Professional Documents
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Domestic Hot
PSD 169
Water Systems
JULY/AUGUST 2010
PSDMAGAZINE.ORG
CONTINUING EDUCATION
Recirculating Domestic
Hot Water Systems
INTRODUCTION obtaining hot water at fixtures has become as critical an issue as the
It has been determined through field studies that the correct sizing energy losses caused by hot water temperature maintenance systems.
and operation of water heaters depend on the appropriateness of the To reduce the wasting of cooled hot water significantly, the engineer-
hot water maintenance system. If the hot water maintenance system ing community has reevaluated the permissible distances for uncir-
is inadequate, the water heater sizing criteria are wrong and the culated, dead-end branches to periodically used plumbing fixtures.
temperature of the hot water distributed to the users of the plumb- The new allowable distances for uncirculated, dead-end branches
ing fixtures is below acceptable standards. Additionally, a poorly represent a trade-off between the energy utilized by the hot water
designed hot water maintenance system wastes large amounts of maintenance system and the cost of the insulation, on the one hand,
energy and potable water and creates time delays for those using the and the cost of energy to heat the excess cold water makeup, the cost of
plumbing fixtures. This chapter addresses the criteria for establish- wasted potable water, and extra sewer surcharges, on the other hand.
ing an acceptable time delay in delivering hot water to fixtures and Furthermore, engineers should be aware that various codes now limit
the limitations of the length between a hot water recirculation system the length between the hot water maintenance system and plumbing
and plumbing fixtures. It also discusses the temperature drop across fixtures. They also should be aware of the potential for liability if an
a hot water supply system, types of hot water recirculation system, owner questions the adequacy of their hot water system design.
and pump selection criteria, and gives extensive information on the What are reasonable delays in obtaining hot water at a fixture?
insulation of hot water supply and return piping. For anything beside very infrequently used fixtures (such as those in
industrial facilities or certain fixtures in office buildings), a delay of 0
to 10 sec is normally considered acceptable for most residential occu-
Background pancies and public fixtures in office buildings. A delay of 11 to 30 sec
In the past, the plumbing engineering community considered the is marginal but possibly acceptable, and a time delay longer than 31
prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures either a requirement for a sec is normally considered unacceptable and a significant waste of
project or a matter of no concern. The plumbing engineer’s decision water and energy. Therefore, when designing hot water systems, it is
was based primarily on the type of facility under consideration and prudent for the designer to provide some means of getting hot water to
the developed length from the water heater to the farthest fixture. the fixtures within these acceptable time limits. Normally this means
Previous reference material and professional common practices that there should be a maximum distance of approximately 25 ft (7.6 m)
have indicated that, when the distance from the water heater to the between the hot water maintenance system and each of the plumbing
farthest fixture exceeds 100 ft (30.48 m) water should be circulated. fixtures requiring hot water, the distance depending on the water flow
However, this recommendation is subjective, and, unfortunately, rate of the plumbing fixture at the end of the line and the size of the
some engineers and contractors use the 100-ft (30.48-m) criterion line. (See Tables 1, 2, and 3.) The plumbing designer may want to stay
as the maximum length for all uncirculated, uninsulated, dead-end under this length limitation because the actual installation in the field
hot water branches to fixtures in order to cut the cost of hot water may differ slightly from the engineer’s design, and additional delays
distribution piping. These long, uninsulated, dead-end branches to may be caused by either the routing of the pipe or other problems.
fixtures create considerable problems, such as a lack of hot water at Furthermore, with the low fixture discharge rates now mandated by
fixtures, inadequately sized water heater assemblies, and thermal national and local laws, it takes considerably longer to obtain hot water
temperature escalation in showers. from non-temperature maintained hot water lines than it did in the
The 100-ft (30.48-m) length criterion was developed in 1973 after past, when fixtures had greater flow rates. For example, a public lava-
the Middle East oil embargo, when energy costs were the paramount tory with a 0.50 or 0.25 gpm (0.03 or 0.02 L/sec) maximum discharge
concern and water conservation was given little consideration. Since rate would take an excessive amount of time to obtain hot water from
the circulation of hot water causes a loss of energy due to radiation 100 ft (30.48 m) of uncirculated, uninsulated hot water piping. (See
and convection in the circulated system and such energy losses have Table 3.) This table gives conservative approximations of the amount of
to be continually replaced by water heaters, the engineering commu- time it takes to obtain hot water at a fixture. The times are based on the
nity compromised between energy loss and construction costs and size of the line, the fixture flow rate, and the times required to replace
developed the 100-ft (30.48-m) maximum length criterion. the cooled off hot water, to heat the pipe, and to offset the convection
energy lost by the insulated hot water line.
