non-local traffic and reduce interference to the
major traffic stream . They require lower capital cost than closure or half-closure of a road but could have
adverse effects on local residents.
" Turn restrictions by physical barriers are relatively low cost (various treatments possible such as
extending traffic islands). These can significantly reduce non-local traffic with only moderate interference
to local movement and can also be used to eliminate straight-across movements at minor/majorintersecdons.
They can be made mountable by emergency vehicles and are generally acceptable to residents .
Figure 8.19.2 Clamm of right-turning lane due to safety problems

with this manoeuvre, the right-turn in and left-merge still being
pemiaed,Karnataka m
Other relevant sections: 6.8.7, 6.8.10

Indian references : B35, B38
Key external references: AI, A41
Ministry af Surface Transport Rass Silcock

8.51
8.20 Countermeasures for Pedestrian Accidents
Introduction
All road users are pedestrians for one or more stages of

every journey even if it is just a short walk from office to
car park . Shorter journeys are more likely to be made on
foot; even in the UK, with relatively high car ownership,
over 60 per cent ofjourneys under 1 .5 km long are made
solely on foot . In urban areas in the UK about one-third
of all journeys are made entirely on foot . In India walking
is even more important as a mode of transport, both in
terms of the number and length of journeys made on
foot, yet facilities for pedestrians are often sadly lacking.
Pedestrians, particularly the young and elderly, are the Figure 8.20 .1 An example of subway designed for
most vulnerable group of road users. They do not have combined use of vulnerable road users in Pune. 0
the protection of a vehicle's bodywork to keep them from
injury in a minor collision. Indeed it is that very same
metal bodywork which protects a car driver that may kill a pedestrian . Because they are unprotected it is essential
to consider pedestrians' needs within the transport system and to give them greater consideration than other
road users. In an accident, pedestrians are much more likely to be injured or killed.
European experience in new towns has shown that segregation of pedestrian and vehicular traffic by creating
separate networks for each can bring about very significant improvements in pedestrian safety. Unfortunately,
apart from in new developments, extensive segregation is seldom likely to be economically feasible . Alternative
methods need to be found to improve pedestrian safety on existing networks . Industrialised countries have
developed a number of ways of achieving improved pedestrian safety, some of which are discussed in the
following Sections .
The great majority of pedestrian movement is local in nature . It takes place on footways adjacent to carriageways
or on the edge of the carriageway . It therefore follows that the problem of pedesirian/veMcle conflict must be an
important consideration in highway design and traffic management. Attention needs to be paid to minimising
conflicts and providing facilities for pedestrians which are safe, convenient and pleasant to use.
Pedestrian activities range from trips concerned only with direct travel between two points to those which have
a more diverse or recreational character. In some areas footways are also used for play, market areas or places
where people congregate and talk . All of these aspects should be considered in the design of pedestrian
facilities .
Footways in India are often obstructed by hawkers' stalls, commercial activities, parked cars, and even low bars
intended to prevent parking . Action can be taken to clear the footways through enforcement or by better
engineering (i .e . high kerbs or poles at the pavement edge to prevent encroachment by parked cars). Where
pedestrian flows are heavy and the footway is too narrow, widening should be considered . The introduction of .
small kerb radii at junctions to slow turning traffic, can also help pedestrians cross the mouths of side roads more
easily by slowing traffic and reducing the road distance pedestrians are exposed to traffic. There may even be
benefits in continuing the footway of the main road across the side roads to create "raised crossovers" . This
enables pedestrians to proceed on the level while drivers have to manoeuvre slowly over the raised crosswalk.
CRRI,TRL Manualfor Safery in Road Design

8.52
COUNTERMEASURES
To encourage usage, footways need to be reasonably even and well drained . Vegetation should not be allowed
to obstruct the footway. When construction work is in progress alternative temporary arrangements must be
made for pedestrians displaced from the footway by building works.
When pedestrians are involved in a substantial proportion of accidents at a particular site their needs must be
considered carefully in the design and selection of countermeasures. Where possible, measures which segregate
vehicles and pedestrians should be used . A selection of these are discussed in subsequent sections . pedestrian
facilities in terms of design of footways have been described earlier in this Manual . The countermeasures
described in this section relate more to protecting pedestrians with fences or barriers and to facilities which make
crossing the road safer.
Figure 8.20.2 Wide footpaths help pedestrians and hence road safety:
Other relevant sections :

Indian relbrettces:
Key-extersalreferences:

8 .53
CHAPTER8
8.21 Pedestrian Crossings
Overview :
Pedestrian crossings are a common feature in many cities . When located and used correctly they can be effective
in reducing pedestrian/vehicle conflicts. Pedestrians usually tend to take the shortest routes between any two
points . If using a crossing imposes much additional walking distance, then there will be a marked reluctance to
use it . Great care is needed, therefore, in siting pedestrian crossings so that use is maximised and so that they are
clearly visible to drivers. Ii may be desirable to use guard railings to channel pedestrians onto the crossing .
The principle of a pedestrian crossing is that pedestrians are given priority over vehicular traffic for part of the
time, either by using traffic signals to stop traffic or by a general rule which requires vehicles to stop if a
pedestrian is at a designated crossing point .
Warrants for the installation of crossings vary from country to country, generally based upon pedestrian and
vehicle flows along with an assessment of factors such as difficulty in crossing, vehicle delay and costs.
Pedestrian crossings can be considered as countermeasures in locations where the level of pedestrian/vehicle
conflict is high, and there is a clearly identified crossing movement.
Problems :
Crossings based on priority rules rather than signals

demand a degree of driver compliance that is rarely
found in busy cities, especially in India. Many such
crossings are not well marked in any case so drivers
often have little warning that they are at a crossing .
However, even when well marked, it is rare that drivers
will actually stop for pedestrians on the crossing .
In many countries it is an offence for pedestrians to

cross the road away from a crossing, but such rules are
often widely disregarded and rarely enforced. Pedes-
uian crossings on high-speed roads can lead to rear
end collisions if drivers are not given sufficient ad-
vance warning.
Pelican (light controlled) crossings are expensive to

install and require a reliable electricity supply and regu-
lar maintenance checks . Figure 8.21 .1 Non-compliance by drivers at zebra
crossings on intersections in Hyberabad. p
Safer Practice :
Zebra crossings (black and white stripes painted on the road) can be provided at relatively low cost but are
unsuitable where traffic is heavy and fast moving . Pedestrians wishing to cross find it difficult to judge the
speeds and stopping distances of approaching vehicles . Where driver compliance is low and vehicle speeds are
high, pedestrian crossings can be amalgamated with road humps to give a raised pedestrian crossing (80-100 nun
high) . These are very effective but must be clearly marked and require considerable advance warning.
CRRI,TRL Manual for Safer), in Road Design

8.54
COUNTERMEASURES
Pelican crossings are more appropriate than zebra

crossings in the following situations :
" Where there are significant numbers of elderly

and infirm pedestrians ;
" At sites with high approach speeds ;
" Where pedestrian flow is heavy and a pelican

will prevent pedestrians establishing a
continuous flow on the crossing;
" At special sites such as contra-flow bus lanes;

and
" In areas operating under urban traffic control,

as pelican crossings can be linked with traffic
signals. Figure &21.2 UK warrants for pedestrian crossing
facilities
On dual carriageways and on single carriageways more
than 15.0 m wide, pelican crossings should be of the
staggered type of layout which operates as two separate crossings so that pedestrians stepping onto the road
from rte refuge turn to face the approaching traffic before they cross the road (i .e . the left right stagger) . The
central storage area should be large enough to accommodate the expected numbers of pedestrians gathered
during each signal cycle.
Pelican crossings are signed controlled pedestrian crossings where the pedestrian phase is called by the
pedestrian (through the use of a push button) . They are used on links where pedestrian and traffic volume are
high.
Figure 8.12.3 UK practice for pelican crossings illustrating UK road marking practice
Other relevant sections: 4.21, 5.10, 8.20 .3, 4.24, 7 .3, 5.5
Indian references: B29, B34, B37, C15, C20
Key external references : Al, A39, A40
Ministry of Surface Transport, Ross Silcock

8.55
8 .22 Pedestrian Refuges
Overview :
Pedestrian refuges (or traffic islands) are one of the most helpful and generally one of the least costly type of
crossing aid for pedestrians . They clearly divide the two traffic streams and permit pedestrians to concentrate on
crossing one stream of traffic at a time, by creating a relatively safe waiting area, usually in the centre of the
carriageway.
The reduced width of carriageway resulting from installing a refuge can reduce vehicle speeds, but sufficient
width is still needed to permit safe passage of the largest vehicles likely to use the road . A series of refuges along
a residential street can be effective in reducing the apparent image of a through route. They also offer frequent
crossing opportunities .
Junction channelisation schemes often create pedestrian refuges from the islands constructed to direct traffic.
Thus injunctions, pedestrians are given facilities to help them cross, at the same time as assistance is being given
to traffic. Even a simple `splinter island' at the mouth of a junction can be inexpensive yet effective in this way.
Problems :
In industrialised countries refuges carry an internally

illuminated bollard, and they are normally only installed
on streets which are lit at night. This is not always a
practical possibility in developing countries. It is
therefore essential that they are prominently painted
with reflective paint and that such markings are kept in
good condition. An unmarked, unlit raised island in
the centre of the road could become an additional
hazard, especially at night, for the unwary driver.
If refuges are sited too far away from junctions they

will not be effective because pedestrians will continue
to cross at the junction rather than walk the extra
distance involved.
Refuges should not be sited directly opposite bus Figure 8.22.1 Absence of pedestrian refuges pose
stops because they can p revent other vehicles in the crossing problems for pedestrians at intersections
traffic stream from overtaking a stationary bus or may in Tamil Na du. LIJ
create a condition where vehicles attempting to overtake
a bus collide with the refuge itself. Parking near pedestrian refuges can also cause problems by masking pedestrians
from approaching vehicles .
CRRI,TRL Manualfor Safety, in Road Design

8 .56
COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Practice:
Refuges are often appropriate at sites where pedestrian

crossing movements are concentrated but are
insufficient in number to justify a more formal crossing .
However, they are also beneficial where there is a zebra
or signal controlled crossing. Where movements are
less concentrated, pedestrians sometimes cross near
to a refuge using the space between traffic streams as a
`shadow' refuge .
Wide, multi-lane roads are especially difficult to cross

safely . The provision of a central refuge, to allow each
direction of flow to be crossed separately, can be
beneficial in these circumstances .
At priority junctions, the provision of traffic islands

which serve as refuges will helP P e destrians to cross
Figure 8.22.2 Provision of central refuge and if
the minor road or the major road if there is an established
correctly used helps pedestrians to cross wide roads
need for a crossing point.
on Durgapur expressway near Calcutta.
Refuges are often beneficial on local distributors acting as bus routes, especially where crossing movements are
drawn to a particular location near local shops or a bus stop . Refuges are particularly valuable where a crossing
cannot be justified by the numerical criteria normally used for controlled crossings (see 8 .20.2, B29) .
The width of refuges should generally be at least 1 .8 metres or more. In exceptional circumstances, a width of 1 .2
metres can be provided to ensure that protruding wing mirrors from trucks and buses do not injure pedestrians
standing on the refuge island.
Refuges must be prominently marked ideally with reflective paint on the vertical kerb edges which should be kept
in good condition and should ideally have an internally illuminated bollard (ref B33) .
Other relevant sections : 5.10, 8.9, 8.20.2, 8.20.4, 7.3, 7.5

Indian references : B29, B33, B34, B37
Key external references: Al, A39, A40, A43, A25
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silrock

8 .57
8.23 Pedestrian Barriers and Fences
Overview:
In some situations where pedestrian accidents are prevalent, it may be necessary to restrict the opportunities for
pedestrians to cross the road by the use of physical barriers . Fences can be used to channel pedestrians onto a
crossing and away from dangerous sites. They may also be appropriate in the area immediately adjacent to a
crossing in order to prevent pedestrians from crossing the road near to, but not on, the crossing .
Fences should be set back (normally 500 mm) from the kerb to give adequate clearance for passing vehicles but
must leave sufficient room (at least 1 .5 m) on the footway for pedestrians perhaps carrying heavy loads . Specially
designed fences which do not obstruct vision from the nearside approach direction are available and can be used
wherever visibility is important (e. g. adjacent to junctions or pedestrian crossings). This type of fence is however,
considerably more expensive than conventional fences .
Where barriers are used at bus stops, access to the carriageway will be necessary, but the fence should be
continued along the queuing area. It is sometimes necessary to leave gaps in the railings to accommodate trees
or street furniture but it may be preferable to resite the obstruction .
Whilst some fit, young people will always elect to climb over the barriers, they are usually effective in channelising
the great majority of pedestrians along the footway towards a crossing facility .
Problems :
Where no pedestrian barriers have been erected pe-

destrians will choose to cross at any point along a
length of road rather than be channelled to specially
provided crossings where the risk of accident should
be lower.
A fence at the kerbside inhibits access and causes prob-

lems with loading and unloading. If openings are cre-
ated they are often left open for long periods, thus
removing the continuous protection that the barrier
should provide. Parking should not be allowed adjacent
to fences, as this prevents safe access from the vehicle
to the footway . This conflict is not serious in practice,
as situations which demand fences are also likely to be
those where parking should, in any case, be controlled.
Figure 8.23.1 Lack of defined footpaths and safety

Widening of the vement ma sometimes be necessary
Y fencing on rural road in West Bengal
before fences can be erected. The main disadvantage
of fences, apart from their obtrusive appearance and
their cost, is that they prevent pedestrians from crossing a road wherever they wish and may require them to walk
considerably further to cross the road . Their excessive use can encourage pedestrians to climb over-or through
the fencing and make diagonal crossings.
CRRI,TRL Manual for Safes, in Road Design

8.58
COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Pracdce:
Fences can be used to alter patterns of pedestrian movement as part of any road safety measure . They can be
used in short lengths in front of school entrances, recreation grounds and footpaths to prevent children running
straight onto the carriageway. Asymmetric or off-centre positioning can deflect merging pedestrians and encourage
them to face on-coming traffic before crossing the road. At busy locations, such as congested intersections and
railway or bus stations, fences can be used to keep pedestrians off the carriageway.
Their use should normally be confined to district and primary distributor roads. Only at intersections and other
particularly hazardous locations are they appropriate on local distributor and access roads. The deterrent value
of fences to discourage illegal or obstructive parking could be an additional consideration at critical locations.
Nevertheless, the pedestrian movement desire lines should be taken into account in the location of pedestrians
barriers and fences . However, pointed and sharp objects should never be used in fencing as it could lead to
serious injuries in case of accidents or attempts to jump over them .
Fences should be difficult to climb, with a top rail about 1 mabove footway level. They are more difficult to climb
if there are no flat rails more than 100 nun above the footway. Fences should be sufficiently robust to deter theft
and to withstand slow speed impacts. It is preferable to use galvanised material to reduce corrosion and mainte-
nance costs.
Figure 8.23.3 Pedestrian barrier with swivel

top rail malting it extremely dittlcult to
climb over, Colombia m
Other relevant sections: 4.19, 4.20, 4.21, 5.10, 7.3

Indian references: B29, C8
Key external references: A39, A40, A43
Ministry of SwfacrMvnsport Ross Silcock

8.59
CHAPTER 8
8.24 Pedestrian Footbridges and Underpasses
Overview :
In urban situations where pedestrian flows are high and traffic conditions are such that stopping traffic by means
of signals would lead to added congestion and/or risk of accidents due to high speeds, it may be appropriate to
provide grade separation of pedestrians and vehicles . There are also some circumstances away from congested
urban areas where grade separation may be appropriate, such as on fast, primary routes where signal control may
be inappropriate or potentially hazardous.
Subways require less vertical separation and thus fewer steps. The initial movement for a subway is downwards
and easy . However, the choice of footbridge or subway is dependent on local conditions such as topography or
level difference and must also reflect cost considerations .
Problems :
Footbridges and underpasses are costly and their in-

stallation should always be subject to rigorous eco-
nomic evaluation . It is also the case that pedestrians
will often avoid using them. especially if substantial
differences in elevation are involved, implying many
steps to climb. Also, concern is often expressed
regarding public safety in underpasses . If they are not
well-lit and patrolled, they may provide a focus for
criminal activities .
Maintenance, or lack of it, can also create difficulties .

Footbridges require painting and structural mainte-
nance if they are not to become unsafe . Subways can
soon become dirty, unpleasant locations if not regularly
cleaned. Particularly in monsoon climates, they are li-
able to flooding if not well-designed with adequately
maintained drainage . In urban situations it may become Figure 8.24.1 Intersection blight: multiplicity of
a spot for vandalism. traffic control devices. Lack of pedestrian
footbridges and underpassess posing problems for
A further problem is that any concentration of pedes- pedestrians in Calcutta
trians is an attractive location for street traders seeking
to sell their goods. Footbridges and subways often become crowded and congested with traders, making their
use difficult, thereby reducing their effectiveness . If pedestrians cannot use them easily, then they become more
likely to try to cross the road at surface level .
CRRI,TRL_- Manual for Safety in Road -segn

8 .60
COUNTERMEASURES
Safer Practice :
Because of the high cost of construction . footbridges or underpasses are only likely to be appropriate in very
special circumstances where high pedestrian volumes require to cross busy roads. These are likely to be
generally used if the waiting time to cross at-grade is more than the use of pedestrian subway or overbridge . Such
circumstances can occur in congested town centres, or occasionally in suburban or even rural trading centres
where ribbon development along each side of a major route has resulted in excessive vehicle/pedestrian conflict .
There may also be circumstances in which a pedestrian subway or bridge can be used by cyclists as well as
pedestrians . This could improve the economic case for construction, although the shallow approach ramps
needed for cyclists are likely to increase the cost and require additional land . In urban situations, especially in
CBDs, this land is unlikely to be available. A wheeling strip at the edge of the steps is sometimes an acceptable
alternative .
Footbridges and subways should be located as closely as possible to the maximum pedestrian movements. They
should make best use of any topographic features to minimise the effort involved in their use.
It is usually necessary for fences to be installed on the approaches to footbridges and subways. to channel
pedestrian flows onto them and to inhibit crossing the carriageway at surface level.
It is desirable that footbridges are provided with roofs to protect pedestrians from the sun and rain . and which
may encourage use of the bridge .
The subway should be well lit and dry. Some shops may be permitted to avert vandalism.
Figure 8.24.2 Because of their height, pedestrians in Figure 8.24.3 Shared pedestrian and cycle
Delhi are generally discouraged from using bridge, ie using ramp rather than steps,
overbridges . 53 Colombia m
Other relevant sections: 5.10, 7.3, 7.5, 8.20.3, 8 :20.4

Indian references: C15, C20
Key external references: A3, A25, A39
Ministry of Surface Transport R'CMilcock

8.61
8.25 Checklist for Countermeasures
1. Do you have access to accident data? If not can you get access to data through Traffic Police either
from Police HQ or via the interim arrangements as suggested in section 8 .2.
2 Does your accident data system record or can you get information on
a) details of all injury accidents?

b) detailed accident locations?
c) site details of accident locations?
3. Is your accident data system computerised?
4. Do you have staff whose primary task is to deal with road safety matters on your road network and to
carry out road safety improvements at accident blackspots? If not designate someone for this task.
5. Do you identify blackspots on the basis of accident data? If not identify worstplaces from
discussions with Police and field engineers .
6. Can you identify precisely the 10 worst accident blackspot locations (in terms of persons killed or
injured) on your road network?
7. Do you carry out site visits to blackspots and collect detailed site information? If not do so.
8. Do your site visits include walking/cycling/driving through the site from all directions at times when
accidents most frequently occur? If not do so:
9. Do site visits take place at times and in weather/lighting conditions when accidents occur? If not do so.
10. **Do you have access to detailed police reports for accidents at blackspots? If not arrange to do so as
suggested under interim arrangements in section 8.2.
11 . Do you prepare collision diagrams for accident blackspots? If not do so.
12 Do you analyse accident data to produce . accident grids and stick diagrams from which dominant
accident types are identified? If not do so.
13. Do you check with historical records whether identified accident types may be related to any changes
which have occurred at the site? If not do so.
14. Do you select countermeasures in response to identified problems? If not do so.
15. Do you identify and evaluate a range of possible countermeasures in the light of local experience? If
not do so.
16. Do you implement schemes on an experimental basis initially using temporary materials? If not do so.
17. Do you monitor the effects of your countermeasures in terms of
a) accidents?
b) road user behaviour?
18. **Do you produce an annual report recording the worst locations on your network, the road safety
activities undertaken, the sites treated and the expenditure incurred? Copy should be sent to MOST or
relevant roads authority.
"Particularly important on rural roads .
CRRI,TRL ManualforSafey in Road Design

