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A. Bhatia
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HVAC Energy Conservation through Cooling Water Treatment
WATER used in air-conditioning systems may create problems with equipment, such
as scale, corrosion, and organic growths. Scale formation is one of the greatest
problems in air-conditioning systems that have water cooled condensers and cooling
towers. Corrosion is always a problem in an open water recirculating system in which
water sprays come in contact with air. The organic growth we are greatly concerned
with is algae or slime. Since algae thrive on heat and sunlight they will be a problem
in cooling towers.
This course discusses the waterside problems encountering the open re-circulation
cooling water systems, discusses how energy is dissipated from the air conditioning
equipment and how effective implementation and tight monitoring of the water
treatment programs can conserve it. The course is divided into 7 Sections:
Before we come to the discussion on waterside problems, lets first refresh some
fundamentals and understand little about work and energy input to the refrigeration
chillers.
The vapor compression system is the dominant system today for cooling and
refrigeration and is being used in almost all kind of application. It consists of four
components:
2. The condenser is a heat exchanger that cools the high-pressure gas so that
it changes phase to liquid.
3. The expansion valve controls the pressure ratio, and thus flow rate, between
the high- and low-pressure regions of the system.
4. The evaporator is a heat exchanger that extracts heat from the air causing
low pressure liquid refrigerant to evaporate and change phase from liquid to
vapor (gas).
A schematic flow diagram of the vapor compressor system and its components is
shown below:
A pressure-enthalpy diagram or p-h diagram is often used to calculate the energy
transfer and to analyze the performance of a refrigeration cycle:
Where
Where
The nodes 2 and 1 on Y-axis represent the condensing pressure (pcon) and
evaporating pressure (pev) respectively. The pressure differential between
port 2 and 1 is the work or energy input for compression. The greater the
difference between the condensing pressure and evaporating pressure, the
higher will be the work input to the compressor.
Where
h 3 = h4
Cooling Capacity
Or
If a heat pump is used to produce a useful heating effect, its performance denoted by
COPhp is:
COPhp = q2 3 / Win
Or
The compressor provides the driving force for the refrigeration cycle and is the
primary consumer of electricity in a chiller. The compressor functions to increase the
refrigerant temperature and pressure. Anything that increases the workload on the
compressor will increase energy consumption.
W m, P
Or
W = k m P
Where
W = Work input to compressor
K = constant
The cooling duty and power requirements of a compressor depend primarily on the
evaporating and condensing pressures. From this formula, it is evident that if the P
is high, the work input will also be more, and therefore to minimize the work input, the
P will have to be maintained minimum.
Now we must know that the refrigerant pressure of the evaporator is a function of the
refrigerant temperature. The lower the temperature of the refrigerant at the
compressor suction, lower will be the head pressure and less is the work input to the
compressor. Similarly, the hotter the refrigerant gas leaving the condenser, the more
is the electric power required to complete the compression cycle.
First, it presents the danger of a system shutdown; a safety control will stop
the compressor motor when the safe maximum head pressure is exceeded in
the compressor.
Reduced heat transfer in the condenser causes the compressor to work harder,
increasing the refrigerant condensing temperature and pressure in order to transfer
the same amount of heat to the cooling water. Each additional 1F in refrigerant
condensing temperature requires the compressor to consume 1.5% more energy. If
the deposit thickness is great enough, condenser head pressure will exceed the
chiller limits and the chiller will shutdown.
Some deposits are more insulating than others and thus have a greater impact on
the head pressure and energy requirements. For example, calcium carbonate scale
deposits transfer heat up to 4 times better than biofilm deposits (slime). As a result,
slime increases head pressure and energy requirements and will shut down a chiller
much faster than normal scale. Condenser deposits can be a mixture of slime,
scale, corrosion by-products, and other suspended solids scrubbed from the air.
Table below lists the fouling factors of various thicknesses of a calcium carbonate
type of scale deposit most frequently found on condenser water tube surfaces where
no water treatment or incorrect treatment is applied.
0.000 Clean
Most of the chillers available from various manufacturers are generally are designed
for the fouling factor of 0.0005 (0.15 mm thick scale on the heat transfer surface) and
rated for the power consumption of about 0.60 to 0.9 kW per ton of refrigeration (TR).
The condensing temperature increases linearly in proportion to the fouling factor.
Figure -1 below illustrates the effect of condenser fouling factor on the condensing
temperature of a typical water-cooled condenser.