Length and Time Criteria
Recently, due to concern about not only energy conservation but also Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded.
the extreme water shortages in parts of the country, the 100-ft (30.48-m) Therefore, the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly
length criteria has changed. Water wastage caused by the long delay in from the answers shown in the metric equations.
Domestic Water Heating Design Manual II, Chapter 14: “Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems,” © American Society of Plumbing Engineers, 2006
Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end branch
lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat the piping, the
Table 1(M) Water Contents and Weight of Tube or Piping per Meter water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on water temperature of
60°C and an air temperture of 21.1°C.
Copper Copper Steel Pipe CPVC Pipe
Nominal Pipe Pipe Schedule Schedule a
Delays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.
Diameter Type L Type M 40 40
Water Wgt. Water Wgt. Water Wgt. Water Wgt.
(mm)a (L) (kg) (L) (kg) (L) (kg) (L) (kg)
DN15 0.045 0.129 0.049 0.204 0.061 0.390 0.061 0.099 Results of Delays in Delivering
DN20 0.095 0.202 0.102 0.328 0.106 0.517 0.106 0.132
DN25 0.163 0.297 0.170 0.465 0.170 0.762 0.170 0.191 Hot Water to Fixtures
DN32 0.246 0.401 0.257 0.682 0.291 1.034 0.295 0.268 As mentioned previously, when there is a long delay in obtaining
DN40 0.352 0.517 0.379 0.940 0.401 1.233 0.401 0.322
hot water at the fixture, there is significant wastage of potable water
a
Pipe sizes are indicated for mild steel pipe sizing. as the cooled hot water supply is simply discharged down the drain
unused. Furthermore, plumbing engineers concerned about total
system costs should realize that the cost of this wasted, previously
heated water must include: the original cost for obtaining potable
water, the cost of previously heating the water, the final cost of the
Table 2 Approximate Fixture and Appliance waste treatment of this excess potable water, which results in larger
Water Flow Rates
sewer surcharges (source of supply to end disposal point), and the
Maximum Flow Ratesa cost of heating the new cold water to bring it up to the required tem-
Fittings GPM L/Sec perature. Furthermore, if there is a long delay in obtaining hot water
Lavatory faucet 2.0 1.3
Public non-metering 0.5 0.03 at the fixtures, the faucets are turned on for long periods of time to
Public metering 0.25 gal/cycle 0.946 L/cycle bring the hot water supply at the fixture up to the desired tempera-
Sink faucet 2.5 0.16
Shower head 2.5 0.16 ture. This can cause the water heating system to run out of hot water
Bathtub faucets and make the heater sizing inadequate, because the heater is unable
Single-handle 2.4 minimum 0.15 minimum to heat all the extra cold water brought into the system through the
Two-handle 4.0 minimum 0.25 minimum
Service sink faucet 4.0 minimum 0.25 minimum wastage of the water discharged down the drain. In addition, this
Laundry tray faucet 4.0 minimum 0.25 minimum extra cold water entering the hot water system reduces the hot water
Residential dishwasher 1.87 aver 0.12 aver supply temperature. This exacerbates the problem of insufficient hot
Residential washing machine 7.5 aver 0.47 aver
water because to get a proper blended temperature more lower tem-
a
Unless otherwise noted. perature hot water will be used to achieve the final mixed water tem-
perature. (See Chapter 1, Table 1.1.) Additionally, this accelerates the
downward spiral of the temperature of the hot water system.
Another problem resulting from long delays in getting hot water to
Table 3 Approximate Time Required to Get the fixtures is that the fixtures operate for longer than expected peri-
Hot Water to a Fixture
ods of time. Therefore, the actual hot water demand is greater than
Delivery Time (sec) the demand normally designed for.