8.62
TECIllVICALANNEXES
TECHNICAL ANNEXES
MTra&Cknorg
4.1 CombmationotHaimonhalaWVertiMCurves
4a OvmIahglanes,Gradients;CknnbinglanesaWFsWIanes
a13 RoWSi@SaWMarhp
4i3 Drainage
4S SafetyFenoes &rriersaWMedian&rrim
UPOMMTolerant"ants
S1 Priorilyiuncdom
52Roundabouls
S3 signwConhu4mJunch"
SAJunctionsSigasandMnd&V
6,1 TypWTernuofPc*rmoefiorrSaf4AuditsonNationalaWShaleffq&ways
81 AcMentDahaFonm
Minisigwj Surface Transport Ross Silcock

TECHNICAL ANNEXES 1
TECHNICALANNEXES
Technical Annex 3.1
Traffic Calming
This technical annex on traffic calming contains a basic glossary of terns to assist engineers. Additionally there
area number of sketches of schemes implemented in the UK and described in more detail in reference A59 . They
illustrate for rural, village, residential and urban areas the type of schemes currently being adopted in the UK.
Basic dimensions are indicated but they should be amended as necessary for Indian conditions. Figures indicate :
gateways, pinch points, speed cushion with pinch points, route scheme and area scheme. Some schemes
include more than one measure .
A further section shows some conceptual schemes developed for Indian conditions in reference C27 . These
should be considered by engineers and adapted for local conditions.
Final section illustrates a possible gateway, service road and parking scheme for a village entry on a national
highway in Vietnam (right hand drive) which could be adapted for India.
GIASSARYOFTRAFFICCALMINGTERMS
A range ojd~erent terms is in use to describe the same types ojtraffic calming measures. This glossary briefly
defines some common terms.
Chicane : A form of Horizontal Deflection, using Narrowing formed by building out the kerbline, usually on
alternate sides of the road to break up long straight stretches . The chicanes may be located so that, with priority
signing, traffic is restricted to one way working . Two way working can also be retained in certain situations .
Chicane layouts formed by Build Outs on one side only can also be devised either for one way or two way traffic
depending on circumstances . By alternating parking areas from side to side of road a form of chicane can be
produced, but only when cars are actually parked.
Cycle slip: Dedicated cycle lanes or `bypasses' at Pinch Points, Gateways, Chicanes and where possible at
Road Humps. They are important to ease the passage of cyclists .
Flat top road humps : The basic Flat Top Road Hump will have tapered sides. Height 50mm minimum to 100 mm
maximum . Length of flat top 2.5 m minimum . Ramp gradient 1 :6 maximum ; however 1 :13 or flatter is becoming
more common if humps have to be used on bus routes.
Gateway: Features provided, usually with Vertical Elements, to indicate to drivers where the character of a road
changes. They can beat the start of a traffic calming scheme or on the entry to a village or rural settlement . Can
be in combination with other measures such as Rumble Devices, Pinch Points, Signs and Markings.
Horizontal Deflection : General term for any measure that alters the horizontal alignment of the carriageway over
a short distance .
Island : These are not pedestrian Refuges but physical islands without pedestrian facilities to assist in speed
reduction by requiring vehicles to deflect from a straight path or by narrowing the carriageway. False roundabouts
where no side road connections exist are one example . Islands can be incorporated at some Gateway sites.
Overrun Areas can be incorporated.
Junction Platform : See Raised Junctions .

Mini Roundabout: Conventional mini roundabouts . Used at the start of, or within, a traffic calming scheme.
Narrowing: Restricting the width of available road space by physical measures such as Build Outs, Pinch
Points and Islands or Refuges. Also by edge markings or centre hatching, colour or texture change to give
drivers a strong visual impression of reduced width. A narrowing may be located so that, with priority signing,
traffic is restricted to one way working.
Overrun Area: Area constructed by slightly raising the surface. Usually constructed in contrasting materials,
to give the appearance of a narrower carriageway thereby inhibiting speeds . Larger vehicles can overrun these
areas if necessary . Care in location and design is needed to deal with cycle and other two wheel traffic movements.
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Sitcock

TECHNICAL ANNEXES 3
TECHNICALANNEXES
Pinch Point A Narrowing formed by Build Outs opposite one another. Can be used in combination with
Gateways and Speed Cushions.
Plateau : For the purpose of this publication, a type of Fiat Top Road Hump with a flat top length of more than
6 .0 m heights and ramps similar to Speed Tables.
Platform : Some authorities refer to extended Flat Top Road Humps as Platforms rather than as Speed Tables or
Plateaus.
Protected Parking: Linear parking areas formed at the sides of roads by Build Outs which may be part of a
Chicane system .
Raised Junction The use of Flat Top RoacIHumps to raise whole junction areas. Also called `Junction Platforms'.
Maybe combined with a mini-roundabout but there is a requirement for a Speed Reducing Measure in advance
of the raised area.
Refuge : As with Islands can be used to visually break up long straights, but provided for use by pedestrians.
Road Hump : Two basic types are recognised Round Top and Flat Top. The latter are also described as Speed
Tables, Plateaus and Platforms, they may be combined with Horizontal Defections to permit single or two way
traffic flow and may incorporate pedestrian crossings (Zebra or Pelican) . Raised Junctions, Platform Junctions
and raised Entry Treatments at junctions are all forms of Flat Top Road Hump . All road humps must be
preceeded by a Speed Reducing Measure.
Round Top Road Hump : With or without tapered sides (i .e . can be kerb to kerb); height 50mm minimum to 100 mm
maximum; length 3.7 m
Rumble Device : Measures that do not normally reduce traffic speeds in themselves, but which produce audible
and vibratory effects to alert drivers to take greater care. Also called'Rumble Strips', 'Rumble Areas' or `Jiggle
Bars' depending on layout and construction. Formed by a sequence of transverse strips laid across a carriageway,
or areas ofcoarse surface dressing. Maximum permitted height of 15 mm provided no vertical face exceeds 6 mm.
These measures are not normally acceptable in residential areas because of the associated noise .
Signs and Markings: For the purposes of this publication the terms refer to Signs and Markings used specifically
with the aim of maintaining lower speeds, such as edge marking or centre hatching for carriageway Narrowing.
Speed Cushion: A Roundor Flat Top Road Hump having a width less than the wheeltrack of a conventional bus
but greater than an average car's wheeltrack. Can be used singly, in pairs or threes across the carriageway to
suit circumstances .
Speed Reducing Measures : These include physical features that drivers normally expect to encounter such as
certain types of junction, roundabouts and specific degrees of bend which slow speeds down before drivers
encounter a traffic calming measure. TrafficcaLmingmeasuresgenerallyalsoreducespeedsbutareformaintaining,
not initiating, lower speeds .
Speed Table: For the purpose of this manual, a type of Flat Top Road Hump with a flat top length of between 2 .5
m (the minimum) and 6.0 m Height 50mm minimum to 100 mm maximum. A possible standard is a flat top length
of 6.0 m with a height of 75 mm and ramp gradients between 1 :10 and 1 :15 .
Thump: For the purpose of this manual these are mini-humps with a height greater than a Rumble Device but
less than a Road Hump.
Vertical Deflection : General term for any measure that alters the vertical profile ofthe carriageway over a short
distance .
Vertical Element: Vertical features such as signs, bollards, lighting columns, poles, trees that emphasise a
change in road character at a Gateway or other traffic calming measure .
CRRI TRL Manualfor Safety in Road Design

TECHNICAL ANNEXES 4
Extracts from UK Practice
(References A59)

TECHNICAL ANNEXES 5
TECHNIMLANNEXES
Technical Data:
Loealtan T".I RVrol far lane road.
mph .
Head Typo caw iy..J LIMO Rurel'A' cleric road aewlboY mule : 60
Lasph of Ileharwa i . Tosab 2 .5lcs.
Ylalaim .los l East bound widths: LycAe isne 1 .5 m .
Traffic lane eesl bound 3.5 m .
Wdah of halehed eroe wlih batik I.Iards 2.0 m.
West bound widths: Traffic lens 3.5 m.
C,FIe lane west bound 1.5 m.
V.br.Me mefkln9,'keep I IT shows .

mq..e
Llalrtiws R.~Q. beacons molmled do islands .
KER
t00n1m WHITE LINE
1~ V19RAUNE~
ROAD STUD
2 WAY
e.M WlSdnm DIAG . 100.~~ f

r,
6.5m X 2
.0m REFUGE ISLAND
KER9
SECTION OF ROAD MARKINGS

TYPICAL
SCALE 100
Teohnioa~ Oatae
L... How TERO mnec. .aprb.~h...
wage TER . .r.a A. . .a u.eu : .1W a . ..uied- 30-,h .
a.h .a.eTVR.1 G.teway.ro .nllaye.with ..Lednvl.ny..
L..ath .' So ..1. Tartar Al .nV.n.to ...h
pbr...ralan .l WidMOrc.rrla9awey :6 .50m
Wimn aL n.ronmp . 1 . do m
T.pelorke~une( .nb.nc.l rid .
Tsher w kelakr. Imao : 1 :10.
W IM .In W&O: E .,ineellnp rod . .1m mans wnwme.
KeIbB : TrMLYE. .
Sill-' Illuninsled .nn "lmw beck9r., asss 1 flni .h .

ale- Onps 7AL 1 . 575. 569d, 1013.1 end TWO 1969 Reo . Discs 1 and 2.
LIahl :a0 E.landed in .om. Sew. p en .ure paod 14aminetlm of 1. -.ill
Cent. C20,0
.V Irbm 7~nlb Calming b.dpM . [30.003 ft- Lmel SaWly Schemes aedpeL Toul d50.Q'k7.

TECHNICAL ANNEXES 6
TECHNICALANNEXES
Technical Data:
RWTywaasspaas~UhaiwphalGel ~Tywaaa4aa"Iisb10haplalw"tQ
WOOL maOk atlaldYyaktEba
IOmpkmr
~Vl7a1 9aa41tnalaw . . Wthh1a14
.IanairMeRilalpw WarTfaa 0/aliuLawwipa1Was
LaaaM N NM rbTNY 1kIL .rNb1-~WgA~Y
4MMaIMrwabTa1a1122bh
pyllaWpla IYIgf IS mnMVh:2.1m.
L.qh 4 . sh .alWaaa IyVe66na1Yyllpaas .~
RappNaa.1 Y.10. WMC 1 m.lmph a .
OilWpakamFap4W:VUW. gapyaa11t11a1Q
na.neu MaarMmgc ReErpWl. 'R

tIpItYMaWtalWalklalalMh W1a1Wa PYIeaarMParoaM
ItwW: Cmrala. Kahn Cwlalla
9apMikaa:BOYd1WYh swalkaNico W lWYhlat.
Iat.IaML1A4 atllpa Mlsdiw n6WYY 41t.
ih111a1 lb1a, slaw Ka ..
(2) Queen Elizabeth Road
Technical Data:
L .Catlaa t/pat VMS" .
:
.L337
War Typo a pw ~ P1kldpal .Mwl~, ~ auroh .
teMwa T~1 Puw1 wxo-akpla ~ Wvkyp Wh atalweq G~ly ~ WpY1p a hrlaw .
Lawth w falaaa b T~ 1 ~
ONW.aaNaa R~uM~ayWldhal~:12m .
Lpglh dhemp: a m(avL
Yatwlala PyM1 Pte: ~ canes ka.hkjp Was ~ M ~'ah+ WW mrWp 1n ullapw'H.
ftw.tsawhw.l PWtclwClwkalwlWOarMmralsPhnwWlv .
star. Pd" eal,dWlh .awa.wy.pVnYnaled.
at .~a pl.h p.tnt
D"-
t
!mute al" suns p1.t

TECHNICAL ANNEXES 7
TECHNICALANNEXE-r
Technical Data
L~ .DowWeer R..id.naalarse.
ae.e eypa .. .a chew LAmsn urban wwesar.d : 30 mph.
Sam. 7Yp.r CMca,we. I.Mered p.ddnp, rstuge iaand. end nlinl raund lXhA
Lo ." of Son.. In ritar 700 m.
Dpnonaten.r No wrpcsl .r .. But .brblin.1. Win a chlcane .1 W m intervals .
ttat .Het .: Bole out reef : Precast Cenwere kerb. with grey black Pining.
Rely islands erd oyanun area : Red bk+ck Paving-
Stwel IurWhim: ~namh, bollards with whit. NerrrWleslic and
a~ied balwbni on tap section e< bollards.
Sterna : Nerve.
uaha .o ; upgraded to high prsssure sodium as Part a rnan~e aptreme.
Gene ral Layout Plan
~~ lalend
~t chat ~ .
Technical Data:
Locati .nTyp.t Residential .
Read Type arms Spend Limlh WW road network local distribiAM W mph .
$cheose Typs : Chicanes. refuges.
Length of Scheme In Total: 1 .1 km-
DInMnelons: Central islands approximately 5 m in length, 1 .2 m wide.
Angle ct Island yarles with hoed widen .
Law width : 3 .1 m ro 3.2 m at chkanes, 3 m on straight .
Materials : Kerbing :Precast concrete .
Pawrs : Concrete block, bolt
Planters : Brick - BIOOWey X-mikture wire-cut leidured .
Signs: Mkptoundabouttigne0 .
Otherwise wit, temporary signing ct chicaries .
Llghtinr
. No charges made to existing sheet IigMlng.
-e 71 em
T~
SEAlA101,17 ROAD
ti r
Newgalby i
Dropped croulrw

TECHNICAL ANNEXES 8
TECHNICALANNEXES
Tachnicai Data:
Lea&Uon Type : Urban residential.
Road Type and peed Unit Urban un9essfied: 30 mph .
steheale Type: Flat top humps, narrowings and chicanea In various combinations .
Length of Schemes In Totals Scotclsnan Rob 0 .50 m . Jesmord Avemle 30D m.
Dbnendonw Height : 80 mm .
Width: Varies min 4 m, max 6.2 m,
Loral Varies min 5 m, max 26 m .
Ramp Gradient 1 :12
Distance between measures: Average 80-80 m,
Materialist Mashalls Lambeth deterrent paving flags. Marshals 'WO' Buff Saxon paving slabs.
Marshalls Wmglwv refaotive bollard
alym : M mph Speed limit signs .
Road Markings : Centre line markings Dleg. 1004 . Hatched markings Ding . 1040 .
'Give way' markings Ding . 7003,
Llgating: New e m reel cot. .
Crib Department of the Fmiranment Urban

Pmgrarnme Grant (100%) 116,000,
DontaeTe Cenanentar The three accidents

since the scharre, was Installed of occurred
within 6 monMs In 1994. Further Imrostigation IS
required to determine arty cause. For instance .
are motorists becoming used to the measures?

TECHNICAL ANNEXES 9
TECIINICALANNEXES
Technical Data:
Location Type : Residential ,older housing adjacent tohistoric city centre .
Road Type and Speed Limit : Urban unclassified : 30 mph .
Scheme Type- Flat top humps with associated narrowings . One-way streets .
Length of Scheme in Total: 640 metres on three streets .
Dimensions- Height : 100 mm .
Width : 3 m .
Length : Plateau 2 .5 m
Entry ramp 1 m . Gradient 1 :10 .
Exit ramp 2 m . Gradient 1 :20 .
Materials : Humps : Buff block paviours .
Kerbs : Recycled natural stone
Footway paving : Natural stone flags.
Bollards : Cast iron .
Signs : Signing and road markings as per regulations.
Liahting : Existing, which had been recently Located .
nm^cE%ISTING [DOTWd%
DETAIL I
SECTION AA

TECHNICAL ANNEXES 10
TF
.9VIcALANNExEs
Technical Data:
Location TIM Urban residential. Two-staey terraced houses . Conservation area status.
Road Typo and Speed Unit: Urban unclassified : 30 mph.
Typo of Se6amo. One speed table, two junction chicanes, two pinch points, three wide pedestrian Wads,
three side road entry treaanents.
Total Length of Scheme: 700 m.
matarlata: Various including the use of plastic reflective bollards.
Signs : Diags. 516, 517, 602, 615 and 611.
Markings : hatching, centre, give way.
u~ Repositioned lamps to highlight kerb bu ld*As.
26
------------------ ---------- I
~---~
------------------------------------- .
1ir su '------------"-
8 = bollards

Ross Silcock
TECHNICAL ANNEXES II
TECHNICALANNEXEs
Technical Data:
Location Type: Residential, adjacent to historic city centre,
Road Type and Speed Limit : Unclassified : 20 mph.
Type of hlaaaure : Speed table and chicane.
..
Length of Scheme: W0
Dimensions : Speed Table Build Out
Height: 80 mm 100 mm
Width: 5m i's m nlax
Length : 9m 7m
Ramp gradient: 1:10 -
Materials: Plateaus : Grey blocks,
Ramps: White and charcoal blocks.
Kerbs: Standard bull nose concrete .
Bollards ; Timber (appropriate to'The Groves') .
Signs: Diags. 674 and 675 at limits o120 mph zone,
Lighting : Existing .
LEGEND
THE GROVES 20 Mph Zone '~A/T/9G20/3
CRRI, TRL Manual forSafety in Road Design

Extracts from Indian Conceptual Schemes
(References C27)

TECHNICALANNEXES
Fourway unconuollea /uncacn:
~apl Frs.
RoEI" Ta :
O CL11/Y[u U"lww~ aF."aMY rWiUa. mTYq

Iran Wll"r"T aV"clion".
a[yaun "ne
Se1Won A :
XWee p4tbnn wla+ ...11 :301 w a. "Iea
[n"[" v"nl[N apNe"-
Dlnwant C<bVr ana Yaws MMn[ "" UN
W.WWly e1 7M [ro"slnp .
Feeu4bn Cio. .4q mladocW of

unalWaea vurlac a
+^V eTa " 1M . .p Mtwaa^ . "nao eaY
01 ma r "ae wlilwn aioppvN.
6a.- :
e vae."w.^ m..a w^Weaa ..Y w.n~n. .o "[a
M N. mleela of UN r"M.

TECHNICALANNEXFS
Solution s:
Two ran. road w n.povrd dawn by xK .d.u
buYd wa .tam .eaN an bah olds ai me
nrdw...r .v. TN. will be arxoad .e in
<erottNnirq whxJ.. eMw..
sow. . G :
nshed Nettorm wM dlfannt t.mere surface

arw wmo . r .~dcn h ~l .r. wood . . This dNaroo t colour of do pradorm .rss
m, be ..w t rnrmloNr .e won .moo recommended to "a,.. rt. HNbWr
.peal nducdan 4 doNralW4
Main road pecans, Mreugh .hopping vu :
vmbram :
Palo.- mew across do, ,ow ilea a long

N..a W m. Ohola no a. 7rrv haw
Gnn[,drr .. t aw .1no dr .wa. . ..d alvwph
.."a aaoord Iran boar alr~aar.
saaden:
e nNssa carpal -assassins an soda Non an swrw Nd . . rr .ww raw wNraa. m no.. .m .v
maxi raw "aa .gh m. moos praa. -m, ew x. seal a .mnr .a.w rr Nn m . . r .raw fo.
rranw Jewn ur eanl.paway as wr w p .a . .nw. oo.r .. me ro.e .
do-.. ve,oMnd as high woos..
CRRI, TRL Manaalfor.Safefy in Road Design

Footpath for pedestrians:
Problem :
o Heavy pedestrian traffic along aonsnwcid

stab yas over on the main WdegewaY .
TIN, creates unsafe cooditiona for
pedestrians .
Solution
o Vvide segregated pedestrian footway ca be

dalgrrd by mduteq are width of main
ceniagewey. it wig also reduce vehicle
(pads.

TECHNICALANNEXES
CRRI, TRL Manua!far Safety in Road Design

Recommendation for improvement to village entry
points on Vietnamese National Highways in the form
of a narrowing and gateway.
Nt7fE :RICHTIiANDDRIVE

AFECHNICAL ANNEXES
~N.rle "nrl.. MJFraW .n .pm.un

., lan"M a ro ...Mq Im, blN Mwl .n n"IC muwrrmrnlr .l
.IyF1MX
'J . n" to " r. wJwr
OTr .a lunrl "1"m my.YN.
" ' t.. . I ""
Nor "o .".
-SI,71 . . MOn "

<n14 .217,
"No.,
TJAm/F
vn
Ol . .d I.Imn " lyn
In .,., No . 71
___
tom ylon gon.NpF dlanfl re.,n
v "m
. .nea m.r leae .nae
w,rr ~w e
bflnll llr "" n N. "
\\\
EA
I
TVPP IIA?
TYPE IN rZ PAMIINOANEAS
lm
OT
1 N.II.~. AN OMUVYaa. .In ni
2. Where.ofblea~i.v .ibL~cnvr .MU1i
be ;'xm b bWWrp " prvh reW ne a~ or LMI1 .ititt,
Ina..sleaa"sl~
l. AIWeeelbnPPegxe "0I~Ym"emwl.edkTTpe
A e16lr.lapM. ft, T,,
.0 Mclbrr, mrYr.pee
ap(AEn1%eanbIrolM I*,flmPrarbrlegby, .
m.plle"d
1 Parkrgn.n.x1.EMlyprep . .er.er"f .rHJgpbe
.vocealnlne .iwwrajrvrcua ..
". Snwlder .rgerreCI. ..W1 .oCIre111 . "M .n .ub
ee ..kW M .grre.l ..mrayp .