The graph shows that a calcium carbonate scale thickness of 0.03 inch represents an
increase of 27% in electrical energy compared to the same size unit free of scale. If
this scale/deposit is of an iron oxide instead of calcium carbonate, then the energy
loss will be about 50% more, i.e. instead of 27% the loss will be in the order of 40%.
500 TR x 12 hrs x 365 days x 0.65 kW/TR x $0.07= $99645 per annum
Lets assume the same air conditioning plant operate with a scale deposit of 0.03
inches (0.0025 fouling factor) of calcium carbonate. This will increase energy
requirements by 27% (refer figure 3). The annual dollar cost will be:
500 TR x 12 hrs x 365 days x 0.65 kW/TR x $0.07 x 1.27 = $126549 per annum
Or, the energy consumption will increase by 1265549 - 99645 = $26904 per annum
kWh.
The following table shows the potential economic impact of scale deposits on a 500
ton chiller running at full load, 12 hours per day. Actual increased energy use
depends on compressor type, actual operating head pressure, operating power factor
and percent operating load.
0 0.0000 0 $0
The table provides insight to the energy loss due to fouling. For the same thickness,
the increased cost associated with a biofilm deposit can be significantly greater than
with scale, depending on the actual scale composition. It becomes clear that good
microbiological control is vital for efficient chiller operation.
There are two things that can be done to minimize the effects of fouling.
First, since some degree of fouling is inevitable, good manufactures rate their
condensers with a builtin fouling factor to assure fullrated capacity under normal
operating conditions. The standard manufacturers recommended design fouling-
factor for air-conditioning chillers and condensers is 0.0005. This means that the
equipment cannot tolerate deposits with a fouling factor greater than 0.0005 without
the efficiency of the machine being seriously reduced.
Second, waterside fouling can be controlled with water treatment and periodic
cleaning of the system. The energy losses can be controlled by implementing a
proper water treatment program.
There are various means and ways to treat the water. The treatment programs are to
be designed and implemented on the case-to-case basis. This is mainly because of
the great variance in the quality of water from one place to another. We will discuss
the cooling water problems and treatment approaches in subsequent sections.
Besides waterside fouling, there are 3 other conditions which can cause high head
pressure:
Water related problems and treatment approaches vary greatly with the quality of
water. It is seen that most of the HVAC installations rely on a simple water-softening
plant irrespective of the make-up water quality. This is not a right approach. The
main reason for this could be attributed to the fact that usually the air-conditioning
contracting companies are neither equipped with water treatment engineers nor are
their design engineers trained in handling the treatment issues. Therefore first very
step to an effective treatment program is to understand the waterside problems and
making sure that the air-conditioning design engineers, the O & M personnel are
trained to handle these issues.
The major problems encountered in cooling systems are scale, corrosion and
deposits of organic slime or algae growths. Before any effective treatment can be
decided upon, it is necessary to first understand few important terms associated with
water chemistry.
6) Chlorides: Chlorides are the sum total of the dissolved chloride salts of
sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium present in water. Chlorides do
not ordinarily contribute to scale since they are very soluble. Chlorides are
however corrosive when present in large volume.
SCALE
In this formula the calcium carbonate is the chief scale forming deposit found in air-
conditioning systems, but magnesium carbonate and calcium sulfate can also cause
some degree of scaling.
Problems
The scale deposits give rise to the following problems in cooling water systems:
Factors
1. Alkalinity: The higher the alkalinity of a particular water, the higher the
bicarbonate and/or carbonate content. As these minerals approach
saturation, they tend to come out of solution.
3. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): The higher the solids content, the greater the
tendency to precipitate the least soluble of these solids.
5. pH: The higher the pH value, the greater the carbonate content of the water.
As you know, pH means potential hydrogen. When a hydrogen atom has lost
its electron (H+), it becomes a positive hydrogen ion. When a great many of
these hydrogen atoms make this change, the solution will become highly acid
and attack metals. When the hydrogen atom gains electrons, the solution will
be base and have a pH value from 7.1 to 14. A base solution contains more
hydroxyl ions (OH-). Scale will form when a base solution is exposed to a
temperature rise, providing the hardness is 200 parts per million or higher.
Notice the recommended pH for cooling towers in figure below:
CORROSION
Next to scale, the next most important concern in open recirculation cooling water
system is corrosion. Corrosion is very difficult to prevent, but it can be controlled.