Fixture Flow 0.5 1.5 2.5 4.0 Therefore, when sizing the water heater and the hot water piping
Rate (gpm)
Piping 10 25 10 25 10 25 10 25 distribution system, the designer should be aware that the lack of
Length (ft) a proper hot water maintenance system can seriously impact the
required heater size.
Copper ½ in. 25 63a 8 21 5 13 3 8
Pipe ¾ in. 48a 119a 16 40a 10 24 6 15
Steel Pipe ½ in. 63a 157a 21 52a 13 31a 8 20 Methods of Delivering Reasonably Prompt Hot
Sched. 40 ¾ in. 91a 228a 30 76a 18 46a 11 28 Water Supply
CPVC Pipe ½ in. 64a 159a 21 53a 13 32a 8 20 Hot water maintenance systems are as varied as the imaginations of
Sched. 40 ¾ in. 95a 238a 32 79a 19 48a 12 30 the plumbing engineers who create them. They can be grouped into
Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end branch three basic categories, though any actual installation may be a com-
lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat the piping, the bination of more than one of these types of system. The three basic
water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on water temperature of categories are
140°F and an air temperture of 70°F.
1. Circulation systems.
a
Delays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable. 2. Self-regulating heat trace systems.
3. Point-of-use water heaters (include booster water heaters).
Figure 5 Combination Upfeed and Downfeed Hot Water System with Heater at Bottom of System.
Note: This piping system increases the developed length of the HW system over the upfeed systems shown in Figures 14.1 and 14.3.
* See text for requirements for strainers.
Figure 6 Combination Downfeed and Upfeed Hot Water System with Heater at Top
of System.
Note: This piping system increases the developed length of the HW system over the downfeed systems shown in
Figures 14.2 and 14.4.
* See text for requirements for strainers.
Point-of-Use Heaters
This concept is applicable when there is a single fixture or group of
fixtures that is located far from the temperature maintenance system.
In such a situation, a small, instantaneous, point-of-use water heat-
er—an electric water heater, a gas water heater, or a small under-
fixture storage type water heater of the magnitude of 6 gal (22.71
L)—can be provided. (See Figure 7.) The point-of-use heater will be
very cost-effective because it will save the cost of running hot water
piping to a fixture that is a long distance away from the temperature
maintenance system. The plumbing engineer must remember, how-
ever, that when a water heater is installed there are various code and
installation requirements that must be complied with, such as those
pertaining to T & P relief valve discharge.
Instantaneous electric heaters used in point-of-use applications can
require a considerable amount of power, and may require 240 or 480
V service.
1
See American Society of Plumbing Engineers, 2000, Cold-water sys-
tems, Chapter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2, for piping sizing meth-
Figure 9 Preset Self-Limiting Flow Control Cartridge.
Source: Courtesy of Griswold Controls. ods.
½ 1 1 1½ 1½ 1½
Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depending
on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water systems
and the first 3 ft from the storage tank of uncirculated systems. Table 6 Heat Loss from Various Size Tanks
with Various Insulation Thicknesses
a
Uncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 12 ft in length).
Insulation Tank Approx. Energy Loss
For lengths longer than 12 ft, use required insulation thickness shown in table. Thickness Size from Tank at Hot
(in.) (gal) Water Temperature
140°F (Btu/h)a
1 50 468
Table 4(M) Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness 1 100 736
Required Insulation Thickness for Piping (mm) 2 250 759
3 500 759
Runouts
3 1000 1273
DN32 or DN25 or DN32–DN50 DN65–DN100 DN125 & DN150 DN200 or
Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA)
Lessa Less Larger Table 2 data.
13 25 25 40 40 40 a
For unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 6.5 Btu/h/ft2 of tank
Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depending surface.
on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water systems
and the first 0.9 m from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
a
Uncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 3.7 m in length). For lengths
longer than 305 mm, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
Table 6(M) Heat Loss from Various Size Tanks
with Various Insulation Thicknesses
Table 5 Approximate Insulated Piping Heat Loss Insulation Tank Approx. Energy Loss
and Surface Temperature Thickness Size from Tank at Hot
Nominal Insulation Heat Loss Surface (mm) (L) Water Temperature
Pipe Size Thickness (Btu/h/ Temperature 60°C (W)a
(in.) (in.) linear ft) (°F)
25.4 200 137
½ 1 8 68
25.4 400 216
¾ 1 10 69
1 1 10 69 50.8 1000 222
1¼ 1 13 70 76.2 2000 222
1½ 1 13 69 76.2 4000 373
2 or less ½a 24 or less 74 Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA)
2 1 16 70 Table 2 data.