TECHNICALANNEEXES
a+DORYw 3000 mm
TV-
m
;.ere .w...MM . rvo..IV. P. W
ROAD HUMP TYPE A
DHY~w " dn.Hen ~PoWW-wNRVRN.mHUHwa.rnl
10
~- aOmm
. ~ "000 m=~ _-~~,
~~-~- 60~ 0mm
ROAD HUMP YYPE B
000 .n .. _{
1P V8o q O'..
STRIP Rupa~t aYAir a"AUH-

RUMBLE
TTIG A . m 6. 1P..
TYK a D n CM.I" .
Tm 0 a rn c.." . .
F]
U
-~ (4F.W
RN "
I.
r'" PC UT!
" [RVIOC no . .
\. NmpM4
.gyp wnrwr V.wN..ep p unv".w \...+~ m.rm..m..

a. ~x. . "..Iwn .pWwa .. .w .r.a p .om . .s1. TYe " w m a Mew.e .
Pu wYpW ryw D pm\Wti .r~p..pM me .W w ONw to Mnnnl.p
.1 miner .W ~r .ly w.vW ~ W ~ .F m m.alb . ..1m mJ . ro...

TECHNICALANNEXES
Technical Annexe 4.1
Combination ofHorizontal and Vertical Cowes
The Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment from reference A63 supplements the sketches in Chapter 4.7
and illustrates in more detail the issues involved .
11 -26
u-27
2.5 PHASING OF HORI 7_ & VERT. ALIGNMENT 25 PHASING OF HORIZ. & VERT- ALIGNMENT
~igurc jt-lo Cmp und Cumwith Raliu of tlx: Radii 1:10 FIGURE II-12 Radius R=111(1()m al a SnW1 Centre Angle
5LntksLike a 13=1, in 11w Alignm"t
INCORRECT' DESIGN
R' .
IGUREU- II Go m p wt d oum Wi lhl Ratio of the Rahi 1:2 FIGURE II-13 Radius R=5000'm Appcms Natural
CORRECT DESIGN CORRECT DESIGN
o =,2t~~-s
Ills
-,

TECFIIVICALANNEXES
25 PHASINOOFHORIZ&VERr
.AUGNtlENT 23 PHASING OF HORIZ&VERf.ALIGNMENI'
FIGUREU-14 NOD6(OmWk~Ikwi"mlandWrdcalCLnex FIGURETI-17 Oaf~~Vcnicul(lmeHAkwsHiithWwlCurve
in AcmW
a
arm
FIGUREII-IS Def~i~Erxl<fllorvamtalC .FnflowsE, I I I I I h-I I ~I I
of Vrnial Curve
FIGURE II-18 DcfonntjM Sbw1 Length of VL~kvl (Lnc at

lawig Horinend Curve
FIGURE II-16 Ocformntion, EnA of I Iorbantal <Lrvc Folluws Er

of Veniral Cune
~~avm 1 a .. f
!
~I
~ ~`~T f w1wv
d ~ 7 ] f 1 9 J
N]m
23 PHASING OFHORIZ-&VERT.ALIGNMENT 75 PHASING OFHORIZ&VtRYALIGNMfNI
FIGUREII-19 NoDck~km,IkginnirlgofFlnrvuuaiCunru FIGURE IF21. 0"bmurem. Dmhle SIg Cunix m (Mc

.
before Vnnicd OIrvv I Inrinmtul Curve
CORRECT DESIGN
1 asm
HGURE 11-20 . Defumutim, StgCunx bcl~nTvu Cum, of the

Same Dirmlun

TECHNICALMRNEXES
2.5 PHASING OF HORIZ . & VERT. ALIGNMENT
FIGURE II-23 The "Hiddcn-dip" Tylx! of Profile
INCORRECT DESIGN
t
T \
FIGURE II-24 The "Itoller Coa,tcr" T%.N of Profile
INCORRECT DESIGN
R Wo

TECIINICALASM
Overtaldng Lanes, Climbing Lanes, Escape Ramps
'Ibis technical annex summarises information from a number of overseas sources . It should be adapted for Indian
conditions and cost constraints but presents good practice. Indian traffic signs do not cover the range of signs
often used elsewhere . The sketches show signs adopted overseas. India is a signatory to the UN conventions
on signing and may adopt these signs as appropriate. Advance signing is strongly recommended to reduce
driver frustration . Signs stating "Overtaking lane 2 km Ahead" would be appropriate.

TECHNICALANNEXES
Overtaking Lanes, Climbing Lanes, Escape Ramps
Overtaking lanes: -
Overtaking lanes on two-lane rural highways have two important functions:
(a) to overcome delays caused by slow moving vehicles on steep upgrades

(b) to break up bunches or platoons of traffic caused by inadequate overtaking opportunities over a
significant length of road.
Benefits of overtaking lanes are summarised as follows .
(a) Overtaking lanes offer an intermediate alternative between the two-lane highway and the four-lane
highway. This provides greater scope for the road design engineer to stage road improvements at many
locations in the road network rather than major works at only a few sites. Overtaking lanes can be
implemented to provide immediate relief on a two-lane highway. Sometimes, overtaking lanes may be
the ultimate configuration.
(b) Overtaking lanes provide an inexpensive and cost-effective means of improving the level of service on
two-lane highways .
D The starting point should be downstream from a section with limited overtaking opportunities so that the
lane will be strategically located with respect to the breakup of bunches.
D The termination point should be visible to approaching traffic and provide sufficient sight distance to
allow a smooth and safe merge between fast and slow vehicle streams.
The location of overtaking lane affects safety, traffic operations and road appearance .
D Need for adequate sight distance at the diverge and merge tapers .
D Intersections and other junctions should be avoided whenever possible, to eliminate the problem of
turning movements on road sections where overtaking is encouraged . Whenever these cannot be avoided,
special provision for turning vehicles should be considered .
D Location of overtaking lane should appear logical to the driver . Road sections with reduced speed
standard should be avoided.
Location may be on grades or level road sections . Overtaking lanes are also effective on roads in level
terrain where demand for overtaking opportunities exceeds supply .
Can be constructed as part of re-alignment of road segment with safety problems .
The spacing of overtaking lanes depends on traffic volume and composition, road sight distance and the amount
of improvement in road traffic operations required . Initially they could be provided with a spacing of 10 to 15 km .
As traffic volume grows or the need for further improvement is identified, additional lanes may provided at
spacing as close as 5 km or even closer on roads with steep grades . Some alternative configurations for auxiliary
lanes are shown in Figure TA 4.2 .1 .
CRRI, TRL ManaalforSafety in Road Design

~:WCHNICALANNEXES
T~Py
Ada.4H ~~
ala.w.w.
Figure TA 4.2 .1 Alternative Configurations for Overtaking

lanes, A55.
Geometric features of overtaking lanes are summarised and presented in Table TA4.2.1 .
Table TA 4.2 .1 Comparison of Geometric design features of Overtaking Lanes, A55.
Highway Length Taper Length Lane width Shoulder Configuration Other factors
Planning (m) width (see Fig. TA 4.2 .1)
Diverge Merge
Agency
Ontario 1500-2000 200 m 200 m Desirable : 3.4 m Equal to the Alternating Taper length of
Minimum :3 .25no approach pefrned broken line =SW/16' ;
shoulder ; 450 m visibility to
Minimum I m Spacing mid-pointofmerge
10 - 25 km raps
British Minimum : 800 20 :1 25 :1 36m I gm Mostly 4 lane

Columbia Desirable
Minimum : 1000
Alberta 2000 25 :1 50 :1 35m 1 .5 m sealed Alternating AADT 4000

(excltapers) overtaking
- prohibited in
opposing [ane.
Parks 2000 line]. tapers) 100 m 200 m 3.65 m 12 m seal Alternating

Canada gravel Shoulders
.Australia Afunction of VW/3 VWt2' Not less than lane Minimum : I m 4-lane, single and
design speed ; width provided andoverlapping
Normal maximu m elsewhere;
length 1200 m Normally 35 m
Ls = speed limit (km/h); v= 85th percentile approach speed; w = lane width or amount of pavement widening

TECHNICALANNEXES
The following table shows the overtaking lanes signs, which are available from various overseas Highway
planning agencies.
Table TA 4.2 .2 Comparison of Overtaking Lane Signs, A55
ATTHE IN THE COMMENTS

MIDWAY PLANNING ADVANCE ATTHE
AGENCY NOTIFICATION DIVERGE MERGE OMOSING LANE
MINISTRY OF
TRANSPORTATION r ~ 1~
AND COMMUNICATIONS a
ONTARI O O ,~a~~J
MINISTRYOF [[M 51G11f71 M!w DO iGRfnTRAFFIC KFFPRILRT

ANDHI
TRANSPORTATION ;y lAK[ SLILEF CIA NOT ^Rr
ANOHIGlIWAYS
BRITISH COLUMBIA
4O
IIKHT
fXGR LINE PASS KlFPnWM7FKLFRTGPAfO
fMM
IN W IN
LTG[A
MM M'
P" v1RGLN1! Mdn '11~'^"'w"' 1~
ALBERTA
SR . n[!rt
TRANSPORTATION ,_
o M>s Id
~
n..ew..MM..R Prlwwl .Lw.w '"
'~'wuMau
w~ [lun u"lalelM `
NATIONAL
BANFF ro
<R ) I ;I
PARK t~I~wWI A
S[. 3M
O MI
Id
S"NN"y"^'"'"w
14 PORN .[fwgwl,SN7b .
AUSTRALIA ev[Rr~
U
R[[P[[F,
[ VRL[[[
7L A .E .R fI[RT" KIRF
ASSOCIATIION O LANE F~w,pl,~ly,y,l ,
Ku
500 . . k ... ww 1f. W7
RMPEm, [;y. AI~

ft BOG m MLmN[
on o,[roking
IMr[ .7600 m
Figure TA 4.2.2 Overtaking lane signs and markings i n overseas, A55
Figure TA 4.2 .3 Overtaking lane design practice, A55

TECHNICALANNEXFS
END OF OVERTAKING LANE

Von
Loodo on doernWEde beyond OWL
DaJh1
Derieeble loom on E Endo alloo nO End
ofteldrt oremb Wide Fter elon Roppino Bilk
roe 00-80
dbblaE to ppEIRnM,gR,y,t al mErOE.
M 00-100
70 100-120
80 120-140
00 140-170
100 170-210
110 210-280
FORM
1
G9-39 ANE
M
KEEP LEFT
UNLESS
OVERTAKING
G9-37
LANE MERGE
OVERTAR'"O
300. ANLAO AIGNT
- "
W4-9
For erection where
N1t wee le note
then 1 Ion long
COMMENCEMENT OF OVERTAKING LANE WO-0
Dedon b dlnet uphill uhNJ" into left Ian, 500 m
Figure TA 4.2.4 Overtaldng lane signs and marldngs in overseas, A55
ClimbinLy lanes: -
t1
An increasing number of serious accidents are occuring on Pdmv.Me msmwwm
grades . Climbing lanes can be included in improvement plans for ergbm tills 1P 2%
27Gm
existing highways or for new construction. If justified, an =wn
additional uphill climbing lane shall be provided on hills with F
gradients greater than 2G/G and longer than 500 m. The layout of
climbing lane is shown here.
P. ..,wIMnInnansYrwu
9reden,reeN. 2%
FigureTA4 .2.5 Layout ofClimbing Lanes, A1

TECHNICALANNEXES
Wide single carriageways
Starting and Ending point of climbing lane
Starting point ofclimbing lane, the full width ofthe climbing lane shall be provided at a point S, 100m uphill from
the 2% point of sag curve, and preceded by a taper of 1/30-1/40 as shown in Figure TA 4.2.6. Taper should be a
smooth transition, by utilising the road curvature to develop the extra width, wherever possible.
Taper 1130 - 1/"0

~"100m
10 km
57 7 3m
I
Tspar. markings I
WS2 tOOm
Figure TA 4.2 .6 Start of climbing lanes on wide

single carriageways, At 1
100m
Slan of Climbing l.nnef
End point of climbing lane, the full width of climbing lane shall be maintained upto the gradient to a point F, 220
m beyond the 2 % point of crest curve followed by a taper of 1/30- 1/40 as shown in Figure TA 4.2 .7 . Advance
warning sign should be provided for Road Narrow .
Double solid white fine

100 m 1 Ta e An le I Ta er Ane 1 50 m _I
(3 i14o '~' 1J3D-1/40 I ~l
loin ~100m ~ 100m
h"- x120 m - 1 20-mT
s 110 in _ . .7 .3m S2
e 1
%Road Narrows' 10M
S 1gn 1 10m WS2
i
220 m
2/e ~r
Figure TA4.2 .7 End of climbing lanes on wide single carriageways, Al1
Climbing lanes are important for freedom of operation on urban expressways where traffic volumes arc high in
relation to capacity .
Dual Carriageways
By providing the additional lane on an uphill section of dual carriageway, some traffic is able to move over to
a faster lane, thereby gaining a speed advantage and the consequent reduced volume in the left hand lanes
also enables speeds to increase in these slower lanes. Gradients of 3% over a distance of 0.5 km would be the
minimum for an additional lane .

TECHNICALANNEXFS
Starting and Ending point of climbing lane
Starting point of climbing lane, the full width of climbing lane shall be provided at a point S in similar manner to
that described for single carriageway roads, but preceded by a tapers of at least 1/45 as shown in figure .
Figure TA4.2.8 Start ofclimbing lanes on dual

carriageway, All.
End point of climbing lane, the full width of climbing lane maintained upto the gradient to a point F. 1/45 taper
should be provided and smooth transition should be used wherever if possible.
Figure TA 4.2.9 End of climbing lanes on dual carriageway, Al 1.
1 Lanes ".-
Highway alignment, gradient, length and descent speed contributes to the potential for out of control vehicles.
Accident experience and vehicle operations (usually truck) on the grade combined with engineering judgement
are frequently used as the determinant for an escape ramp . Escape lanes may be built at any feasible location
where the main road alignment is in transition . They should be built in advance of main lane curvature that cannot
be negotiated safely by an out of control vehicle and in advance of populated areas . Escape lanes should exit to
the leftside ofthe main line in India. Fornew andexisting facilities anduntil localcriteria are available itmaybe
useful to adopt the AASHTO criteria (A58). Various types of emergency escape ramps are shown in Figure TA
4.2 .10.

TECHNICALANNEXFS
~ EA~ILE
e. M!ECEMINUORADE
-x
N y
E~
c. NORIZaITALO"M
o. ~MMNU ONME
Figure TA 4.2 .10 Various types of emergency escape ramps, A5S.
Escape ramps are classified as gravity, sandpile and arrester bed. Within these categories there are four basic
emergency ramp designs predominately sandpile, descending grade, horizontal grade, ascending grade. The
most commonly used escape ramp is the ascending type with an arrester bed. Ramp installations of ascending
type use gradient resistance to advantage, supplementing the effects of the aggregate in the arrester bed, and
generally reducing the length of ramp necessary to stop the vehicle. The loose material in arresting bed increases
the rolling resistance ; while the gradient resistance acts downgrade, opposite to vehicle movement. The loose
bedding material serves to hold the vehicle in place on the ramp grade after it has came to stop . Escape ramp
should be designed for a minimum entering speed of 130 to 140 km/h design speed being preferred. The design
of escape ramp should be include the following criteria.
Safely stop an out-of-control vehicle and the length of ramp must be sufficient to dissipate the kinetic
energy of the moving vehicle.
Alignment of escape ramp should be tangent or be very flat curvature to relieve the driver of undue
vehicle control problems,
Width of ramp should be adequate to accommodate more than one vehicle because it is not uncommon
for two or more vehicles to have need of the escape ramp with in a short time . 9 to 12 m width would more
safely accommodate two-or more out of control vehicles . Widths of ramps in use range from 3 .6 m to 12 m.
Surfacing material used in arrester bed should be clean, easily compacted and have high coefficient of
rolling resistance . Layout of arrester bed adjacent to carriageway is shown in Figure TA4 .2 . 11 .
CRRI,, TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

TECBNlCALa&EI13rS
`Nb`N T~ it U4 . 5. , 1/11-
- T4~
81pe E7 ;~ lm IWMIy
rw
WSi7177
FigureTA4.2.11 Layout ofArresterBedadjacent tocarriageway,All.
Entrance to the ramp must be designed so that vehicle travelling at a high rate of speed can enter safely .
Advance sign is required to inform the driver about the existence of the escape ramp well in advance so a
decision whether or not to use the ramp may be taken. Regulatory sign near the entrance should be used
to discourage other motorists from entering, stopping or parking at the ramp. Proper illumination of the
approach is desirable .
The characteristic that makes a truck escape ramp an effective safety device also makes it difficult to
retrieve a vehicle captured by the ramp. Ideally a service road located adjacent to arrester bed is needed so
that recovery vehicle and maintenance vehicles can use it without becoming trapped in the material.
Width ofservice lane should be at least 3 m (desirable) . However, this may be or may not be financially or
topographically possible at many sites in India.
Recovery anchors are needed to secure the tow truck when removing a vehicle from the arrester bed.
Typical emergency lane showing all details are shown here.
Figure TA 4.2 .12 Layout of emergency escape ramp (Right hand drive), A58

'TMIIIVICALANNEXES
Technical Annex 4 .3
Road Signs and Markings
This technical annex sets out some of the current Indian practice based on sections of references B7 and B 19. It
should be used with Technical Annex 5 .4 as well as the references.
Road signs vary in some detail from country to country, but internationally standardised signs have been
adopted by many countries. In India, the U.N . protocol on Road Signs is generally followed . Generally traffic
signs are classified as mandatory/regulatory, cautionary/warning, and informatory signs. Road markings are
lines, words or other devices except signs set into applied or attached to the carriageway or kerbs or to objects
within or adjacent to the carriage way, for controlling, warning, guiding and informing the users. Pavement and
kerb markings placed within the boundaries of public road should never be installed except by road authorities .
Yellow, white and black colours are the standard colours used for marking. Road marking are classified as
carriageway markings and object markings . Carriageway markings classified as longitudinal markings, markings
on intersections, marking at hazardous locations, markings for parking, word messages .
Longitudinal pavement markings are lines placed along the direction of traffic for the purpose of indicating to a
driver, his proper position on the roadway. These cover centre lines, traffic lanes, no overtaking zones, warning
lines, edge lines, bus lane makings and cycle lane markings . Centre lines and edge lines are strongly recommended
for all National and State Highways as well as Other important distributor roads .
In longitudinal markings :-
Broken lines are permissive in character and may be crossed with discretion, if traffic permits
Double solid lines indicate maximum restrictions and are not be crossed except in emergency
Solid lines are restrictive in character and indicate that crossing is not permitted except for entry or
exit from a premises or a side road or to avoid a stationary obstruction
In a combination of broken and solid lines, a solid line may be crossed, with discertion, if the broken
line of the combination is nearer to the direction of travel . Vehicles from the opposite direction are not
permitted to cross the solid line
Some of the recommended size of longitudinal marking, centre line and lane line marking for urban areas and
curves on highways, buslane marking, cycle marking and no-overtaking signs are shown below :-
0 r
FigureTA4.3 .1 Recommended size of Longitudinal Marking, B7

-MCHNICALANNEM
e) CENTRE LINE MARKING FOR A 1W0 LANE ROAD
NTRE BARRIER LINE MARKING FOR FOMR LANE ROAD
d) CENTRE CARRIER LINE MARKING FOR A SIX LANE ROAD
Figure TA 4.3 .2 Centre line and lane line markings for urban areas, B7
Figure TA 4.3 .3 Centre line and lane line markings at curve on NH and
SH in rural areas, B7
Ross Silcock
TECIIIVICALANNEXES
Figure TA4.3.4 Location of No-overtaking zones on curves, B7
Figure TA 4.3.5 Bus lane markings, B7
CRRI" TRL Manualfor Safery in Road Design