Before we can control corrosion, we first must understand what causes it.
Corrosion is a process of converting the metal into its oxide. Corrosion is a three step
electrochemical reaction in which free oxygen in the water passes into a metal
surface at one point (referred to as the cathode) and reacts with water and electrons,
which have been liberated by the oxidation of metal at the anode portion of the
reaction at another spot on the metal surface. The combination of free electrons,
oxygen and water forms hydroxide ions. The hydroxide ions then combine with the
metal ions, which were liberated at the anode as part of the oxidation reaction, to
form an insoluble metal hydroxide. The result of this activity is the loss of metal and
often the formation of a deposit. This process occurs very rapidly in heat-transfer
equipment because of the elevated temperatures, corrosive gases and dissolved
minerals in the water, which stimulate the corrosion process.
The effects of corrosion differ as to the type of corrosion, such as uniform, pitting,
galvanic, erosion corrosion, and electrochemical. We must understand various ways
of treating the system to control these types of corrosion.
Types of Corrosion
An air-conditioning system may have several types of corrosion in the water system.
Many of these types are undoubtedly familiar to you.
Uniform corrosion: One of the most common types of corrosion encountered in acid
environments is known as uniform corrosion. This is caused by acids, such as
carbonic, which cause a uniform loss of metal throughout the condensating water
system.
Pitting corrosion: Pitting corrosion is a non-uniform type, the result of a local cell
action produced when a particle, flake, or bubble of gas deposited on a metal
surface. The pitting is a local accelerated attack, which causes a cavity in the metal
but does not affect the surrounding metal. Oxygen deficiency under such a deposit
sets up an anodic action. This area keeps producing such action until the penetration
finally weakens the structure and it falls, developing a pinhole leak.
Galvanic corrosion: When dissimilar metals which are capable of carrying electric
current are present in a solution, galvanic corrosion occurs. This action is similar to
the electroplating process used in industry to bond or plate dissimilar metals. When
two metals similar to each other are joined together, there is little reaction. But the
coupling of two metals from different groups causes accelerated corrosion in one of
the two metals. When using large amounts of copper in a system and a few unions of
steel, the steel will corrode at a rapid rate. Corrosion inhibitors reduce the corrosion
rate but will not eliminate galvanic corrosion.
Good filtration installations will remove grains of sand and other matter that are large
enough to cause erosion-corrosion. To get rid of air tapped in a system, it is
recommended that hand- or spring-operated bleed valves be installed in the highest
point of the water system. Purging the water system gets rid of the air bubbles that
enter the system in the makeup water.
Factors
Many factors affect the corrosion rates in a given cooling water system. Few
important ones are:
6. Water Velocity Both high and low water velocity promote corrosion. High
velocity increases corrosion by transporting oxygen to the metal and carrying
away the products of corrosion at a faster rate. When water velocity is low,
deposition of suspended solids can establish localized corrosion cells,
thereby increasing corrosion rates. 10 feet per second is recommended for
carbon steel pipe.
7. Temperature - Every 25-30F increase in temperature causes corrosion rates
to double. Above 160F, additional temperature increases have relatively little
effect on corrosion rates in cooling water system.
Corrosion is generally more rapid in liquids with a low pH factor than in alkaline
solutions. For corrosion prevention the most favorable range is with the pH from 7.5
to 9.5, but scaling becomes a problem at the higher pH range. Consequently, the pH
should be held near the lower range where corrosion protection is excellent.
DEPOSIT FORMATION
Open recirculating water systems provide the excellent conditions for growth of
various micro-organisms. The temperature and pH of circulating water are ideal
conditions for the growth of algae and various bacterias. Also the organic matter,
inorganic salts, sunlight etc. provides abundance of nutrients for the growth of these
micro-organisms. The organic matter formations will plug nozzles and prevent proper
distribution of water, thus causing high condensing pressures and reduced system
efficiency.
b. Corrosion Products;
c. Sand;
d. Natural organics;
e. Microbial matter.
a. Water characteristics;
b. Temperature;
c. Water velocity;
d. Microbial growth
Makeup water containing unusual turbidity or suspended matter is usually treated at
the source by coagulation, clarification, and filtration so as to maintain its potability.
Suspended matter and turbidity, therefore, are not common in makeup water in
HVAC systems commercial or residential buildings since the makeup water usually
comes from a municipal or local source, over which there is a water authority
responsible for delivery of clear, potable water.