2½ 1½ 12 67 a
For unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 1.9 W/m2 of tank
3 1½ 16 68 surface.
4 1½ 19 69
6 1½ 27 69
8 1½ 32 69
10 1½ 38 69
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 65°F and annual average wind
speed of 7.5 mph.
a
Uncirculating hot water runout branches only.
(Equation 1) q = 60rwc∆T able pump heads. It is quite common that a plumbing designer will
make wrong initial assumptions about the sizes of the hot water return
[q = 3600rwc∆T] lines to establish the initial heat loss figure (q). If that is the case, the
plumbing engineer will have to correct the hot water return pipe sizes,
where redo the calculations using the new data based on the correct pipe
60 = min/h sizing, and verify that all the rest of the calculations are now correct.
3600 = sec/h
q = piping heat loss, Btu/h (kJ/h) EXAMPLE 1—CALCULATION TO DETERMINE REQUIRED CIRCULATION
r = flow rate, gpm (L/sec) RATE
w = weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/L) 1. Assume that the hot water supply piping system has 800 ft (244
c = specific heat of water, Btu/lb/°F (kJ/kg/K) m) of average size 1 ¼ in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 5, determine
∆T = change in heated water temperature (temperature of the heat loss per linear foot (meter). To find the total heat loss,
leaving water minus temperature of incoming water, multiply length times heat loss per foot (meter):
represented in this manual as Th – Tc, °F [K])
800 ft × 13 Btu/h/ft = 10,400 Btu/h supply piping losses
Therefore
(244 m • 12.5 W = 3050 W supply piping losses)
q = c (gpm × 8.33 lb/gal)(60 min/h)(°F temperature drop)
= 1(gpm) × 500 × °F temperature drop
2. Assume that the hot water return piping system for the
[q = c (L/sec • 1kg/L)(3600 sec/h)(K temperature drop)
system in no. 1 above has 100 ft (30.5 m) of average ½ in. (DN15)
= 1(L/sec) • 15 077 kJ/L/sec/K • K temperature drop]
piping and 100 ft (30.5 m) of average ¾ in. (DN20) pipe. From
Table 5 determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter):
(Equation 2) gpm ≈ system heat loss (Btu/h)
100 ft × 8 Btu/h/ft = 800 Btu/h piping loss
500 × °F temperature drop
(30.5 m • 7.7 W/m = 235 W piping loss)
[L/sec ≈ system heat loss (kJ/h) ]
15 077 • K temperature drop
In sizing hot water circulating systems, the designer should note that 100 ft × 10 Btu/h/ft = 1000 Btu/h piping loss
the greater the temperature drop across the system, the less water is 1800 Btu/h piping loss
required to be pumped through the system and, therefore, the greater
the savings on pumping costs. However, if the domestic hot water (30.5 m • 9.6 W/m = 293 W piping loss)
supply starts out at 140°F (60°C) with, say, a 20°F (6.7°C) temperature 528 W piping loss
drop across the supply system, the fixtures near the end of the circulat-
3. Determine the hot water storage tank heat loss. Assume the
ing hot water supply loop could be provided with a hot water supply
system in no. 1 above has a 200-gal (757-L) hot water storage
of only 120°F (49°C). In addition, if the hot water supply delivery tem-
tank. From Table 6 determine the heat loss of the storage tank @
perature is 120°F (49°C) instead of 140°F (60°C), the plumbing fixtures 759 Btu/h (222 W).
will use greater volumes of hot water to get the desired blended water
temperature (see Chapter 1, Table 1.1). Therefore, the recommended 4. Determine the hot water system’s total heat losses by totaling the
hot water system temperature drop should be of the magnitude of 5°F various losses:
(3°C). This means that if the hot water supply starts out from the water A. Hot water supply piping losses 10,400 Btu/h
heater at a temperature between 135 and 140°F (58 and 60°C), the B. Hot water return piping losses 1,800 Btu/h
lowest hot water supply temperature provided by the hot water supply
C. Hot water storage tank losses 759 Btu/h
system could be between 130 and 135°F (54 and 58°C). With multiple
temperature distribution systems, it is recommended that the recircu- Total system heat losses 12,959 Btu/h
lation system for each temperature distribution system be extended Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 12,200 Btu/h
back to the water heating system separately and have its own pump.