TECHNICALANNEIES
Figure TA 4.3.6 Bicycle lane markings

(all dimensions are in mm), B7
DDD
r
r
1-tra~a%reYan-1
1// IAK]hf
ti-AaYrdrw .MUY~rYV~~Y~ sl.Maayl
The following table shows the centre line on rural roads

Table TA 4.3.1 Centre lines on rural roads, B7
Lariat of Gp
Length of
Line segments on NH k SH en Other Roads Remarks
9 9
0 5 9 8
e e d .C
E E 5
_ ,~, _ a
C ~ T.
.C
g C E
.g .B
'~ 0 m E e
0
.F
5 a
B 0
ss
e
c
Z 3 ev
.e 3 o o
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 9 10 11 12
1_ TNsu 6m& in 100 3.0 3_0 6.0 3.0 4.5 3.0 single brokenlite
or above excess of
mere 2000
100 3.0 3o 6.0 3.0 4.5 3.0 Single broken line
2. Fom Tao - - - - - -
six k solid lines
Eight each
Imres loomm
undivi . thick
dad separated
by
loomm
Weighnge factor for ouoversion to PCU (Passenger Cr Unit) w per BtC : 64 - 1990
(i) Bicycle 0.5 (v) Bullock carts 9 .0
0.5 (vi) Tongas ur victaia 4.0
(it) Mots cycle
(iii) Motor ears and High motor vehicles 1.0 (vii) Hand cm 3 .0
(iv) Buses kTracks 3 .0
Note : Stipulations made herein are valid only when at least 50 per cent of inlet traffic is fast tic.
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Sikock

The distance between end of one barrier line and the beginning of the next barrier line restricting travelling in the
same direction is less than the minimum length ofbarrier line shown in Table TA 4 .3.2 . The barrier lines shall be
joined to form one continuous barrier line.
able TA 4.3.2 Barrier Line ista==N- king 7.nnes

85' percentile speed (km/h.) intermediate sight distance (m) Barrier line Distance (m)
Upto 45 120 75
4655 150 100
56-65 180 120
6675 210 145
7685 240 170
86.95 270 190
96105 300 215
More than 105 330 240
The no-overtaking zone marking should preferably be laid with thermoplastic materials.
Placing of Road Signs
The road signs shall be so placed that the drivers for whom these are intended can recognise them easily and in
time . Road signs shall be placed on the left hand side of the road . Signs shall be placed at right angles to the line
of travel ofthe approaching traffic. Signs related to parking of vehicles shall be fixed parallel to the carriageway .
Sign faces are normally vertical, but on grades it may be desirable to tilt a sign forward or backward from the
vertical to improve the viewing angle.
On kerbed roads, the extreme edge of the sign adjacent to the highway shall not be less than 600 mm away from
the edge of kerb . On unkerbed roads, sign shall be placed at a distance of 2-3 m from the edge of carriageway . On
kerbed roads, the bottom edge of the lowest sign shall not be less than 2 .0 m above the kerb, whereas on unkerbed
roads, it shall not be less than 1 .5 m above the crown of the pavement .
The sign shall be mounted on separate signposts, which may be suitable mild steel section, galvanised iron pipes,
reinforced cement concrete or aluminium section. Signs should be securely bolted to the sign posts to prevent
their turning or slipping down . The reverse side of all sign plates shall be painted grey .
Sign and Letter Size
The larger size of the sign shall be used for main roads in rural areas, and the smaller size shall be used for less
important roads in rural areas and roads in urban areas. On expressways, the size of the signs may be bigger than
the normal size depending upon the speed adopted for design . A smaller size of sign should only be chosen with
due regard to the speed, classification and location of the road, so that the sign is of adequate size for legibility
but without being too large or obtrusive.
For advance direction signs on rural roads, the letter size should be from 80 to 150 mm . In urban areas, letter
size should be from 80 to 100 mm . On expressways, bigger letters upto 250 mm can be used . All signs shall be
inspected at least twice a year.
MANDATORY/REGULATORYSIGNS
The largest size of octagon for'stop sign' is 900 mm for normal sized sign and 600 mm for small sized
sign . The width of white border shall be 30 mm and 20 mm respectively .
2. Each side of equilateral triangle is 900 mm for normal sized sign and 600 mm for small sized sign . The
width ofred border shall be 70 mm and 45 mm respectively .
3. The diameter of the circle is 600 mm for normal sized sign and 400 mm for small sized sign . The width of
red border shall be 65 mm and 45 mm respectively . The width ofred oblique bar shall be 60 mm and 40 mm
respectively . A smaller size of300 mm diameter may be used in conjunction with traffic light signals or on
bollards on traffic islands. Widths of red border and red oblique bar in that case shall be 35 mm and 30
mm respectively .
4. The width of black oblique bar in the case of restriction ends sign is 130 mm for normal sized sign and
90 mm for small sized sign .
CRR/, TRL Manualfur Safety in Road Design

TECW41CALANNEXES
Table TA 4.33 Location of Mandatory Sign
Type of Sign Locations

Stop Sign 1.5 m to 3 m in advance to stopline or 1 .2 m in advance to pedestrian crossing
Giveway Sign 1.5 m to 3 m to the point where vehicles are required to stop to yield the right-of-way
1.2 m in advance to the marked give way line.
No Parking Sign, should be placed where authority has resolved to prohibit parking
No Stopping Sign
Speed Limit and placed at the begining of the section or the side of structure, subject to restriction,
Vehicle Control so as to face the entering traffic.
Signs
CAUTIONARY/WARNINGSIGNS
The size of the triangle shall be 900 mm for normal sized and 600 mm for small sized sign . The width of the border
.
shall be 70 mm and 45 mm respectively.
Table TA 4.3.4 Location of Cautionary signs
Type of location plain or rolling terrain hilly terrain
Urban location 50 m away from the point 50 m away from the point
of hazard of hazard
Non-urban location'
i) National Highways and State Highways 120 m 60 m
ii) Major district roads 90M 50m
iii) Other district roads 60 m 40m
iv) Villageroads 40m - 30m
" These distances may be increased on steep

downhill gradients to aceount for increased speed.
INFORMATORY SIGNS
In case of facility information signs, the size of the rectangle shall be 800 mm x600 mm for normal sized sign and
600 mm x 450 mm for small sized sign. The size of the square shall be 400 mm and 300 mm respectively .
Table TA4.3.5 Location ofInformatorysigns
Type of sign Location
Direction sign (at junction) placed parallel to the road leading to the place named.
Advance direction sign placed as per Table TA 4.3.4
Place identification sign placed inside the incorporated area 90 m in advance of the edge of
the built-up section .
Facility informatory signs placed at the entry of road leading to the facility
V!~ ".'sr:f-, SurfarcTh R~ee $iIM~F

TECHNICALANNEXES
0 lVR T Q_ .
MANDATORY ~ Mw ~~
0 ~~o aaa aw
F. w'M Y. !- . .Y+ Ve c,n V V. rV un ~w .' L,Mv
WARNING
I&A44A a JA 4
Z 01 1 .3 -1 -4 Q 9Pi
INFORMATORY
Figure TA 4.3.7 Types of Road Signs usage in India, B19
Chevrons:-
Chevron signs are used where there are very sharp and unexpected changes in horizontal alignment and a
"Bend" sign would not be sufficient warning. There is no provision for such a sign in the existing sign regulations .
The sign is made up of a single white arrow on a black background module of 400 nun x 600 mm to 800 mm x 1200
mm as shown . Modules can be joined together. The minimum number of modules recommended for a stand
alone sign at a sharp bend is twice, i.e ., sign size 400 mm x 1200 mm or 800 mm x 2400 mm . The later is preferred.
The sign should be reflectorised and mounted with the lower edge in minimum of 1 to above the ground, but this
can be varied to suit local conditions. The sign should break the driver's line of sight. It should be installed
behind safety barriers- Chevrons may be reversed .
A single module may be used on a roundabout at `T' junction where the major road turns through 90".
Figure TA 4.3 .8 Chevron marldngs for sharp deviation of routes

TECIMCAAxis
Poorly signed and delineated curves can be improved with low-cost treatment by placing chevron boards and
bar lines as road markings .
Figure TA 4.3.9 Poorly signed and Figure TA 43.10 The subsfaodad bend of
meted curve approaching bridge in Figure TA 439 after low cost treatment of
PopuaNewGbea.Road bends through 90 chevron board and barVneroad markings6
to right, Al Al
Dehneators:-
Figures TA4.3 .1 I and T A4 .3 .12 illustrate current Indian recommendation for delineators (reference B23) .
Figure TA 43.11 Traffic delineators (post Figure TA 4.3.12 Tiaffic delineators

type), B23 type), B23
Figure TA 4.3 .13 Construction of

signs, markings, delineators and
chevrons on bridge approaches (ref
A70) .

TECIINICALANNEXES
Sign Supports
There are three basic categories of sign support systems vehicle.
a) Fixed base supports: These supports do not breakaway, bend over or fracture safely when struck by a
vehicle. These sign supports are rigid obstacles.
b) Knockdown supports: - This is a common type of support for small signs. The small sized metal posts will
break off or bend over, depending on the type of footing used, the wood supports will break. Because of
small size and flexibility of the posts, there is only minor damage to a vehicle when it strikes sign supports .
Some of the knockdown supports are shown here.
Figure TA 43.14 Steel U-post sign support, Figure TA 43 .15 Wood post, A40
A40
c) Breakaway supports : - These supports can withstand wind loads, yet fail at a pre-selected point when a
vehicle strikes them . In this, the post separates from base, the post it self remains intact, as shown here .
Figure TA 4.3 .16 Steel pipe sign support, Figure TA 4.3 .17 Action of breakaway signs, A40
with breakaway collar, A40
Sign Panels : -
A sign is put in place to display a message . The sign panel provides the surface for the message . The panel can
be a safety hazard, in a collision-particularly if it comes loose from the post during the collision and becomes a
flying object.
Figure TA 4.3 .18 Threaded pipe

coupling, A40
TECHNICALANNEXES
Technical Annex 4.4
Drainage
This technical annex sets out some of the safety implication of various drainage types currently used in India as
well as indicating good practice from elsewhere .
Whilst the provision ofadequate drainage is a primary requirement of protecting and maintaining the embankment
and shoulders of a road and ensuring their functional efficiency it should not in itself present a hazard to road
users. The drainage of road surface is an important requirement, more so when road sections having a divided
carriageway negotiate horizontal curves .
For low volume rural roads, table drains and catch drains can be proposed . Table drains are located on the
outside of shoulders in cutting or alongside shallow raised carriageways in flat country . An unsealed table drain
should have its invert level below the level ofthe pavement subgrade for effective drainage ofpavement . Where
scour is likely because of the natural material or because of longitudinal grading, some type ofprotection of the
drain invert like loaming and grassing, rock lining or concrete would be required. Lining is applicable where
grades are steeper than 5% or flatter than 0.5%.
Catch drains are located on the hill side of cuttings clear ofthe top of batters to intercept the flow of surface water
and upper soil seepage water. The main purpose of these drains is to prevent overloading of the table drain and
scour of the batter face. These drains can be located at least 2 m from the edge ofthe cuttings in order to minimise
possible undercutting of the top of the batter.
In hill roads, the surface water flowing from the hill slope towards the roadway is one of the main problems in
drainage of hill roads. In these roads, the valley side slope is in existence before the road was built and hence
without drains it should be stable enough to drain any flow coming on to it due to rain. It just needs that water
is not collected and discharged at one point of the slope but should be drained all along the side of the road.
When it is allowed to discharge through one point it can severely damage the slope. To intercept and divert the
water from the hill slope catch water drains are provided. Side drains are provided on the hill side ofthe roads and
not on both sides. The usual types of drains are angle, saucer, kerb and channel drains. Ministry recommends the
use of kerb and channel type of side drains. But from safety point of view these need some protection cover over
the drains.
Safety Aspects of Edge Drainage
As noted in Chapter 4.15 it is important that drivers of out-of-control vehicles have the opportunity to regain
control . This is assisted by suitable drainage design that does not present a too sharp grade . Figure TA 4.4.1
(reference C28) shows a standard detail of a 1:2 slope that would assist but a shallow slope, as per Figure TA4.4.2
with the use of a concrete channel ofmere gentle slope and Figure TA4.4.3 through the use of filter drains. Figure
TA 4 .4.4 presents an alternative type of concrete channel which would be satisfactory only where space was
limited (reference A68).
Drainage details currently used in Australia show three types of drain which would minimise safety hazards .
Road types curved include hill and flat country Figure TA 4.4.5 (reference A56).
In urban areas drainage is as important where feasible drain should be covered. Detail cross section given on
Figure TA4.4.6 is unsafe . The drain at the edge of the service road and the paved shoulder is unguarded . The
pedestrian barrier is not suitable to withstand impact from vehicles. Note also that the lighting column would be
better located at the rear ofthe foorway, which should be a minimum of 2.0 m wide. Figure TA4A.7 illustrates a
better solution with the drain protected by a continuous kerb (Figure TA4.4.8) .
Ministry of .Surface Transport Ross Silcock

TECHNICALANNEXES
Safety Aspect of Median drainage
In general the carriageway cross section should be such so as to avoid median drains and either drainage ditches
of shallow slope be provided beyond the shoulder or a kerb with drainage gulleys will be required on the new side
ofthe carriageway.
Median drainage will be required on curves where the outer carriageway is superelevated . Current Indian practice
is shown in FigureTA4 .4 .9 . The spacing of connections to the drain depends on the predicted rainfall and extent
of carriageway drainage to a particular point. One feature is the lower level gutter adjacent to the kerb . Whilst
effective this creates a hazard for motorists if a wheel should drop into it. The problem become more severe upon
successive resurfacings . Figure TA4.4 .10 illustrates a similar drainage detail, but with a continuous kerb which is
safer. Figure TA4.4 .1 1 illustrates a median drain suitable for use where a four lane divided carriageway is being
designed . However, the deep ditch would be better protected by a barrier.
Occasionally, median drainage may be required where the existing two lane single carriageway has been widened
to a four lane divided carriageway and the existing carriageway profile retained. In this case a similar drainage to
that adopted for superelevation should be used . Figure TA4.4 .12 also illustrates a suitable drainage detail for
divided highways . It should be noted that the drop away from the higher carriageway should be protected by a
median barrier. Where a non-pavement median is adopted drainage via a filter drain is acceptable . Figure TA
4 .4 .13 illustrates a typical cross section but it should be noted that it will be necessary to provide a median barrier
unless the median is 5 .0m as larger .
STONE PITCNINB
(a) Angle Drain
EMS
OMPE
tstONE PITCHING TYPE 3A

(charnel base formed within sub-base (ayer)
(b) Saucer Drain
bOEm .--~ ROAD SURFACE
T
aOEm
EMtmiOm$
On.rNE
15m DRY STONE

PITCNINO
TYPE an
(c) Kerb and Channel Drain ([Tame) base forwad an tha x,b-base .War)
(
Figure TA 4.4.1 Types of side drains on hill Figure TA 4.4.2 Types of concrete channel drains, A68
roads, C28

TECHIVICALANNHEUS
-
- !
sa~w cv+-lbw
IEV11'
Tapwwll, s
lww~wwri an BoIT i i .' " lxfi'-"e

.l-
Wee win . ~FIl4w~ wwtwniwl
- Cun4lO~w wllM
Tlltwr 0-sln
T%jpa 1A (Flaxitsta ceir" r-ielgawagl .
Fub41 "q wwTFwlrwalwnt vwnewl i~wrCr,o..lww~~M

~LwpG~-~~ wwr.-laewwsy
EO
Tgawq i 4 (10s.
? E~mu
11t.
.
v
4w
wl^
3 eO0 __ Gpp=ne~
TL=
win ' V"MQ wln . F1 llw~ wwtw.-Iwl
Da .4i~YWw wI4T
I ! 1 .4w1" drwln
T(dpa 113 C R F g i cl cal i aelalelay
~m
1 .~ OL~I~ APE IM mttLz _
i.wl4"xt ..41w brwCwwwtw !e tap e! TI "twr" drwlnw r
e.p"xl d" drwwlne (b .Ble . ~ypw Y 7w wlsn v" twlw
Ar.wlne.
Figure TA 4.4.3 Types of filter drains, A68
Fill .n ww-lws rfa.l .

~ lww w.G cepp~rq
Type 4A (Flexible cemiegeuleyl .
Pitt a ~'wbri .[ .
~lww .nE ~lq
Type 48 (Rigid cerrlegemeyl .

waifs
( . Iill GIM1111In119 aIE x. ni .w,.i.x c w f b. a .-T,,P. .1I x wvim 1 . ~wll
Iw WILLLIE11EE. .. ~llrd 1 . elw~ . w ,w ~Ipp in Mw aa.MSl:.
Figure TA4.4.4Alternate Type ofconcrete channel, A68

TECIMCALANNEXES
Figure TA 4.4.5 Typical Table Drain Details, A56
y0 BC
13 5 W WISASE t010750H
175WMH)000ASE PC C IN osm
Figure TA 4.4.6 Unsafe drainage layout in urban areas ('Y' is not covered with any protection covers)

3000 5500 1500 2350 1000 . 15o0 7000
PD TM HAV
:SY"CIAer
UNP AVED
sa 1 91YQMUI
PAVED MIN cc
I CNEOUFAED TIL fS
so . 80
I
2.5'!d~
1 I _#
15
DETAIL AT 'C' II
- A'
25 BC (5.5m) 40 BC
16o WMM
100 WMM(U 5 .60m)(LS95m)
125 WMM ( 5.95m)
200 GSB (635m)
IDOSEtANG L RECOMPACTING SUB GRADE
Figure TA 4 .4.7 Safe drainage layout at 'C'
Figure TA 4.4.8 Cross section of drainage detail at C (refer figure TA 4.4.7)
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Sdcock

TECHNICALANNEXFS
0"" xVA' L "" L"Y[ "

CONTINY00f VNw " 7x"
INN[, CID[ 00 C0"V" .
1. SPACING FOR MEGAN CROSS OPAN6 MAY

BE SUITABLY NCAEA7 FOR LOWNYINSITY
RAINFALL AREAS.
E. CROSS SLOPE IS EGUAL TO SUPEAELEWI-

TUN OR CAMBER WHICHEVER IS
HIGHER .
S. OELINLATORS" SERBS" GUAFO' STONES AND

RAIUNGS EM MAY BE PROVIDED AS PER
RELEVANT IRE STANDARDS, WHERE
exew7 " a7xAnwuflx EVEA NECESSARY.
A7 707 01 <xV7[ 0w " 7 ARRANGEMENT Of OPENING A. CHUTES TO BE PROVIDED AT 1"70Cle.
x[10x707 [Y4INYLNT
ON INNER SIDE OP CURVE.
I7 Yp"[ LWI la IN THE CENTRAL MEDIAN THE SPACING MAY BE SUITABLY
INCREASED FOR LOW INTENSITY
RAINFALL AREAS.
S. DIRECTION OF FLOW OF WATER .
Wt ~ 1.
1'7m- .1. "7' .1
w7"x "7 Y
Figure TA 4 .4 .9 Drainage arrangement on super-elevated stretches on

dual carriageway, B50
Figure TA 4.4 .10 Plan of median drain, B50
CRO, TRL
TECHN[CALANNkM
Figure TA 4.4.11 Median drainage at super-elevated stretches, B50
LL Is . 1
10 . ..17,
S 1 1...
.1f1
.. l
Tm115.5G . 7pf G-I
hLw-
ON . Is. .. ("-,&I116~Ie .b)
'NNN7WwI15Pge
Lea,~. .uso .ImIG-1
6fl"11W. . OSF
Figure TA 4.4 .12 Median drainage at urban stretches, B50
FIICer .seterial
poriti puoue v s tf7
f l sCer Crab .
TYPE 11A (Flaxibla carriagaieay~l_
PI ltv" eeber-Iel
evnClgalcw rl~
filter Ere1n .
TYPE - 118 (R i gi cl carr i lsgaalay)
Figure TA 4.4.13 Median drainage via filter drains, A68
Ministry of SlufaceTinnsport Ross Silcock

TECH-IN1CAL ANNEXES 49
TECBMCALANNEXES
Technical Annex 4.5
Safety Fences, Barriers and Median Barriers
This technical annex contains details of Indian and overseas practice for safety fences, barriers and median
barriers. Local warrants for barriers are given together with advice on flaring the ends of barriers to reduce the
possibility of vehicles impacting on the end section of a barrier. There are some differences in overseas practice,
which in any event should be adapted for local conditions .
When a vehicle leaves the road or crosses into the lane or carriageway carrying the traffic in the opposite
direction, serious injuries will be the result . To minimise the injuries and prevent the accidents, safety fences and
barriers are needed . The main purpose is to allow a vehicle to collide withVte,barrier rather than with an off-road
solid object or a vehicle travelling in the opposite direction (in the case ofdual carriageway median barrier) or
indeed, to stop a vehicle going down a steep embankment . General comparisons of the hazard potential ofnormal
barriers with that of traversing embankments with various height/slope combinations are shown here .
Some factors which require consideration with all

types of barrier include:
- Determination of basic length need of
barrier.
- Use of flares at restricted locations .
- Desirable maximum barrier deflection.
- Provision of transitions to stiffer barriers .
- Need for widening earthworks to support
the barrier and its terminals and to
facilitate access for maintenance.
- Possibility of butting barriers ends to the
faces of road cutting to minimise the need
for drum ends on terminal treatments .
Various types of barriers are illustrated below:
Figure TA 4.5.1 Embankment guide, A14
Safety barriers classified as flexible, semi-rigid or rigid .