SECTION - 3 SCALE CONTROL
There are many methods of treating water to prevent scale. A few of these are:
2. Bleed- off: Regulate the amount of bleed-off water to keep the cycles of
concentration within tolerance.
pH Adjustment
Scale forming potential is minimized in acidic environment i.e. lower pH. Acids are
added to lower the pH. The types used are sulphuric, phosphoric, and sodium
sulfate. They are added through solution feeders. Add only enough acid to reduce
the pH (alkalinity) to the proper zone. The zone is usually 7-9 pH, preferably a pH of
8. [Caustic soda, soda ash, and sodium hydroxide can be added to water to increase
the pH, when required].
The Langlier Saturation Index (LSI) and the Ryznar Saturation Index (RSI) are
indexes utilized to monitor the tendency of water to form a calcium scale or promote
corrosion. A positive LSI number (RSI less than 5.0) indicates a scale forming water
while a negative LSI number (RSI greater than 7.0) indicates a dissolving scale, or
corrosive, water. Normal practice is to maintain a slightly positive LSI number [+.2 to
+.5; RSI between 5.0 and 6.0)] and add some chemical scale inhibitor to cope with
the resultant slight tendency to scale.
Here are the governing relationships for the makeup flow rate, the evaporation and
windage losses, the bleed-off rate, and the concentration cycles in an evaporative
cooling tower system:
Where
The evaporation rate amounts to approximately 1% of the recirculation rate for every
10F temperature drop across the cooling tower.
Windage or Drift Loss: This is a relatively small amount of entrained water lost as
fine droplets in the air discharge from a tower. Unlike evaporation which does not
contain dissolved impurities, windage carries these impurities with it and reduces
dissolved solids in the circulating water. Typical values are 0.1% to 0.3% of the
circulating rate for mechanical draft towers.
The amount of bleed off can be determined from the following equations:
Cycles: "Cycles of concentration" (COC) is a very useful term for describing the
number of times that dissolved minerals in water are allowed to concentrate. It may
be determined by dividing the amount of chloride in the cooling water by the amount
of chloride in the make-up.
Where:
E = Evaporation rate
B = Blowdown
D = Drift
Ignoring insignificant drift loss (D), the equation can be simply put as:
Where:
COC is controlled by blowdown; the equation (2) tells us that as long as the amount
of blowdown is proportional to the amount of water entering the system, the
concentration ratio will remain constant irrespective of variations in the inflow water
chemistry.
Example
A cooling tower operate at 450 gallons per minute recirculating rate (C) , 5 cycles of
concentration (COC), 10 DT (temperature drop), and 0.1% windage loss. Calculate
%age blowdown, evaporation loss and make up water requirements.
Solution
%Blowdown
Make up Water
Total make up water per hour is = 60 minutes/hr (5.625 gallons per minute) = 337.5
gallons per hour.
Cycles are regulated by adjusting the blowdown rate. COC is nearly the inverse of
blowdown i.e. to reduce cycles of concentration; the blowdown rate is increased.
Figure below shows the relationship between cycles of concentration and make-up
requirements. As you can see at about 4.5 cycles the curve starts leveling off which
indicates higher cycles will not affect the quantity of makeup water drastically.
There are two key points to note when studying these curves:
1. As cycles of concentration increase, the resultant savings in makeup water
become less and less pronounced. Therefore, in each case very little
additional water is saved by operating above six cycles.
2. At lower evaporation rates (DT), the maximum makeup water savings occurs
at lower cycles.
Chemical savings are directly proportional to water savings. Table below illustrated
this point for a 10,000 gpm open recirculating system with a 10DT.
Chemical needed
Cycles Makeup (gpm)
at 100 ppm (lbs)
4.0 133 40
5.0 125 30
Summarizing,
4. Minimal chemical requirement due to less water losses from the system;
Chemical Dosing
The following list includes generic or family of chemicals which may be used to
condition cooling water stream. The specific name of the treatment product
containing the listed chemical depends on the manufacturer. Consult your chemical
supplier to formulate your dosage requirements and to establish procedures for safe
chemical storage and handling.
10. Polyphosphates - Fairly good calcium scale control under mild conditions.
Caution - Polyphosphates are of some value for scale control but must be
applied cautiously, because hydrolysis of the polyphosphate results in the
formation of orthophosphate ions. If this process is not properly controlled,
calcium phosphate deposits may result.