[A. Hot water supply piping losses 3050 W
Using Equation 2, we determine that, if there is a 5°F (3°C) tempera-
ture drop across the hot water system, the number to divide into the B. Hot water return piping losses 527 W
hot water circulating system heat loss (q) to obtain the minimum C. Hot water storage tank losses 222 W
required hot water return circulation rate in gpm (L/sec) is 2500 (500 Total system heat losses 3799 W
× 5°F), (45 213 [15 071 • 3°C]). Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 3577 W]
For a 10°F (6°C) temperature drop that number is 5000 (from Equa-
tion 2, 500 × 10°F = 5000) (90 426 [from Equation 2, 15 071 • 6°C = 90 From Equation 2, using a system piping loss of 12,200 Btu/h (3577 W)
426]). However, this 10°F (6°C) temperature drop may produce hot and a 5°F (3°C) temperature drop,
water supply temperatures that are lower than desired.
After Equation 2 is used to establish the required hot water return 12,200 Btu/h = 4.88 gpm (say 5 gpm)
flow rate, in gpm (L/sec), the plumbing designer can size the hot water 5°F temperature difference × 500 required hot water return
return piping system based on piping flow rate velocities and the avail- circulation rate
should be used only when hot water is needed all the time, See Table 4 for the minimum required insulation thicknesses for all
24 h a day, or during all the periods of a building’s operation. systems.
Otherwise, it is not a cost-effective means of controlling the If the insulated piping is installed in a location where it is subjected
circulating pump because it will waste energy. to rain or other water, the insulation must be sealed with a watertight
covering that will maintain its tightness over time. Wet insulation not
Note: The method for applying the “on demand” concept for control- only does not insulate, it also releases considerable heat energy from
ling the hot water circulating pump is a manual control. It can be used the hot water piping, thus wasting energy. Furthermore, the insulation
very successfully for residential and commercial applications. on any outdoor lines that is not sealed watertight can be plagued by
birds or rodents, etc., pecking at the insulation to use it for their nests.
2. A thermostatic aquastat is a device that is inserted into the In time, the entire hot water supply and/or return piping will have no
hot water return line. When the water in the hot water return insulation. Such bare hot water supply and/or return piping will waste
system reaches the distribution temperature, it shuts off the considerable energy and can seriously affect the operation of the hot
circulating pump until the hot water return system tempera- water system and water heaters.
ture drops by approximately 10°F [5.5°C]. With this method, The minimum required insulation thicknesses given in Table 4 are
when there is a large consumption of hot water by the based on insulation having thermal resistivity (R) in the range of 4.0
plumbing fixtures, the circulating pump does not operate. to 4.6 ft2 × h × (°F/Btu) × in. (0.028 to 0.032 m2 • [°C/W] • mm) on a
flat surface at a mean temperature of 75°F (24°C). Minimum insulation
3. A time clock is used to turn the pump on during specific thickness shall be increased for materials having R values less than 4.0
hours of operation when people are using the fixtures. The ft2 × h × (°F/Btu) × in. (0.028 m2 • [°C/W] • mm) or may be reduced for
pump would not operate, for example, at night in an office materials having R values greater than 4.6 ft2 × h × (°F/Btu) × in. (0.032
building when nobody is using the fixtures. m2 • [°C/W] • mm).
1. For materials with thermal resistivity greater than 4.6 ft2 ×
4. Often an aquastat and a time clock are used in conjunction h × (°F/Btu) × in. (0.032 m2 • [°C/W] • mm), the minimum
so that during the hours a building is not operating the time insulation thickness may be reduced as follows:
clock shuts off the circulating pump, and during the hours 4.6 × Table 4 thickness = New minimum thickness
the building is in use the aquastat shuts off the pump when
Actual R
the system is up to the desired temperature.
2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Condi- 18. Copper Development Association. 1993. Copper Tube Hand-
tioning Engineers. 1993. Thermal and water vapor transmis- book.
sion data. Chapter 22 in Fundamentals Handbook.
19. International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical
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PSD 169
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