The flexible system is the most yielding type and is
more for containment than redirection of vehicle and
requires more lateral clearance from fixed objects due
to deflection during impact . Semi rigid barriers offer
resistance to control the deflection of longitudinal
member to an acceptable limit and the errant vehicle
is redirected along the travel path . The rigid system
.. .N-a* si[ca ew~1c.
does not deflect on impact but causes the maximum
severity of impact amongst the three types.
The following figure describes a method for

estimating the `length of need' to minimise the
possibility of errant vehicles reaching a hazard by
going behind barrier
Figure TA 4.5.2 Various types of fences/barriers, A14
CRRI, TRL Manual forSafety in Road Design

TECHNICALANNEXFS
Clearance far 6orr,ar

C"arwidth PT.t Deflection
irear side, I
off sidi---L
Clear VAd t!
clge of Runn n lcê- af's~de Ci1 I
PUN-OUT LENGTH
SPEED RUN-OUT
:kNhl 1.r)
50 5C-60
80 Ile- 90
100 ice-P0
~tt(l '20
Figure TA4.53Determ :nationof barrierslength, A14
-- -
au.rw,r ..~,, ur : .+yluY o~ nm,t
Figure TA4.5.4Breakaway terminal layout, A14

TECIIIVICAL ANNEXES
Various types of typical layout of cross sections showing setback and clearance are presented here .
I Ur . . -lI .F ,
awc. ~~ eA uN NI-. --I
C<F1PpNCF CIF .F .N f
1(c)
1(d)
N l
AN~ C ` l i
A
...E i
-`1<F " p " .CF
CENTRAL RESERVE
VERGE AND CENTRAL MSERVE
Figure TA 4.5 .5 Typical layout of cross sections showing setback and clearance.
Warrants
Longitudinal roadside barriers are basically meant to

shield two types of roadsides hazards i .e . I I
embankments and roadside obstacles and also for
preventing the vehicles veering off at sharp curves . IE
- w nn r
The warrants for a fill section, is terms of height and
slope, needing protection with roadside barriers are
shown in figure TA4.5 .6 .
The warrants for roadside objects are mainly

dependent upon the type of obstacle and the
<"we'cv '~u.p"e icnco~<c;o: < :'
probability of their being hit. A barrier should be FOPOS, <Ip p
I
installed ifthe result of vehicles striking the barrier is
likely to be less severe than the severity of accident
resulting from the vehicle impacting the unshielded
obstacle . No barrier is warranted for embankment
having a fill slope of 1 :3 or flatter .
Figure TA 4.5.6 Warrants for roadside barriers on
embankments, C8

TEC]DUCALAI S
Warrants for median barriers
The requirement of a median barrier is a function of the width ofthe median and the traffic volume ofthe road.
Figure indicates the wan-ants for provision ofmedian barriers in terms of the combinations of median width and
AADT in PCU's. At AADT less than 20,000 PCUs and with medians wider than 9 m, the probability of a vehicle
crossing across the median is relatively low and median barriers in such cases are optional. Medians with width
between 9 and 15 m do not warrant a barrier unless there is an adverse history of median cross-overs
7ANfLfGVHH fIIXOVI/. 7P"KLmWgY Emergency crossing gaps :
Median gaps may be closed with a removable safety

fence or with traffic cylinders (delineation sized
bollards) . The former supplies a safer alternative and
should be used for higher flow roads it offers,
however, less flexibility if an emergency should occur.
Wire rope safety fence consists of four galvanised

steel wire ropes . The two upper ropes located in a
0
Nw~PwUf OA~LY TMRRIC slot in the top of the posts and two lower ropes are
interwoven along the fence between each pair of
muWawwo rtv .~ ,Qryt, k
veP wn .r .,q
ua.auY
posts . The connection between each rope and

rwos<Vew
.w "nuY".-
anchor is designed to uncouple when a vehicle

Figure TA 4.5.7 Median barrier warrants, B44 impact occurs in the vicinity of the anchor . The wire
rope cannot be used in locations like Emergency
Crossings Points, Maintenance Crossing Points and
where the high mast lighting columns are situated
within 10 m of edge of the paved surface .
Fig 1a CIsed Type E C P
The minimum desirable set-back at the verge shall
not be less than 1.2 m. The set back at central reserve
shall be 1 .5 m where there are no obstructions and
there is only one safety fence between the
carriageways and support posts are at 2.4 m centre.
ess,awn At obstructions, minimum clearance shall not be less
than 1 .5 m,1 .3 m and 1 .1 m where support posts are
Fig 1b Open Type E C P at 2.4 m, 1 .2 m and 1.0 m centres . Some of the wire
rope safety fence layout features are also presented
here.
Figure TA4.5.8 Typical layout of emergency crossing
points These are all commercial products. The designer
should contact the manufacturer .
Figure TA4 .5.9 Wire rope safety fence general layout I

at end anchor, C8 Figure TA 4.5.10 General arrangement of posts
and ropes, C8

Figure TA 4.5.11 Wire rope safety fence general arrangement end anchors, CS
i (a)
VERGE s03 pPROAOS
CENTRAL RESE(NE
0 .140 '~-t 0140
)1
R OF F CARRIAGEWAI
CC-
F"
OF FENCE OF FENCE
EDGE UW FAIT OF
0 STFIXTION I -tHML LK
1, .~ KARos-rki
I (b)
t (e)
CENTRAL RESERVE
NARDSTTBP
t (d) t(e)
ROPE HEIGHTS-VERGE AND CENTRAL RESERVE
FigurcTA4.5 .12 Wire rope safety fence layout features, All
CRRI, TRL ManaaiforSafety in Road Design

T13CIMCALANIO3
At bridge locations it is more necessary to protect the

vehicles and pedestrians in comparisions to other
locations on highway. If carriageway width is suddenly
reduced near bridge, the vehicles may hit the bridge
parapetsleading to accidents. To avoid such type of
situations, gaud rails and safety fences are required to
be provided. These should be placed sufficiently far
from the edge of the carriageway so as not to cause a
hazard to vehicles on the carriageway, nor reduce the
effective width of the road. For nual roads minimum
clearance should be 0.5 m although I A in would be more
desirable . For urban roads, with low speeds the setback
may be reduced to 0.33 m (A1). This provides safety to
pedestrians to cross the bridge locations safely and
avoids the vehicle collision with parapet
Antidaazle screens :
Express ways with narrow medians may require anti-

dazzle screens erecting above the barriers where the Figure TA 4.5.13 Guard rails to protect
opposing vehicle headlights create a problem . They are pedestrians on bridges, Al .
likely to be needed at only a few locations but additional
research is required into Indian conditions .
The purpose of an anti-dazzle fence on screen is to cut off light from oncoming headlights. They should be
designed so that light at oblique angles is reduced but open vision is retained sideways.
Screens can be separated metal mesh, knitted polyester matrix on angled vanes . Support is from posts and lock
bars. Angled vanes are effective on median barriers. The minimum height to screen light effectively is 1.75 m
(including trucks) .
UK experience is that anti-dazzle fences in central reserves appear not to alter significantly injury accident rates.
They may be ineffective where there are severe undulations of the road alignment . Where there is a tight right-
hand curve, over-the-top visibility may be detrimentally observed leading to greater accident risk . It may also
block the police view of the opposing carriageway.

TECIINICALANNEXES
Technical Annex 4.6
Pollution Tolerant Plants
Pollution Tolerant Plants

S. No. Botanical Name Common Name in Hindi
1. Acacia arabica KateriaBabul
2 Achyranthes aspera Katijva
3. Aeglemamrelos Bel
4. Ailanthus exscelsa Maharuk
5. Albizzia lebbeck Siris
6. Alastoniamacrophylla Chatian
7. Alstonia scholaris Chaitwan
& Anthocephaus cadamba Kadamb
9. Aroemone mexicana Shialkanta
10. Azadirachta indica Neem
11 . Bougainvillea Baganvilas
12. Buteamonosperma Palas
13. Calisthemon lanceolatus -
14. Cassia glauca -
15 . Cassia sophera Kasunda
16. Casuarinaequisetifolia Jhau
17 . Citus medica Lemon
18. Clerodendron infortunaturn Bhant
19. Dalbergia sissoo Shisham
20. Delonixregia Gulmohar
21 . Dospyros melanoxylong Tendu
22 . Eucalyptus citidora Safeda
23. Ficus benghalensis Bargad
24 . Ficus infectoria Pakar
25 . Ficusreligiosa Peepal
26. Holoptelea integrifoia Papri
27. 1pornoea fistulosa Behaya
28. Lagarstroerniasp. Sawani
29. Lantana camara Ghaneri
30 Leucaenaleucocephala Subobul
31 . Medhuca indica Mahua
32. Mimusops elengi Maulari
33 . Moringa olefera Sahjan
34 . Murrayaexotica Kamini
35 . Nerium odorum Kaner
36. Phyllanthus distichus Harfarwad
37. Phyllanthus emblica Amla
38. Pithecolombiumdulce Janglejalebi
39. Polyalthia longifolia Ashok
40. Prosopis iuliflora Shami
41 . Psidiurnguajava Guava
42 . Richinus communis Arand
43. "Solanum xanthocarpum Bhatkataiya
44. Spondias mangifers Anua
45. Syzygium curninii Jamun
46. Taberanaemontana coronaria Chandini
47 . Tamarindus indica IMG
48. Zizyphus mauritiana Ber

TECfIIVICALANNEXES
Technical Annex 5.1
Priority Junctions
The following sketches are taken from Overseas practice and illustrate good practice in the design of priority
junctions . References are A1, A11,A34,A56.
Priority junctions are the most common type of junctions in urban areas and are appropriate where traffic flows
on the minor roads and overall numbers of turning movements are relatively high. Priority should be given to the
route carrying or expected to carry, the heavier traffic flow. At some sites higher flow rates may occur on the
minor arm for short periods. The road markings should be designed to give a clear indication of priority and the
routes to be taken through the junction by different traffic streams .
The layout of a priority junction should take account of
the speed and volume of traffic on the major road
the magnitude ofthe turning traffic
the types of vehicle and pedestrians likely to use the junctions and
the required level of carriageway provision
The design speed for the major road is taken to be the 95th percentile of the actual vehicle speed for an existing
road. The minimum radius which could be used at minor priority junctions on major urban roads is 6 m. On
priority distributors where speeds may be high diverging lanes can be provided so that through traffic is not
impeded by turning vehicles as they slow down on the approach to a junction. Diverging lanes may be provided
on the offside of the dual carriageways with in the central reserve where they can provide a reservoir for right
turning traffic to queue in safety .
At priority junctions on primary routes where traffic is fast and dense, pedestrian routes should preferably be
provided with grade separated crossings. Where traffic is less dense and speeds are slower, at-grade crossings
may be provided using the formal pelican or zebra types or refuges islands .
The following table shows the overseas experience in major/minor priority junction forms. Considered suitable
one for various major road carriageway sections in both urban and rural solutions . This table is useful as a
starting point in choosing the most appropriate types of priority junction at a particular site.
TableTA5.1.1 Junction type for different major road carriageways
Ivvettw lypn
G~i"ivwW IY9o Si.vply CAOS[ LIi~ A..91oS
' S2 VN" n Yr Yu Maybe Yu Yu No Yr Ye" Ne

(Dq (DU
Anra Ye" Ym Maybe Yea Ym No Yu Ye. No

(DI) (Dim
WS2 V"bw No Ne Ne Ye . Yv " Ne Yu Yr No

CDD (DI)
Ao .+t No No . Ne Yu Yom. No Yu Y'u No

(D7) (DU
m vrb"n No Nn No Nv No NO Ym Ye" Na
cat) (D2)
Ro..l No No No No No No Yr Yr No
(D2) (D2)
D7 No Nv No No No NO No No J Ne~
r-IVactlon ~-b- 4uggerm Ivve[1vn

TECHNICALANNEXFS
With the overseas experience, the provision of T -junctions on new single carriageway roads for major and
minor roads can be choosen by using the figure shown here. This gives the starting point for junction choice .
Generally, two way AADT design year flows are used to determine the approximate level ofjunction provision
for new junctions.
Ghost islandjunctions can be provided at at-grade junction,
usually a T or staggered junction with in which an area is
.- .~se. marked on the carriageway, shaped and located so as to direct
Lmn ~ ~~ itrd~~ei
traffic movement. If there are a heavy right turn movements,
with the overseas experience, it is suggested that provide a
emo _ left hand diverging lane loop for those right turners. It is a
,m, I ae wm good practice from safety point of view . For right turning
traffic at staggered junctions can be constructed a separate
J lane by providing some flared type medians as well as by
reducing median -Nidths.
imam / ~I
SAO - The following sketches are taken from overseas practice

Abui
and illustrate good practice in the design of priority
junctions.
Figure TA 5.1 .1 Provision of T-junctions on
new single carriageway roads for various major
and minor road design year traffic flows.
Extracts from UK practice
b
V
i
- uL
the d9etrhq W Mme Strip,

IJJ-- Jv
%41
R
I`
t l
n -~G
` _
I I
nawin,~.~ weu,e
n.n.~ene. a~..M O,e d 0
.d! WNW Ie CAM Wd ~Yv kd,n
to ~O ridbrMiami i
Dul CurutmtWutfix %,M. NM J~ w W Nd amm la . Lxr

we RiotTeem

TECENICALANNEXES
I
I
~ I
J 1..A
I` I n
VI
icy.
rnt+aw s4.r yr,
Extracts from Indian practice

TECFINICALANNEXES
Technical Annex 5.2
Roundabouts
This technical annex contains diagrams and text from reference A11-section TD16/93-Geometric design of
Roundabouts. This reference should be used if designing new or improving existing roundabouts .
The principal objective of roundabout design is to secure the safe interchange of traffic between crossing traffic
streams with minimum delay. This is achieved by a combination ofgeometric layout features that are matched to
the volumes of traffic in the traffic streams speed and to any locational constraints that apply. There are two
broad regimes of roundabout operation. The first occurs in urban areas with high peak flows, often with marked
tidal variations and physical restrictions on the space available. The second regime occurs in rural areas and is
characterised by high approach speeds, low tidal variation and few physical constraints.
Entry width is an important feature that determines entry capacity and it often needs to be larger in urban
situations than in rural cases . The most important determinant of safety is vehicle deflection imposed at entry
because it governs the speed of the vehicles through the junction .
The majority of accidents at major/minor junctions and accesses are associated with right turns. The banning of
such right turns can be accomplished by providing a roundabout at a more important junction nearby . Some of
the safety aspects to be considered in designing a layout will include angle between arms, gradient, visibility to
the right at entry. For reducing the accidents at roundabouts some measures have been suggested by the design
manual for roads and bridges by U.K . Those measures are :-
* of `yellow bar markings' on flat dual carriageway approaches

by placing the signs and markings in correct positions i.e . ., positioning of warning signs, provision of
direction sign, making `give way' line etc.
provision of appropriate levels of skidding resistance on the approaches to roundabouts and on the
circulatory carriageways . Speed of traffic on a circulatory carriageway, skidding resistance is derived from
the surface texture of the aggregates which form the road surface.
Avoidance of abrupt and excessive superelevation in the entry region .
Provision of `reduce speed now' signs and or `count-down' markers .
In urban areas, the restrictions on space available coupled with the turning width requirements of large goods
vehicles may necessitate small normal roundabout which cannot provide sufficient entry deflection to the left by
means of the central island alone. In these cases deflection should be generated by means of enlarged traffic
deflection ghost islands in the entry as shown in figure . Subsidary ghost islands are areas defined by road
markings, flush with the road surface. They should not he kerbed or raised . The conspicuity of traffic deflection
islands should he improved by surfacing the area in white reflectorised material . To highlight the perimeter during
the hours of darkness, reflecting road studs should be affixed to the carriageway surrounding the islands along
the alignment of the warning line .
The following figures explains the typical road markings at rotaries (except should show give way markings at
entry to roundabout), how the deflection island design can increase entry deflection at an existing roundabout,
and entry deflection achieved by subsidary traffic deflection islands i.e .., by providing ghost islands for subsidary
traffic deflection .
CRR/, TRL Manual forSafery in Road Design

TECIPIIGAL IEXE3
Figure TA 5.2.1 Increase or entry deflection by using Figure TA 5.2 .2 Entry deflection achievement by
deflection island design at an existing roundabout, subsidary traffic deflection islands, A11
A11
Figure TA 5.2.3 Typical road markings at Rotaries (except should show giveway markings at entry
to roundabout), B7
Ministry of Surface Tmnsport Ross Silcock

TT~BFINICAL ANNEXES
Technical Annex 5.3
Signal Controlled Junctions
The use of traffic signals to control traffic movement can bring about major reduction in congestion and improve
safety. Signal controlled junctions are more economical in use of road space than roundabouts providing
equivalent capacity and allow more flexibility in layout and land take (in acquiring land) to avoid key areas. On
roads where land is available the saturation flow and capacity of an approach can be increased by widening the
road in the vicinity of thejunction to provide more ahead lanes. Another option, where there are large turning
movements is to divide the road space available to favour the turning lanes. Flaredjunction approach and extra
road space given to approaches are shown here. Details are taken from A57 .
f
I
t t
Flares juncUan approach

Extra road epees 9;Wn to apprenehaa
Figure TA 5.3 .1 Signalling at flared and extra roads space given to approaches, A57
Typical layout of signalised controlled junction is shown in Figure TA 5.3 .3 . It shows a four arm junction with
two stages with all movements permitted.
The approaches which is permitted to flow over

two stages should have three light primary signal .
The secondary signal placed beyond the junction,
should have four lights, including a right turn
arrow of 300 mm diameter illuminated on second
stage when the opposing traffic has been signalled
to stop as shown in figures.
eary our ox step. a.yuano.
' -r
Uraan nit- arrow rcr "pnt turn .
Figure TA5.3 .2 Stages of signalling, A57 Figure TA5.3 .3 Typical layout of a signalled controlled
junction, A57
CRRI, TRL Manu6l for Safety in Road Design

TECFINICALANNEXES
Pedestrians maybe allowed to cross any of the approaches to a junction will be one approach upon which the
pedestrian problem is most acute. Pedestrian stage should immediately follow the end of vehicle stage on this
approach. The signal sequence should be arranged to ensure that on termination of pedestrian period, the right
of way will revert to a nominated stage. This is shown here in a figure TA 5.3 .4.
Where carriageway widths permit, a large island in place ofthe normal refuge may be provided. Pedestrians can
negotiate one half of the carriageway when traffic on that approach is held on red at the junction signals . Normal
pedestrian signals are shown during this period The other half of the road is controlled by separate signals
which are located at the opposite end of the island . Normally the stagger should be at least one crossing width
in order to alert pedestrians that the crossing is two sections. A right-hand stagger may reduce junction
intergreen times by placing approach stop lines closer to a junction. A left-handed stagger, as shown in figure,
is normally preferred as pedestrians stepping on the central refuge will turn towards the approaching traffic
stream.
o- PrenW signed
P. Seonndwysig.tal o- Primary signal
o-o Pedestrian signal o--. secandarysigril
Pedestrian push Mutton o-a Pedestrian signal
wwmw au.nwmn mar

w rapuw on onw tee . . c b
e e
A ~-
a B
.~ . .fe,
4
A
-------
3J "OU 1
Sago seguerwe - stage Seque,a e
-
1 2 3
' U~ 2 Ul
T
Figure TA 53 .4 Signalling at pedestrian stage, A57 Figure TA 53 .5 Left handed stagger stage sequence,
A57

TECIMCALANNEXES
Technical Annex 5.4
Jnnction Signs and Markings
This technical annex sets out some of the current practice in Junction using sections of references B7 and BI 9.
It should be used together with technical annex 4.3 as well as the references .
Carriageway markings within and in the neighbourhood of an intersection can ensure orderly movement of
traffic . Road markings should be used at all junctions ifpossible as they are a cheap cost effective safety aid . The
type of carriageway marking for a particularjunction is a function of several variables like speed characteristics
oftraffic, availability ofspace etc. Markings injunctions are classified into two types (a) markings on approaches
to junctions and (b) markings in junctions area. Markings and signs for some junction types are shown here. On
the approach to thejunction informatory signs will be placed . Size ofthe informatory sign is 800 mm x 600 mm for
normal sized sign and 600 nun x 450 mm for small sized sign.
Overhead signs are placed on the approach to the junction to give proper directions and information to
motorists. The overhead sign are rectangnlar in shape, with the longer dimension horizontal . The vertical dimension
is referred to as height of the panel . A typical table for vertical dimensions adapted from California practice are
presented here .
Table TA5.4-1 Vertical Dimension of Overhead Traffic Sign, C8
Height (cm) Sign with Arrow on End Sign with Anew Beneath
Message Message Message Message Message Message Message Message Message Message
with with with with with with with with
Shield on Shield on Shield Shield Shield on Shield on Shield Shield
line line and above above and line lineand above above and
cardinal cardinal cardinal cardinal
direction direction direction direction
125 I Line
180 2 Lines 1 Line I Line 1 Line

2 Lines
205 I Line 1 Line
2 Lines
230 I Line
255 1 Line 2 Lines 2 Lines
280 2 Lines 2 Lines 1 Line
305 2 Lines I Line
As with any structure adjacent to the carriageway it will be necessary to provide crash protection through the
use of suitable safety barriers.