11. Tannins, starches, glucose, and lignin derivatives - Prevent feed line
deposits by coating scale crystals to produce sludge that will not readily
adhere to heat exchanger surfaces.
Note that the scale and corrosion can result even when chemicals are applied at the
desired treatment levels if there is improper blowdown. When blowdown is excessive,
scale forming minerals and treatment chemicals are also removed making the water
more corrosive.and also increasing chemical costs. If blowdown is inadequate, scale
forming minerals build up in the system to the point that treatment chemicals cannot
overcome the tendency to form scale deposits.
Hard water can be softened by two different methods. The first is the lime-soda
process which changes calcium and magnesium compounds from soluble to
insoluble forms and then removes these insolubles by sedimentation and filtration.
The second and most common is Zeolite or base-exchange process. This process
replaces soluble calcium and magnesium compounds with soluble sodium
compounds.
Ion exchange is a chemical operation by which certain minerals that are ionized or
dissociated in solution are exchanged (and thus removed) for other ions that are
contained in a solid exchange medium, such as a zeolite sandbed. An example is the
exchange of calcium and magnesium, in solution as hardness in water, for sodium
contained in a sodium zeolite bed. The zeolites used in the process of ion exchange
are insoluble, granular materials. A zeolite may be classified as follows: glauconite
(or green sand), precipitated synthetic, organic (carbonaceus), synthetic resin, and
clay. Various zeolites are used, depending on the type of water treatment required.
Most zeolites possess the property cation, or base exchange, but anion exchangers
are also available and may be used when demineralization of water is required. In
the course of treating water, the capacity of the zeolite bed to exchange ions is
depleted. This depletion requires the bed to be regenerated by the use of some
chemical that contains the specific ion needed for the exchange. For instance, when
a sodium zeolite is used to soften water by exchanging the sodium ion for the
calcium and magnesium ions of hard water, the zeolite gradually becomes depleted
of the sodium ion. Thus, it will not take up the calcium and magnesium ions from the
water passing through the bed. The sodium ion is restored to the zeolite by uniformly
distributing a salt or brine solution on top of the bed and permitting it to pass evenly
down through the bed. The salt removes the calcium and magnesium taken up by the
bed as soluble chlorides and restores the zeolite to its original condition. Beds may
also be regenerated with acid, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, or potassium
permanganate, depending on the type of zeolite being used.
The zeolite process is usually used for water which has low turbidity and does not
require filtration. Usually, it is NOT economically advantageous to install water
softeners unless the makeup water is more than 300 or 400 mg/L hardness.
Dealkalizer
Dealkalizer units operate the same as water softeners, but use different resin bed
materials and require strong caustic or acid regeneration. The makeup water is
passed through a treated resin bed where the contaminants in the water are
collected through a chemical exchange process. When the bed becomes saturated
with contaminants, the bed is backwashed, treated with a concentrated electrolyte,
rinsed, and placed back in service. For critical or continuous operations, treatment
units may be dual-column units that allow switching from a saturated column to a
regenerated standby column so that service is not interrupted for routine column
regeneration.
The ion exchange process is to remove calcium and magnesium ions by replacing
them with an equivalent amount of sodium ions. Unlike simple water softener, these
are mixed bed ion-exchange unit consisting of cation and anion exchanger. The
cation exchanger section removes metals, such as calcium and magnesium
(hardness), and the anion exchanger section controls alkalinity and may remove
bicarbonates (corrosion and embrittlement), sulfates (hard scale), chlorides
(foaming), and soluble silica (hard scale).
Magnetic devices
This method involves the exposure of incoming make up water under the intense
magnetic field. Magnetic field affects the suspended particles or the ions in solution
and prevents the deposition of a hardened deposit. The particles will then form a
mobile suspension or do not precipitate at all. Also, existing deposits of scale can be
converted into solution. Vendors of magnetic water treatment devices claim that
powerful magnetic fields can affect the structure of water molecules, thus eliminating
the need for chemical softening agents. Only the effective hardness is claimed to be
altered; no solutes (such as calcium or magnesium) are removed from the water by
the process.
Tests by independent sources have not yet corroborated the claims of vendors and
the readers are advised to research this further as a viable water treatment method.
Electronic de-scaling technology makes use of induced oscillating electric fields using
time-varying magnetic fields generated in the solenoid wrapped around a water pipe.