TECIINICALANNEXF.-
.y Fi F ,'ra~uv7
~I I I I Np] vy uax m.
att Ma' .ten i.a~.
JCTAILS OF PEOESIRIAN CROSSING

MARRING
STOP LINES
a
-ry"I~'~r
ppR 7W ui
:
1
;; ==
'Iho~] .
GIVEWY LINE
Figure TA 5.4.1 Location of Traffic Signs at Figure TA 5.4.2 Roadway markings at junction,
junction, B38 B38
Figure TA 5.4.2 Various road signs for junctions .

TECHNICXCANNEXES
CENTRE LINE MARKING FOR TWO I.ANL ROAD

( BEYOND INTERSLC TIONS)
CENTRE LINE MARKING FOR TWO LANE ROAD

(AT INTERSECTIONS)
DIAGONAL MARKING IN DETAILS OF DIAGONAL

ADVANCE OF DIRECTIONAL MARKING
ISLAND
Figure TA 5.4.4 Directional markings at junctions, Figure TA5.4.5 Lane markings atjunctionsand
B38 junction approaches, B38
- ---Jl
LI , L? L1
s
e11sn
TTrra f h.
i Wety Ferre Type
vl1 >d
We table)
ua pa of eorrie
I
L-
'-_n d 3urfn"ap1 J T
I
,!
f,"~5b tu
I Flared End EM AndIarege
~,ears'a is IS mp LSet~;k 1330 (8:1 :11 free frog 15es Or .1M
.etaen back of teen feca of bees t~' dye of -arriepley Ell mc G221
and -*A:$ of slmxtirs. or 500 ai- is oack of 16"dca'ipf
Fsdahcul-er
Figure TA 5.4 .6 Single sided TCB orsingle sided DBB.

-T VICALANNEXES
F V Prmlmnary
PV, Rm:unvnerlOM,on
Dvw I If b0 to 1 100 300 to 600 zebra

Ovar 2 e too 50 to 1 100 400 to 750 D .wOao lab's
Over 10, 50 to 1 100 Ovre, boo Pnncan
Over 10e Ova, 1100 Over 300 Pehoan
Ova, 2 t Ice SO to 1100 Ove " 7b0 Orvided Pahtan
Mar 2 e Ioe Ovar I I CIO Ovlr " 00 DMdW PahGan
NO U . 1 . PWtWdan end "bole fio am are the WNY1 OI thn Iel~

Iar Ihorrr5
2 " IOW vadth n+W ft the djcidi Iq factor whM conawertrpl ,,nether
of not a rev rted pedeebiea IsVlity should be prCVvlnd
Divided
Pelican
r-, +--r-r T T-T-

l f%Ia 2000
PtOhgTR1ANC CRO551M IPI IPtdelh :
Figure TA 5.4.7 UK warrants for pedestrian crossing facilities .

TECHNICALANNEXES
Technical Annex 6.1
Typical Terms of Reference for Safety Audits on National and State Highways
The Terms of Reference (TOR) for a Safety Audit are simple and it will generally consist of four main sections .
Section 1 Introduction
For a new road scheme this section will need to set out a brief description of the proposed scheme, including
anticipated traffic flows, and the audit stage required, that is ;
During Feasibility Study Feasibility Stage

Completion ofPreliminary Design Stage I
Completion ofDetailed Design Stage 2
Completion ofConstruction (prior to opening) Stage 3
For existing roads, this section will need to set out a brief description of the current road, any proposals for
change, the accident issues already raised and traffic flows.
For both new and existing roads there will need to be a brief description of the experts required and possibly the
source of funding .
Section 2 Scope of Services
This section will need to specify in more detail the full extent of the work. Details will need to include : length of
road to be audited including start and finish locations, the junctions, the extent of audit on side roads and the
extent of the surrounding network that may be affected by the scheme . For existing roads it will be necessary to
include accident records and any interpretation available (possibly in an annex) .
(A) The information required (depending on stage) includes :

0 Standard cross sections - including details of side slopes and side drains
0 Detailed section plans-showing horizontal and vertical alignment and position ofbridges, culverts,
accesses, lay-byes, roadside development, safety barriers, signs and markings
0 Details of curve treatment- showing geometry, carriageway widening, super elevation etc.;
0 Plan of standard junction layout - including signing and markings
0 Designs of safety barriers, footways, bridge parapets, delineator, bus lay-byes etc.
(B) It will be necessary to include (as an annex) any previous audit reports and departure reports from the
project team .
The scope should set out what elements specifically need to be reviewed and analysed as well as noting that the,
checklists for the level of stage audit being undertaken should be adhered to . However, it should also be noted
that this should not limit the auditors solely to these elements .
The scope must also set out the reports required (and any specific report requirements) any special reporting or
consultation requirements and the duration of the services .
Section 3 Services and Facilities to be provided by the Client
This section should briefly set out what the client will provide in the way of office accommodation, secretarial
and technical support, equipment, plans, accommodation (if applicable), transport (if applicable) etc.
Section 4 Time Schedule

This schedule should set out the proposed commencement and termination date plus any key milestone dates
during the course of the study.
The auditor appointed should be an expert and it should not prove necessary to include the correct stage
checklist in the TOR, although this may be done for added emphasis .
The attached Terms of Reference indicate the general level of detail required . This is based on an actual example
that was for an existing expressway, where some issues had already been raised, and it provides a good example
for audits of existing roads.

TECHNICALANNEXFS
TIIUVSOFIREFERENCE
FOR
CONSULTINGSERVICFSFORANALYSESANDIIVIPROVEMENTOFTHE
TRAFFICACCIDENTSrrUATIONONTHE)OOMEXPRFSSWAY
INTRODUCTION
1. The Government of India, with financial assistance from the World Bank, for improvement ofthe Traffic
Accident Situation on the XXXXX Expressway. The XXXXX Expressway (XXE) has been opened to
traffic since December 1993 and operates as a 4-lane toll road with full control of access. No slow
moving traffic is allowed on the expressway, the XXE is maintained and operated (including toll collection)
by the XXXXX Expressway Management Bureau (XXEMB). There are 21 toll stations, 7 administrative
centres, 7 service areas, and 7 maintenance centres along XXE. Currently, advanced systems for
tolling, telecommunications and monitoring of traffic along XXE are under implementation and are
expected to be substantially completed by the end of June 1997. The XXEMB co-operates with the
Traffic Police of the State Home Ministry in policing XXE and ensuring smoothtraffic flow. The Traffic
Police takes care oftraffic accidents and enforcement oftraffic laws and regulations .
2 Up to end of June 1996, about 2498 traffic accidents took place, in which about 260 died and 767
people were injured . The traffic on XXE reaches about 12,000 vehicles per day. Preliminary analyses
of these accidents has shown that about 49% of the total are single vehicle accidents, about 57% of
the fatalities take place during night time ; and about 25% of the accidents involve large trucks with
trailers . XXEMB and the Traffic Police ascribe many of the accidents to poor technical conditions of
the vehicles, over speeding, driver fatigue, overloading of trucks, and unfamiliarity with driving on
expressways . According to an investigation conducted in June 1996, it was found out that 60% of
the drivers did not use seat belts .
3. The XXEMB considers that too many traffic accidents are taking place on XXE and would like to
reduce the tragic loss of lives and injuries. Consequently, it seeks the services of a highly qualified
traffic safety expert, to develop a program to help reduce traffic accident rates. These services will be
financed from the proceeds of a loantcredit extended by the World Bank to the project
SCOPEOFSERVICFS
4. The services of the experts, shall include, but not necessarily be limited to the following tasks. The
expert is encouraged to propose reasonable modifications or additions to these tasks.
(a) Review the existing relationship between XXEMB and Traffic Police regarding the traffic safety
situation, and propose reasonable and justified changes, if any . Based on site visit to XXE and the
existing available traffic accident records, analyse the traffic accident situation, including
relationships between accidents and factors related to the driver, vehicle, expressway, and
environment.
(b) Review available accident records for the XXE.to determine if XXE has helped improve the traffic
accident situation in the XXXXX corridor.
(c) Based on site visit to XXE and the existing available traffic accident records, analyse the traffic
accident situation, including relationships between accidents and factors related to the driver,
vehicle, expressway, and environment .
(d) Based on the analyses in ( c) above, propose effective and affordable measures, which take
conditions in XXXXX into consideration to deal with the minor factors containing in traffic
accidents . As a minimum these should focus on
(1) Over speeding

(ii) Driver fatigue
(iii) Overloading oftrucks
(iv) Poor technical conditions of vehicles with emphasis on tyres
(v) Drunken driving
(vi) Bad weather conditions including fog, ice/sleet rain etc,
(vii) Regulatory control and its level

TECHNICAL ANNEXES
(e) Based on a review and analyses of the available traffic accident records determine the accident
blackspots along XXE . Tentatively, these are expected to include locations of horizontal and vertical
curves, toll areas/interchanges . The expert is to develop a programme, with outline designs, to
address the accident blackspots.
(f) The shoulder on XXE is 2 .5 metres wide, and some of the vehicles using it protrude into the moving
traffic lane, these result in some accidents. The expert is to pay particular attention to this problem
and to propose effective solutions including the possible widening of shoulders to 3.0 metres. The
expert is to conduct a preliminary feasibility study of this measure.
(9) Based on the site visit to XXE and review of the XXXXX codes/standards on traffic control devices,
the expert is to undertake a review of the conformity, arrangement and installation as well as
sufficiency of traffic signs and markings along XXE. Also, he is expected to make recommendations
for improvement, if any, in this regard.
(h) Based on the preceding and after careful consultation with the XXEMB and the Traffic Police, the
expert is to develop targets for road safety along XXE for the next five years as well as a program for
road safety improvement. The targets as well as the program have to be effective, affordable and
implementable within the local conditions . The expert is to provide a general cost estimate and an
implementation schedule for the program . The activities to be implemented within the first two years
are to be given greater attention and details including a cost estimate .
(i) Develop outline specifications for speed radars and breath analysers that XXEMB can use in
purchasing such equipment in the future .
(I) Document the results of the above work in a report to be submitted (in English) to XXEMB and the
World Bank . The report should be discussed in draft form with XXEMB/Traffic Police (SHM) before
the expert leaves India . The draft report should be faxed or sent by courier service to the Bank for
comment. The final report, reflecting reasonable comments by the Bank, is to be submitted within
two weeks of the receipt of such comments .
5 The services are expected to last about 2 .0 months, with one person-month in India and about one
month to finalise the draft report .
SERVICES AND FACILITIES TO BE PROVIDED BY XXEMB
6 To facilitate the work of the expert, XXEMB would provide the following.
a. A team of local highway safety specialists to work with the international expert .
b. Provide available accident data and engineering reports related to XXE, and facilitate
contacts with other agencies .
c. Secretarial services .
d. Fax/communication facilities related to the work .
e. Transport within XXXXX State related to the work, including arranging all site visits .
TIMESCHEDULE
7 XXEMB would like to have the services of the expert started as soon as possible, but not later than
January 1997 . The services are expected to be completed by the end of March 1997 .

TECHhRCALANNIMS
Accident Report Farm
This annexe contains examples of both an English language version of the Accident Report Form and a version
being used in Karnataka State. The forms are designed with the English version as a carbon copy of the Kannada
version.

TECHIQICALANNEXES
INDIA Road Accident Report Form 1' FRNO: ................

2. STATE 3. DIS 4, POLICE STATION NOM 5. SECTION
OF LAW ...... . ... . .. .. . . . . ..... .. . . ....
ACCIDENT 6.DAY TMONTH e.YEAR 11 . SEVERITY 12 . NO . OF VEHICLES INVOLVED :
DATE m m m 1 . Fatal . M 13 . NO . OF DRIVER CASUALTIES: m
9. DAY OF 2. Senous injury m
' ""' (24 hrs) 3. Minor injury 1 4 . NO . OF PASSENGER CASUALTIES :
::m
WEEK i *ars" . 4. Dam; 9e onN 1 1 5. NO . OF PEDESTRIAN CASUALTIES :
m; m m
16 . COLLISION TYPE 17 .ACCIOENTSPOT rllY nelei arrtrnpl e r ,al"dJace )tpox:
1 . 0venum . no collision 1 . Not at junction 18 . JUNCTION CONTROL 19 . ROAD CHARACTER
2. Head-on 2 . T junction T t. Not at junction
- 3. Rear-end M 3 . Y- juncfion Y L Straight & flat
4. Side impact 2. Uncontrolled
4 . Cross roads t 3. Police / manual 2. Curve
5. Side swipe 3. Incline
! 6. Hit arked vehicle 5. Offset +r 4. Signals (working)
8 . Circle 4. Curve & incline
7. Hn~xed object Q 5 . Signals (not working)
7. Raihvay crossing + 5. Crest of hill
e . Hit pedestrian 6 . Stop sign
9 . Hit pedal cyclist 8 . Bridge 7 . Give Way sign 5. Other . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . . .. .
10 . Other . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . 9 . Other . .... .`.. .. . . .. . 8 .0 ther .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . .... . . .. ..
20. ROAD TYPE 24 . SURFACE 25 . SURFACE 26 . ROAD CONDITION 27 . WEATHER
t . Two way TYPE CONDITIO N t .Clear
1. Concrete t. Dry t. No influence on accident M
2. One way. 2 . Rain
2. Bitumen (Tar) M 2. Wet 2. Pot-holed
~ 3 . Fog / miss -
21 . ROA . SIpULDE 3. Gravel 3. Muddy 3. Drainage Ditch
4 . Wind
WIDTH wDTH 4 . Kutcha 4. Flooded 4. Construction work / matenal 5 . Other . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
5. Other 5. Other . . .. .. . . ... . . ... . S. Other . .. . . .. .. . . . . .. . . I
F~ m
28 . LOCATION TYP E 29 . MAIN CAUSE 30 . HIT & RUN
23 . SEPARATION 1
1 . City/ Town t . Vehicle defect 1 . Na
t . No Divider M 2. Vill age / sett lement 2. Road/ environment detach 2. Yes
2 . Divider 3 . Rural area 3 . Human error LJ
`" ACCIDENT LOCATION ~ IANDMARK t . . . . . . . . . . .__ .-Distance . . . . ._ . . ..~(km/m i

; NAME OF Road . . . . . . . . . .BETYVEEN
- j
L-LAND MARK 2 . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . .(km/a. .'
NAME OF CITY?OWWVILLAGE
... . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . ... . FOR JUNCTION : NAME OF SECOND ROAD ... .... .... . .. . .... Distance . . . . . . .. . . . .(kndrc.
ACCIDENT LOCATION MAP COLLISION DIAGRAM SKETCH 31 .XY MAP

Draw single line road map showing accident Mark the position and dr}ection of each vehicle before collision 32. X =LLW
spot in relation to prominent landmarks such and details of the road layout at accident spot.
33 . Y
as bridges or Km posts . Mark distances to =
landmarks . 34 . ROUTE
35 . KM ~~
36 . 100M 0 '
e. NODE 1 i
39 . NODE 2
71 . POLICE DESCRIPTION OF ACCIDENT WITRESSES

t . NAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-------- -- ---------- ADDRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
. 2 . NAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
._------'-------------
S ___ ____ __ ___ _ ADDRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REPORTING OFFICER
NAME . . . . . .
------------------------
-- - - --------------^-- RANK . . . .. . . . . . . . NO_ . . . . . . .
------------------.----- ACTON fSPECIAL NOTE
va. Y57
------------------------

TECI-INICAL ANNEXES 72
TI MCALANVEXES
VEHICLE 1 4D. VEHICLE DRIVER 1

U11VCr, J
NMAE.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OWNER'S AME: . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VER'S. . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
ADDRESS:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ADDRESS: . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
A1 . VENMETTPQ: N. VEHICLE MANDEUVRE: 48. LICENCENO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . 51 . DRIVER a
, . aewcTeN 1. OekQWeyr, -1 aooneWritcNONVALID INJ U RY.
. 2 Saao!- b~ z TumwpNe
]. wpa dD 3. Tmin9"ye m 49 . DRIVER SEX : L F&W
a,TYeteneew a. UAKmip .J W-Wle F-Ft"ne4 2. SarusaVW
- A anww~ QftP s. awtogwdpsd0l -+ ] . ~"Fey
S. 7101 619L, . ~r~,~, 6 . omnWiN(~n?el H 59. DRIVERAGE A Unopaes
7 . 14,i T. Reswiq H-
fT9^
s. Newraeseaw e . seaussw H- 52 DRIVER ERROR
s. a7o,aNlwr,2 9. 9uAYnSee H _
,o.9es G~ to per9e0asiosr, . .G-'.. t . "" "
___ . 2FaapNasWp A.OoaYygtstlosq,ea
1. 1, .]Cpp"emroW
SYNAw9m 7.0.10"
Be0
:12QrtYNWnK ~~~,+ 9 D ,AOS+s .-___. ..__._ ~~~
,1 .MnWQam a.Tea1W, &9wT~
E
R.trm 5 . ioenem 9 . D9A -- . _. ... ..
45 . VEHICLE 56 , M IAM
19 De "e-. .. . .__
O-c__
CL
TI :
DEFECT
- PART OF 53. AtLCOHOLIDRUGa
Write first! letters of.+ , . NYV srwp VEH:
a, RON 1. "mspeeYE 1 Ongsawpanse
~ER%140091,-
e,
5, w 2. 0
2. T~ S. Lqhb 1, A. g.,
El
8~, & 47. SKID
1 7,7.V ofm~-------- LENGTH FT i0r~
VEHICLE 1 40
4 VEHICLE
;TR R RI
DRIVERS
NAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
=
9"m4 RF(',I,qTRATION NO
OWNERS NAME: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. .. .... DRIVERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ADDRESS : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ADDRESS. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. ..
".
41. VEHICLETYPF1 44. VEHICLE MANCEUVRE: 48 LICENCENO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 . DRIVER
t , uaa gw , . T u Iwll K I
2. AmYr 8~ z Tu "KpY9 ~' ~ /!none Writ.: 2XNVALID
1~-1~~ INJURY
3 AYpo dtes m 3. TumnpUpu --T 1--1--2 49 . DRIVER SEX: , . Fate
. . TMetaMWr A' . . U-bwn9 v Y .~ F-FAY 2 . 6FrgmYw7
]. LaI,MpNan 422Y 1 orNlr+pMngvml -+ 9 aMOtw"n
`'D . DRIVER AGE 4. W.P~
- 7, UPGp4~ 7. I H
s.Hee.TD~van e.sudtrnsan .w 52 DRIVER ERROR -
5. MRwww~ ! 9 . ~scp t--b_
Nl.9A i~ ,0.Pe~as~ - - , .Nom
.9gcti ILTIeppaemrose a _ _ _ _ -2, F&VwaOnp e. (\WpepadU~m9mN -.
:2.cjVbrt,aw a`pa~0 ,2 OSw._.. . .__. . . .. .. -"'--- ] ~ z aaponmwn9

- ,l~YDrwn a. ioelut A IWITVmq
,i7rsW - d5- VEHICLE 46. MMaCfD A ioeolow 9 . Ose_..._ .. .. .. .
tAOnw"_"'
DEFECT C~ RARTOF S3' ALCOHOL/DRUGS- -
:-
of . . RVN 7 . NA .~"
. Wrtb first A . wm . SNemp 1 D~R7aw~Na' ~ ,
" HxerA
YAKERSMOOEL t a ~ 5. Len 2 Akdgl9USpenee
. Tyres 5. Lea ,. Npm
.2. s. wa S0 . SEATBELTIHELAIET
] 81.~
2 6 MW4pfe IT. SKID
2 Fra4 7 ~~ , . Sea, pgMe9"e,npn
ai -YODELVEM ( 7. aW -- 7 Rear LENGTH m FT I 2 NOTawn Q
-K
' S. ~- r~fafd"Wb'T
" `'s` Iiln"p" 3
-45'FMMAVPINO
pawe lromelCe anal ~ ,
57. ML w. s ,. `~ '+ < ,w.e
.ur ~
NAME SL ADDRESS " mm
me
1ta aef w.nYn gfts Mw
1~ $`~'2'
~"M9SCEA? 59 {
~1~5 S ' -
~" 7
Y x :
~a~
PEDESTRIAN CASUALTJES ?"" { " ~^' .

s2 . s9. M sA ss. . '21 Nm+ ' x
NAME SL ADDRESS Ya aGf Mawr lKpv IarnN M"y ~' ~`~. ' C".
A .B~kpirsupe
6x(;We(ryj T",FsIF9 a ;`
4'BhNAiiyS>ONr
61r pA99'DENHRHT Fe
AT4EDESHIf97 ws
af .nmaaaea7eN . ,:. NKme,aa7gN "~ -
r.OnwYe .erwYae .. " . q/" -' lNnYn Y'i.`"I~Y~dplZlma }ndmilltrlblaplespelir .e7pwf'/al ~"f
.F
i: "7 eN.ms l ra."4y ~ AM : -Y F~NNm~ ~p FF'.Ynmyytfe (~IM~ /a1N~Y a~.A.+~lapiaVS(Y.6 ~lwera~
R CH CO S. Nl. 69. 7U.
Ministry of Surface -Transport Ross Silcock

TECENIC&LANNEXES
. . . ... ..
_i22l
r . mtsi .f_5 13. ZUL:
M -1 4. 4W&W md ;laid, :
EM
_T
;=,iE
tlZPZ2;d
0mad 66. W 7. soft 8. 1wr 11 . &W,21 12 . vad;przz96jemd ;zza'WrIV gos%
as ba~ 13. mo:bAizorg ?mexdd goal,
9. ;ndcdl
a pw = TIO- (2 f1). 3.
2' 14, mo:bA.QoZS W,0=E-J6d ;~osl,
Did 4. wa)D v~6 15. mo:bA.Qot3 =d?m0rIV ;~c All
ip
4, T
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16.4640=
jZpzaf
s LA . 17. uzqz~s ;r MW tjowiir~
M
d
1.
3 . Aw-Z at
otp -vzrd
abwr~. I X4 VOW
2 T- 16-0
3 . Y- goo
T
y
E] 1. 18, goo Dotxsp
52 .
19 . cmczb 5drz
7
4. wwAxjs
,
5. dm ~zd 4 . tqqM + 33. *x&xl
~t 21 .
6 *s =Dw4 at 4 x4p, (Wpc;S) -

7+ j=,,~ 6+
uv4w AT
5. M10, APO) 4. akb* ZLW Sq I ~6
8+ T q4m~w 5 - QxA axc~,A
9+ e
6~ mW %ALm
at ge" - 6+ . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lold . ............... ...... B. qsf ..... . . . . . . .. . . .. . .
7. mm
8. vsf . . . .. . . ._. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .
20. oj AGO 24 . wed+dT.GaGa 25 . aed~e 26 . ox o 27. ~=
1 . ~y~~m 21 . ~
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T 1 . exgeur 1. v.a 1 . n,.
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28 . 29 . =), mOr 30. ~'.n,73; =0
23 . D" ~~ oG '"~ ~a
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e5u 3G NQ YaU9 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . acG . .. . . . (SCUel .'Ue) -'

. .. . . . . .. . . .
ezca xzm . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
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L-mow 2 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . aes . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . (Saxlax)
:1A
. .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . ... .. . aJe : JGY,3 Cb u.4~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ^. 3 . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . (S :ue I ax)
HZ JS NVd 9 ~ 52p1J L'

F_T7 .
U
31 . %Y .7,1
a4f)=iF7 yd mmx7 aN :aSr e4 S:3_: ._43a
A Ld / a cYk Ced ^ UG:SRV 4b ! 32. % - W _ y
C dok .
HH J ;d:.w, J.eJb . ~VJ.;.: e6C ROR ~~` =v 33 Y =
34 . as
35 e~
36 . . 100 Lle
37 . wns 4g,
38. '.nrat
39 . acer2
71 . nd-mw u l nedr ;r wod ~~rtvl
2. = .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
:rmr, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
_-_-------_ .-----__-- G3D =Jtl) :~ uCCaJOrM
----------_-------___ _ -- 41.C) . . . . . . . . . .
.. .. x:
---------------
CRR7, TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

..

,t
C
~,
APPENDICES
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A :-
INTERNATIONAL
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX B :-
INDIAN CODES
APPENDIX C:-
INDIAN REFERENCES

Appendix 1
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
INTERNATIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 Towards Safer Roads in Developing Conntries

A Guide for Planners & Engineers
TRL Ross Silcock ODA 1991, reprinted 1994
2 Road Safety Gnidelines for Asia Pacific Region

Ross Silcock TRL Asian Development Bank (ADB) 1997
3 Vulnerable Road Users in Asia Pacific Region

Ross Silcock TRL Asian Development Bank 1997
4 GnidefnesfortheSafety AnditofHighways
Institution of Highways & Transportation (IHT) UK m
5 Standard for Road Safety Audits HD19/90

Department of Transport UK 1990
6 Advice Note for Road Safety Audits HA 42/90

7 International Approaches to Road Safety Audit

MJGoodgeAUSTROADS Australia 1992
8 Road Safety Audits

Roads & Traffic Authority New South Wales Australia 1991
9 Safety Audit Handbook

Danish Road Directorate 1994
10 Methods for Determining Benefits of Safety Audit

Transfund New Zealand 1997
11 Design Manual for Roads & Bridges

Highways Agency HMSO UK Current
12 Overseas Road Note 6 A Gnide to Geometric Design

Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) UK 1988
13 Safety Effects of Road Design Standards

Dutch Road Safety Research Institute SWOV 1994
14 Safety Barriers (Rural Roads)

NAASRA Austrs.lia 1987
15 Theory &Practice ofTraffic Calming

Carmen Bass-Klau 1990
CRRI, TRI. Manual for Safety in Road Design

Appendix 2
g APPENDICES
16 Traffic Calming a Code of Practice

Kent County Council UK 1990
17 Cyclists&Traffic Calming
Cyclists Touring Club UK 1991
18 Traffic Calming Gnidelines

Devon County Council 1991
19 Village Speed Control Working Gronp Final Report

Local Authorities UK 1993
20 Towards Guidelines for Retail Centres along Traffic Routes

RTANew South Wales Australia 1989
21 Traffic Calming
Institute of Transportation Engineers Australia 1991
22 Road Safety Code of Good Practice

Local Authorities Associations UK 1989
23 Road Safety Plan

Oxfordshire County Council UK 1990
24 Urban Safety Management

Institution of Highways & Transportation UK 1990
25 Children &Roads:ASafer Way

26 Road Safety 2000 Strategic Plan for Road Safety

RTANew South Wales Australia 1992
27 Safety First Victoria's Road Safety Strategy

V ICROADS Australia 1995
28 Killing Speeds & Saving Lives

29 Accident Reduction &Prevention

Institution of Highways & Transportation UK 1990
30 Hazardous Locations: Identification of Countermeasnres

OECD Paris 1976
31 Guidelines for Planning for Road Safety

TRANSIT New Zealand 1991
32 Overseas Road Note 10 Costing Accidents in Developing Countries

Transport Research Laboratory UK 1995
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Siicock

Appendix 3
APPENDICES
33 Highway Design & Operational Practices Related to Highway Safety

AASHTO USA 1974
34 Road Side Design Guide

AASHTO USA 1989
35 Road Transport Safety &Security Handbook

George Burrows Kogan Page UK, 1982
36 Human Factors in Highway Traffic Safety

T.W .Forbes Wiley 1972
37 Alcohol In Relation to Highway Safety

Highway Safety Program Manual No 8 N14TTA USA 1975
38 A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways & Streets

AASHTO USA 1990
39 Pedestrian Safety
Highway Safety Program Manual No 14 NHSTA USA 1974
40 Guide to Safety Features for Local Roads &Streets

Federal Highway Administration USA Reprinted 1990
41 Traffic Engineering Handbook

Institute of Transportation Engineers USA 1992
42 AManual ofRoad Lighting inDeveloping Countries

Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), UK
And Institution of Light Engineers, UK 1990
43 Roads and Traffic in Urban Areas

Institutional of Highways and Transportation and
Department of Transport, UK 1987
44 Yellow Box Experimental Carriageway Markings

Transport Research Laboratory Report- LR1010, UK 1991
45 Handbook of Highway Safety Design and Operating Practices

Federal Highway Administration, USA 1978
46 Accidents at4-arm Roundabouts

Transport Research Laboratory Report -LR1120 1984
47 The Use ofTRANSYT at Signalised Roundabouts;

Transport Research Laboratory Report - RR274 1990
48 ARCADY2 :AnEnhanced Program Model Capacities,Queries and

Delays at Roundabouts
Transport Research Laboratory Report -RR35 1985

Appendix 4
APPENMES
49 Residential Roads and Footpaths

Layout Considerations, Design Bulletin 32 1992
50 Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice

Part 6 Roundabouts
Austroads, Australia 1993
51 GnidetoTraffic Engineering Practice

Part 7 Traffic Signals
52 Traffic Signs Manual

Chapter 7 The Design of Traffic Signs
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions, UK 1997
53. Road Safety Action Plans and Programmes

Guidance for Asia-Pacific Region
Ross Silcock and TRL, United Nations 1998
54. Road Safety Audit

55. Overtaking Lane Practice in Canada and Australia,

Research Report ARRNo. 144
Australian Road Research Board, Australia. 1986
56 . Rural Road Design- Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads

57 . The Use of Traffic Signal in Developing Cities

- Overseas Road Note 13.
58. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

AASTHO, USA 1994
59. Traffic Calming in Practice

CSS etal., UK 1990
60. Road Safety Checks

Infrastructure Notes Transport RD-9
World Bank . 1992
61. C. A. O'Flaherty Highways and Traffic 1974
62. Overseas Road Note 3. A guide to surface dressing

in tropical and snb-tropical countries.
Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) Limited UK
63. Highway Design Manual

Republic of Iraq 1982

Appendix 5
APPENDICES
64 . Traffic Advisory Leaflet 9/94 Horizontal Deflection

Department of Transport UK I 4A
65 . Safety of StreetWork andRoad Works -ACode ofPractice

Department of Transport HMSO UK 1992
66 . National Cycle Network- Guidelines and Practical Details

Sustrans UK 1997
67 . Urban Planning and Design for Road Public Transport

UK
68 . Highway Constructions Details

HMSO UK 1987
69 . Designing Safe Side Drains

Traffic Engineering and Safety Unit HMG Nepal 1996
70 . Safety at Bridges
Traffic Engineering and Safety Unit HMG Nepal 1997
71 . Indian efforts to make roads safer.

R. D. Mehta, D. P. Bahadur, Nirmal Jit Singh
Second Conference on Asian Road Safety Beijing 1996
CRRI, TRL Manual far Sgfety in Road Design

Appendix 6
APPENDICES
APPENDIX B
INDIAN STANDARDS/GUIDELINES
(IN NUMERICAL ORDER)
1. IRC02-1968 Route marker signs for national highways (1 st revision)

2 IRC 11-1962 Recommended practice for the design and layout of cycle tracks
3. IRC 12-1983 Recommended practice for location and layout of road side motor-fuel filling
and motor fuel filling-cum-service stations (2^" revision)
4. IRC 30-1968 Standard letters and numerals of different heights for use on highway signs
5. IRC 31-1969 Route marker signs for state routes
6. IRC 32-1969 Standard for vertical and horizontal clearances of over-head electric power
and telecommunication lines as related to roads
7. IRC35-1970 Code of practice for road markings
8. IRC 38-1988 Guidelines for design of horizontal curves for highways and design/tables
(Istrevision)
9, IRC39-1986 Standards for rail-road crossings
10. IRC41-1972 Type design for check barriers
11 . IRC46-1972 A policy on road side advertisements (1st revision)
12 . IRC52-1989 Recommendationsaboutalignmentsurveyandgeometricdesignofhillroads
(Istrevision)
13 . IRC53-1992 Road accident forms A-1 &4 (Istrevision)
14 . IRC 541974 Lateral and vertical clearance for underpasses for vehicular traffic
15 . IRC 62-1976 Guidelines for control of access of highways
16. IRC 64-1990 Guidelines for capacity of roads in rural areas
17 . IRC 65-1976 Recommended practice for traffic rotaries
18 . IRC 66-1976 Recommended practice for Sight distance on rural highway
19. IRC67-1977 Code of practice for road sign
20. IRC69-1977 Space standards for roads in urban areas
21 . IRC70-1977 Guidelines on regulations and control of mixed traffic in urban areas
22. IRC 73-1980 Geometric design standard for rural non-urban highways
23 . IRC79-1981 Recommendedpractice forroaddelineators
24 . IRC 80 .1981 Type designs for pick-up bus stops for rural i.e . non-urban highways
25 . IRC 86-1983 Geometric design standards for urban roads in plains
26 . IRC92-1986 Guidelines for the design of interchanges in the urban areas
27 . IRC 93-1985 Guidelines on design and installation of road traffic signals
28 . IRC99-1988 Tentative guidelines on the provision of speed breakers for control of speed
on minor roads
29. IRC103-1988 Guidelines for pedestrians facilities
30. IRC Special 12-1973 Tentative recommendations on provision of parking spaces in urban areas
31 . IRC Special 15-1996 Ribbon development along highways and its prevention
I . IRC Special 23 -1985 Vertical curves for highways
33. IRC Special 31-1W. New traffic signs
34. IRC Special 32-1988 Road safety for children (5-12 years old)
35 . IRC Special 41-1994 Guidelines on design of at-grade intersections in the rural and urban areas
36 . IRC Special 43-1994 Guidelines on low-cost traffic management techniques for urban areas
37 . IRC Special 44-1996 Highway safety code
38 . IRCSpecial -1992 Type designs for intersections on national highways .

Appendix 7
APPENDICES
39. MOST Circular Guidelines for Design of Median Opening on

RW/NH33022/4/92 Divided National Highway
24 June 1992
40 . MOST Circular Truck Parking Area Complexes
1/PB/17/76
10July 1979
41 . MOST Circular Passenger Oriented Wayside Amenities
RW/34032/1/86
7 August 1986
42. MOST Circular Parking Lay-byes along National Highways
RW/34032/5/88 DO H
22 August 1988
43. MOST Circular Highway Patrolling
DTR(RT)i80/G (10.14)
16 February 1982
44. MOST Circular Guidelines for the installation of Traffic Safety
RW/NH/33022/1/94 Barriers
24Junel994
45 . MOSTCircular Plantation, Maintenance and Cutting of Trees on
NHIH-P/15/75 National Highways
20 May 1976
46. MOST Circular Greening ofNationalHighway Land
RW/NH-11052/5/95
26 November 1996
47 . MOSTCircular Provision of Hard Shoulders on both sides
NH II/MISC/37/76 carriageway on the approaches of overbridges
October 1978
48 . MOST Circular A brief Note on Expressways
RW/PL-30 (68)/82
10 May 1984
49 . MOSTCircular Provision for Road Safety in estimates for
RW/NH-33022!1/90 National Highway Projects
20 August 1990
50. MOST Circular Drainage of dual carriageway on curves.
RW/NH- 33015/1/93
30 December 1993
51 . MOST Circular Provision of paved shoulder along 4 lane
RW/NH-33054!20/88
13 July 1998
52 . MOST Circular Provision of paved shoulder on National Highways
RW/NH-3305420/88
10 May 1989
53 . IS 10322 Part I - 1982 Specification for Luminaires
Part 1 General Requirements .
54 . IS 1332-1959 Specification for Reinforced
Concrete StreetLightingColumns
55 . IRC 36-1970 Recommended Practice for the construction of Earth Embankments for
Road Works.
56 . MOST Specification for Road and Bridge Works (Third Revision)

Appendix 8
APPENDICES
APPENDIX C
INDIAN REFERENCES
1. India Accident Investigation & Prevention Manual

MOST, ADB, TRL, Ross Silcock,1996
2 Sarin S.M. et. al. (1986) Roadside Plantation for Road Safety . International Seminar on Road Safety,
Srinagar.
3. "Road User Cost Study In India"- Final Report (1982)
4. Institution ofEngineers (India) Journal C-1, Volume 51, March,1971 .
Satin, S.M . et al (1991), "Knowledge of Road Traffic Signs And Road Traffic Rules Among Truck
Drivers In India" International Conference on Road Traffic Safety, I.I.T. New Delhi.
6. C .R.RI ., "Development of Thermoplastic Material As A Substitute For Road Marking Paint" - Final
Report", December, 1995.
7. Sarin, S.M. B.L . Suri, R.K. Bajpai & N. Mittal (1992), "Characteristics of Road Accidents And Recording
System In India- A case study of Haryana" Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi .
8. R-68 State-of-the-Art Report MOST, New Delhi .
9. Motor Vehicle Act 1988.
10. Sarin, S.M. (1983), "Experience with Bus Lanes Under Mixed Traffic Conditions", Compendium of
Technical Papers, Institute of Transportation Engineers, U.S.A., 53'" Annual Meeting .
11. Sarin, S.M. et al (1985), "Right of Way At Unsignalised intersection", Indian Highways, Volume 13 (10).
12. D.PandurangaRaoandB .MohanVenkatRaman(1991),ÙrbanRoadUsers'TrafficSafetyKnowledge

- A case study of V isakhapatnam city, India" International Conference on Traffic Safety, I .I.T., New
Delhi.
13 . Sarin, S.M ., B.L. Suri, Suit. Nishi Mittal & Dr. R.K. Suri (1994), "Report on Training Progranune For Traffic
Police Personnel In Eleven Second Generation Metropolitan Cities of India", Central Road Research
Institute, New Delhi.
14. Mittal N., & Dr. S.M. Satin (1995), "Economic lmpactof Encroachment on Delhi Roads", Central Road
Research Institute.
15. Sarin, S.M., & A.C. Sarna (1981) "Pedestrian, The Neglected Road User", Indian Highways, August.
16. Sarin, S.M. &P.K. Sarkar (1987), "An Assessment of Facilities of Cyclists In Delhi", Indian Highways,
Vol 15, No.7, July. ,
17. Sarin, S.M., Mrs . Nishi Mittal & Sh. Basant Lal (1995),"Hoardings-A Threat To Road Traffic Safety
And Environment", Central Road Research Institute .
18: Dr. Geetam Tiwari (1992), "Accident Recording System : Design of A System For India" International
Workshop on Prevention And Control ofTraffic Accidents & Injuries, I.I T, New Delhi .
19. Sarin, S.M., B.L. Suri,Smt. Nishi Mital & Dr. RK. Suri (1995), "Report on Training Programme For Traffic
Police Personnel In Twelve Metropolitan Cities ofIndia", Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi .
20. Reports containing recommendations of the 1RC Regional Workshops on Highways Safety 1984.
21 . Proceedings-International Seminar on Road Safety, Srinagar, 1986.

Appendix 9
APPENDICES
22 . Keynote Papers/Proceedings - International Seminar on Expressways/ High speed Facilities in

Developing Countries, Bangalore,1991 .
23. Technical Papers-Seminar on "Design, Construction and Maintenance of Hill Road, Shimla, 1995 .
24 . Sarin, S.M ., Suri, B.L ., Bajpai, R.K ., et al 1987 "Study of Road Accidents on Bagodara to Bamanbore
Junction Stretch ofNH-8A.
25 . Accident Black Spot Study -Nirmal At Singh, S. K. Marwah, S. P. Arora, H. M . Kama- Research Digest
Indian Highways, August 1998 .
26. Seminar on Construction of Roads in Hill Areas, Nainital, 1985.
27. Patel, R, Tiwari, G, Mohan, D., Introduction to Traffic Calming

Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, 1994 .
28. Highway Engineering, S. K. Khanna, 7th Edition 1990 .
29. Planning for Safer Roads

R. D. Mehta and Nirmal At Singh -Paper IRC Seminar
Prospective Planning for Road Development in India, October 1996

Appendix 10
INDEX
Most ofthe words listed below appear in many parts ofthe text, because ofthe inter-related nature of many road
safety concepts . The index lists only those sections where the topic is discussed as one of the primary issues
and where a reader can turn for first reference on a subject. Further reading is suggested within each section in
the box listing internal cross referen:es and external documents.
A Acceleration
lane 5 .9
lateral 4 .5
vertical 4.6
Access
control 3,1,3A 3.6,4.3,6.3
of delivery (service) vehicles 3 .2,4 .9
of emergency vehicles 4.17
frontage 3.1, 3.4, 3 .6
function 2.4, 3.3
pedestrian 32,33
roads 2.4, 3.1, 3.3, 3.6, 4.20, 428, 5.6
Accident (road and/or traffic)
analysis 2.7, 8.2, 8.3
blackspot 2.1,2.6,2 .7,3 .5,4 .2,4 .11,4.25,7 .2,8.1,8.2,8.9,8.13,8.16,8.17,8.18,8.25
contributory factors 8.8
cost 8.5
countermeasures 8.1, 8.5, S.10, 0.14
data (and statistics) 1 .1,13, 2.7, 7.2, 8.1, 82, 8.5, 8.6, 8.25
deaths (fatalities) 1.1, 3.10, 4.19
grid 825
pedestrian 3.3, 4.19
prevention 1 .2, 2.7, 4.18, 7.2
rates 1 .2, 4 .1, 4.4, 4.8, 5.4, 5.5, 7.5
risk 2 .7, 3 .5, 3 .7, 3.10, 3.11, 4.14, 4.28, 5.2, 6.1
severity 3.8, 4.4, 426
situations and potential remedies 8.8
Alcohol 4 .23, 6.2, 7.4
Alignment
horizontal 3.4, 4.7
vertical 3.10, 4.7, 4.13
Arterial roads (primary distributors) 3 .1, 3.15, 4.10, 4.24, 4.29, 5.4
Axle weight 423
B Barmarkings 5.4,8-12,8.17
Barriers (safety)
median 4.17, 429, 8.8, 8.15
pedestrian , 4.14, i}23
width restriction (for goods vehicles) 423
Bicycles (facaities for) 421
Blackspots 2 .1,2 .6,2 .7, 3.5,4.2,4.11,4.25,7.2,8.1,8 .2,8.9,8 .13,8.16,8.17,8 .18,825
Bollards 4.20, 5.3, 5 .8, 5 .10
Bridges
pedestrian footbridge 824
protection of 423
Budgets
highway authorities 72
police 7.4
Ministry of Swfiice Transport Ross Silcock

INDEX 1
INDEX
u
bays/stops 3.1, 3 .5, 3 .7, 3 .7 .1, 3.7 .2, 3.7 .3, 3 .9, 3.12, 3.14, 3.15, 4.19, 4.21, 4.22, 428
gates/links 4.22, 8.22, 8.23
lanes 422, 821
priorities 422
Bypass 3.3,3 .4,3 .11,4.31,8.8
C Camber 4.4, 4.5, 4.20, 5.3

Capacity
of roads 3.3,3 .7
of intersections 52
Centre line markings 4.14, 8.14, 8.15
Channelisation 2A, 2.5,3 .15,5.8,5.9,5 .11,6.1,7 .3,8 .8,8.9,8.12,8 .14,8 .22
Chipseal 4.11
Collision diagram 8 .1, 8 .3, 8.25
Commercial/Retail areas 35
Conflict
between movement and access 2 .4, 3.3
pedestrian/vehicle 3.5, 3.7, 3.11
points/locations(at intersection) 3 .11, 4.12, 4,13, 5 .1, 5.2, 5 .8, 8.10, 8.14
Conspicuity
by lighting 4.18
intersections 4.26, 8.11
Contributory factors (to accidents) 8.4, 8 .7, 8.8, 8.9, 8.10, 8.17
Crawler lane 4.8
Cross roads 5.1,5 .10,8 .3,8 .10
Cross-sections 3-6,4.4,4.9
Curvature 4,2, 4.4, 4,7, 4 .13
Curve
crest 4.3,4.6
sag 4.6,4.7,5 .6
transition 4.5
Cycleways/cyclists 1 .1, 3.7, 3.8, 3.10, 3.15, 4.9, 4.18, 4.20, 4.21, 4.28, 5.4, 5 .5, 5.11, 5.12, 6.2,
6.3,7.1, 8 .24
D Deceleration lane 5.9,8 .8

Delineation 2 .4, 4.14, 4.16, 8.8, 8.12, 8 .16
Delineators 4.9, 4.14, 6.1, 8.12, 8.16
Design
of networks 2.4,3 .1,3 .3,3 .8,3 .11
parameters 4.1,4 .2
process 1 .2,4.1,4 .2,4.14,8 .5
safety conscious 3.3
speed 4.3, 4.5, 5 .3
standards 2.3,3 .3,3 .7,4 .2,4 .29,5.45.6,5 .7,6 .1,6 .3
Development control 2.1,3 .1,3 .2,3 .4,3 .6,3 .7,3 .11
Distributors
district 3.1, 3 .7, 3.15
local 3 .1,3 .7,3 .15
primary 3.7
Drainage ditches 4.15,7.5
Driver
behaviour 1 .1, 1 .3,2 .1,2.4,5 .5,5 .8,5 .10,7.4,8 .10
education 423
expectancy 8.12
CRRI,, TRL Manual for Safety in Road Design

INDEX 2
INDEX
E Encroachment 420, 421,430, 820

Enforcement
ofplanning controls 32, 3.6, 3:11
oftrafficlaw 21
Erosion 4.9,426,427
Evaluation (and monitoring) 12,4.1,4,11,6 .3,8.1,8.5,8.6
Expectancy (of driver) 2.4, 8.3, 8.12
F Fatalities (deaths) 1.1, 4.1, 7.3

Fences
pedestrian 3 .15, 5 .10
Footbridges 824
Footpaths 32, 3.5, 3 .7, 3.8, 3 .12, 3.14, 4.15, 4.19, 420, 421, 4 .24, 5 .10, 6.4, 8.23
Footways 3 .5, 3 .7, 3.14,4.19, 4.20, 4.21, 4.24, 52, 5.12, 8.8, 820
Freight
facilities for 3.5
vehicles (including delivery and HGV ) 423
Frontage access 3.1, 3.6, 6.7
G Geometry 2.4, 4.1, 42, 4.4, 4.29, 5.2, 5A, 5.7, 8.9, 8.12, 8.16
Ghost islands 5.8
Give way (for signs/markings) 5.7, 8.14
Gradients 3.8, 4 .4, 4.6, 4.8, 431
Guardrails 2.5,4.19,7.5,8.8
Gymtories 8.10
H Hatching 4.14,5.4
Hawkers 820
Heavy goods vehicles
facilities 3.9, 423
overtaking zones 4 .8,4.13
Hierarchy
of roads 3 .1,3.3,3.4,3 .6,3.7,6.4,8.5,8.12,8.14,8.18
Highway authorities
areas of influence 3.6
and safety 2.7, 3 .6, 72
budgets 72
I Illumination 4.18, 8.9, 8.11

Industrial areas 3.1, 32, 3.5, 3.7, 3.14, 4.24
Intersections
capacity 52,5.3
channelisation 5 .8, 7.3, 8.9
crossroads 5.3, 8.9
conspicuity of 8.11
design of 427
give way 53
priority 53
roundabouts 5.4, 8.10
selection of type 52
signal controlled 5.5
staggered 53
visibility at 5.6
Islands 2.1, 4.29, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.8, 5.10, 5 .12, 6 .1,8 .9, 8.10, 8.11, 8.19, 822
Ministry of Surface Transport Ross

osDEX
Silcock
3
INDEX
J Jiggle bars 8.17

Junctions 2.1,2 .4,2 .5,2 .6,3 .1,3 .4,3 .6,3.7,4 .1,4 .11,4.12,4.13,4.22,4.26,4.27,4.28,4 .29,5.1,
5.2,5 .3,5 .5,5 .6,5 .7,5 .8,5 .9,5 .10,5.11,5.12,6.2,6 .3,6 .4,7.4,8.1,8 .3,8 .6,8 .8,8 .9,
8.11, 8.12, 8.14, 8.15, 8.16, 8.17, 8.19, 8.22, 8 .23
L Lamp-posts 4.18
Land-use
commercial/retail 35
controls 7.1
industrial 35
inter-relationship with safety 3.2, 3.3, 3.5
planning 2.1, 3.2, 3.11
recreational/tourist 3.5
residential 3.5
Lane
acceleration/deceleration 5.9
bus 3.8, 8.21
climbing/crawler 4.8
dividers 8.13, 8.15
markings 4 .14,8 .5,8 .8,8 .10,8.11,8.13,8.16
overtaking 4.3, 4 .8, 8.13
Laybys 6.4
Legislation 2 .1,2 .7,4 .25,7.2,7 .4
Lighting 4.12, 4.18, 4.26, 5 .1, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.10, 5.12, 6.2, 6.4
Maintenance
of barrier 4.16
and safety 7.5
of signs and markings 4.12,4-13,5 .7,8 .14
of traffic signals 5.5
Markings
bar 5.4
centre-line 4.13,4.14
edge 4 .6, 4.14
hatching 5.3, 5.4
lane 414
reflective 4.12
road 2.1,3 .8,4 .4,4 .6,4 .10,4 .12,4.13,4 .21,422,7 .5,8 .3,8 .8,8 .9,8 .11,8.14
Medians 4.17, 4.29, 8 .8, 8.15
Median barriers 4.17, 8.8, 8.15
Movement function 2.4, 3 .1, 3.7
N Network design 2.4,3 .3

Non-motorised traffic 3.7, 4.31
O Obstacles, roadside 3 .7,3 .9,3 .10,3.11,3 .14

One-way streets 3 .6,7 .3
Overtaking
lanes 4.8
sight distance/visibility 4 .3, 4 .6
zone 8.8, 8.13
P Paratransit 3.7, 3 .12, 4.22

Parking
for buses 3.12
controls 2.4, 4.24, 8 .8
of heavy goods vehicles 423

INDEX 4
INDEX
Pedestrian
access 3.6
accidents 4.19, 5.5, 8.3, 8.20, 823
barriers 823
bridges 824
crossings 2.4,4.4,4.13,4.14,4.17,4.18,4.20,4.22,424,428,5 .7,8.21 8.23
networks' 6 .4
phases 5 .5, 5.10
refuges 822
segregation 3.8, 5.10
underpass (subway) 824
Pedestrianisation 4.19
Planning
land-use 2 .1, 2.3, 3.2, 3 .11
controls 3.1, 4.26
road 3.3
Police
traffic 7.1,7.2,7.4,8.1,8 .4,8.25
Priority
bus 3 .12
intersections 5.3
Public transport 3.12
laybys/bus stop 428
R Railings 420, 821, 8.23

RecreationaVTourism areas 32, 3 .14
Reflective
delineators 4.14
markings 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 5 .7
signs 4 .12, 5 .7, 8 .8
Refuges
pedestrian 822
Residential areas 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 4.23, 4.25, 7.3, 8.5, 8.17, 8.18
Ribbon development 3.5, 3.11, 8.24
Rickshaws 421, 4.22, 5.11
Road
access 3.6
camber 5 .3
capacity - - 3.3, 3.7
cross-sections 4.9
closures 1,3, 426, 7.3, 8.5, 8.8
curvature (see also curves) 4.4,4.5,4.6
gradients 4.8
hierarchy 3.1,3.3,3.4,3.6,3.7,6.4,8.5,8.12,8.14,8.18
humps 1 .3, 2.4, 2.5, 3.4, 3.10, 4.25, 5.10, 8.5, 8 .17, 8.21
maintenance 2.3
markings 2.1, 3.8, 4.4, 4.6, 4.10, 4.12, 4.13, 4,14, 4 .17, 4.18, 421, 422, 7.5,
8.3, 8.8, 8.9, 8.11,8.14
narrowing 3 .4,3 .10,8.17
network 1 .1,1.2,1.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 3 .3, 3 .7, 3.8, 3.11, 3.12, 3.14,
4.12, 4.13, 4.31, 5.1, 6.2, 7.1, 72, 73, 7.5, 8.5, 825
planning 1 .3, 3.3
service 3.5
side stalls 3.11
signs 4.1,4 .12,4.13,4.26,5.6,5 .9,6 .4,7 .5,8 .1,8 .11
surface (and texture) 4.4,4.5,4 .11,6.2
widening 4.5
Ministry of Surface TIrtinsport Ross Silcock

INDEX 5
INDEX
Roundabout 429, 5.4, 5.5, 5.7, 5.11, 6.1, 6.4, 8.1, 8.8, 8.10, 8.12, 8.19
Rumble strips/bars 4.14, 4.30, 8.17
S Safety
audit/checking 1.1, 1 .3,1 .4,2.7,3 .1,6.1,6 .2,6.3,6 .4,8 .1,8 .5,8 .6
barrier 4 .4, 4.16, 4 .17, 426
conscious design 12
fences 4.16, 4.26, 6.4, 8.8
Sag curve 4.6, 4.7, 5.6
Segregation
of land-uses 3.2, 3.6, 3.11
of pedestrians and vehicles 5.10
of slow moving vehicles 5 .11
Service
roads 3.1, 32, 3.4, 3.6, 3.14, 4.28
vehicles (provision for) 3.2, 3.7, 4.19, 8.18
Severity (of accidents) 1 .2,2 .5,3 .8,3 .10,4.1,4 .4,4.8,4 .16,4.26,4.31,5 .4,6 .1,8 .1,8 .3,8 .5
Shoulder 12,1 .3,3 .8,3 .14,4.4,4 .9,4 .t0,4.14,420,421,4.31,5 .9,7.5,8 .8
Side slopes 4.9, 7.5
Sight
distance 3.9,4 .2,4 .3,4 .4,4 .6,4 .7,4.10,4.22,4.26,4.27,4.31,5.3,8 .1,8.13
lines 2 .8, 8.3
Signs(road or traffic)
give way/stop 4.1, 4.4, 4.6
warning 8.5, 8.11
Signal controlled intersections
for pedestrians 5.5
Skid-resistance 6.4
Slow-moving vehicles 3.7,3 .8,4.5,4 .8,4 .9,4 .10,4.11,421,5.4,5 .9,5 .11
Speed
approach 8.1
design 4.3, 4.44
humps 3.10,420
limits 2 .1, 3.10, 4.2, 4 .25, 6.4, 8 .7, 8.8, 8.17
reduction devices 3.10, 4.30, 8.17
Standards 1.2,1 .4,2 .3,3 .3,3 .7,3 .11,4.1,4.2,4 .4,4.9 ; 4.12, 4 .22, 4.25, 4.29,
5 .2,5 .4,5 .7,6 .1,6 .2,6 .3,6 .4,8 .3,8 .5,8 .6,8 .11
Statutory responsibilities 72
Stopping
distance 4.3, 5.6, 821
places 3.7, 3.15, 4.6, 4.9
Street
closures 8.18
one-way 3.6
play-streets .a^ 3.6
fumiture 4.19, 4.26, 5.6, 5 .7, 5 8, 5.9, 8 .3, 8.16, 8.23
lights/lighting 4.12, 4.18, 4.20, 5.1, 5.6, 5.8, 5.10, 6.4, 8.4, 8.9, 8.11
residential 3.5
Subways (pedestrian underpass) 5.10, 8.24
Superelevation 4.5, 4.31
Surface treatment 4.11
T Thermoplastic paint 4.13, 8.9, 5.14

Through traffic 2 .4,2 .5,3 .3,3 .4,3 .5,3 .7,3 .14,3.15,4.6,424,4 .25,4 .28,4 .29,
5 .2,5 .9,7 .1,8 .9,8.10,8.18,8~19,8 .25

INDEX 6
INDEX
Trading centres
road through 3.4
areas 35
Transport corridor 3.11
Traffic
animaldrawn 4.8
congestion 2.4, 4.23, 7.3
control devices (maintenance of) 2.3,2.8,3.8,3.11,4.12,5.1,7.5
engineering 2.4, 4.10, 4.12, 7.1
law enforcement 7.4, 8.1
islands 2.1, 5.8, 8.19, 8.22
management 2.6, 3.14, 4.1, 4.17, 423, 4.25, 5.8, 6.2, 8.1, 8.6, 820
police 2.1,3 .13,5.5,6.3,7.1,72,7 .4,8.1,8.4,8 .25_
signals 2.1,2.8,3.15,5 .1,5.2,5.5,5.11,6.4,8 .4,8.19,821
signs 4.6, 4.12, 4.13, 422, 6 .4, 8.11, 8.19
slow moving 5.11
volume 3 .1, 3.3, 4.29, 5.E, 7.3, 8.3, 8.7, 821
Trees (as roadside obstacles) 4.16,4.26,427,5 .6,8-3,8.12
Turning/Tums
banned 8.19
hooking 8.10
manoeuvres/movements 4.29, 8.8, 8.10, 8.18, 8.19
protected 8.8
U Underpass (for pedestrians) 4.6, 4.21, 5.10, 8.8, 8.24

Unloading (provisions for) 428,823
Vegetation (obstructing visibility) 3.10,4.3,4.20,4.30,4.31,5.3,5.6,5 .7,7.5,8.'1, 8.20

Vehicles
delivery/service (facilities for) 32
emergency 8.18, 8.19
heavy goods (facilities for) 2.4
segregation 3.8
slow moving (including animal drawn) 3.7,3.8,4.5,4.8,4.9,4.10
testing 7.4
Visibility 3 .5, 3.11, 3.15, 4.3, 4.6, 4.13, 4.14, 4.19, 4.20, 4.22, 4 .26, 4.27, 428, 4.30,
4 .31,5.1,5 .2,5 .3,5 .4,5 .6,5 .7,5 .9,5 .10,6 .4,8.3,8 .7,8.8,8 .13,8.14,8.19
W Warrants
barriers 4 .16, 823
pedestrian crossings 4.16, 821
Warning signs 3 .4, 4.12, 4.17, 4 .20, 4.28, 5.3, 5.6, 5.7, 8.5, 8.11
Widening
on curves 4.5
for overtaking 2 .5
Width restriction 423
Zns
for overtaking 8.13
parking 424
for speed controls 425
zoning (of land-uses) 32,3.14

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Government of India

Ministry of Surface Transport

MANUAL FOR SAFETY IN

A Guide for Highway Engineers

Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silcock

MANUAL FOR SAFETY IN ROAD DESIGN

Mr. NirmalJitSingh MOST

Dr . Alan Ross (Project Director) Ross Silcock

Dr. S.M . Sarin

Dr. GoffJacobs TRL

With the assistance of

CRRI, TRL . : Manualfor Safety in Road Design

Mr . Stein Lundebye and Mr . Anil Bhandari .

Copies of this document can be obtained from the following address

Chief Engineer (Traffic & Transportation)

Tel : 0113718568- Fax 0113710236-Cable : "TRANSPORT"

Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silcock

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Annual Average Daily Traffic

Asian Development Bank

Central Business District

Central Road Research Institute, India

Equivalent Accident Number

Gross National Product

Heavy Goods Vehicle

Her Majesty's Stationary Office

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

Microcomputer Accident Analysis Package

Ministry of Surface Transport, India

National Road Safety Council

UK Government Overseas Development Administration

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

Public Service Vehicle

Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents

Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation and Measurement

Slow Moving Vehicle

State Road Safety Council

Transport Research Laboratory Limited, UK

United Nations Development Programme

United States of America

Vulnerable Road Users

World Health Organisation

. Manualfor Safety in Road Design

MANUAL FOR SAFETY IN ROAD DESIGN

Chapter Contents Page

1 .1 Scale and Nature of the Problem of Road Accidents in India 12

3 Planning for Safety

4 Designing for Safety: Road Link Design

Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silcock

4.7 Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Curves 4.14

5 Designing for Safety : Junction Design

6.1 Principles and Issues 62

CRRI, TRL Draft Manualfor Safely in Road Design

7 Management of Road Networks

8 Countermeasures at Hazardous Locations

&1 Introduction to Accident Investigation and Prevention 82

Ministry of Surface Transport Ross Silcock

Ministry of Stuface nansport MSilcock

1 .1 Scale and Nature of the Problem of Road Accidents in India

differing levels of the quality of accident data recorded ;

different definitions of the types of accident which are to be reported; and

-WI, TRL Manualfor Safety in Road Design

Figure 1.1 .1 Fatality Rates of Selected Countries