Dissolved ions are then charged and collided with each other. Collisions between
positive and negative ions facilitate precipitation of the ions in the pipe-work.
2. Adding protective film- forming chemical inhibitors that the water can
distribute to all wetted parts of the system.
Treatment Methods
Most corrosion control strategies involve coating the metal with thin films to prevent
free oxygen and water from coming into close contact with the metal surface. This
breaks the reaction cell, and reduces the corrosion rates. Several major chemical
treatment methods can be used to minimize corrosion problems and to assure
efficient and reliable operation of cooling water systems.
In general, there are four types of inhibitors: 1) anodic, 2) cathodic, 3) mixed and 4)
adsorption, commonly adopted in cooling water treatment. In addition passivation
technique is used for galvanized components. Working principles of common
corrosion inhibitors is described below.
Anodic inhibitor
Applying anodic inhibitor enables a protective oxide / inhibitor film to cover the anodic
corrosion points inside the cooling water circulation system. This method is effective
only if all points are filmed and isolated from corrosion initiator. Otherwise, severe
localized corrosion may occur at the points without effective protection by protective
film. Therefore, sufficient safety margin shall be applied and these shall generally be
applied at high dosage levels (hundreds of mg/l). Common anodic inhibitors are
chromates, nitrites, orthophosphates and silicates.
Cathodic inhibitor
Mixed inhibitor
Mixed inhibitor composes of two or three types of inhibitor and majority of the
proprietary corrosion inhibitor formula falls into this category. Since chemicals with
different characteristics supplement their deficiency with each other, efficacy of the
mixed inhibitor increases. Hence, dosage concentration can be significantly reduced,
thus, lowering the operating cost and environmental impacts caused by chemicals.
Adsorption
Protective absorbed film is formed over the entire metal surface if adsorption inhibitor
is used. The film helps to protect electrochemical reactions between metal and
aqueous ions. Some of the organic compounds are suitable to act as adsorption
inhibitors.
Passivation
The following list notes some common inhibitors with pertinent comments.
1. Chromate - Excellent steel corrosion inhibitor, the standard against which all
others are compared, banned by the USEPA for environmental reasons.
5. Azoles - Three specific azoles compounds, MBT, BZT, and TTZ, which are
excellent yellow metal inhibitor compounds at the 2 to 8 mg/l level.
10. Phosphonates - Includes AMP, HEDP, and PBCT, which are commonly
used as scale control compounds. Fair steel corrosion inhibitors when
operated with pH values above 7.5 and more than 50 mg/l calcium present.
11. Nitrite - Excellent steel corrosion inhibitor at 500 to 700 mg/l, commonly used
only in closed loops due to high level needed, attack by micro-organisms, and
reaction with oxygen.
A factor limiting the use of polyphosphates in cooling water systems is the reversion
of polyphosphates to orthophosphates. Orthophosphates provide less protection than
polyphosphates, and orthophosphates react with the calcium content of the water
and precipitate calcium phosphate. This precipitation forms deposits on heat
exchanger surfaces. The reversion of polyphosphates is increased by long-time
retention and high water temperatures. Bleed-off must be adjusted on the condenser
water system to avoid exceeding the solubility of calcium phosphate. The ability to
prevent metal loss with polyphosphate treatment is inferior to the chromate
treatment. In addition, pitting is more extensive with polyphosphates.
For facilities where the cooling water system is constructed of several materials, a
blended inhibitor is required to obtain satisfactory corrosion protection. For example,
adding 2 mg/l of zinc to a phosphonate product at 10 mg/l reduced the corrosion rate
on mild steel from 2.2 mils/yr to 0.9 mils/yr. It is common to see programs using
mixtures such as molybdate-silicate-azole-polydiol, phosphonate-phosphate-azole,
and molybdate-phosphonate-polydiol-azole.
Seawater application
Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection (CP) is a method used to protect metal structures, pipes and
equipments from corrosion. The cathodic protection can be obtained by connecting a
noble metal to a less noble. In practice steel is protected by supply of electrons from
less noble metal like Zinc, Aluminum and Magnesium alloys, often called sacrificial
anode materials. The anode is sacrificed and eventually is used up, but the steel is
protected.
Poor >5
The corrosion rate of mild steel for a 30-day exposure time in an open recirculating
cooling water system is generally rated to be acceptable below 2.0-3.5 mils per year
(mpy) and excellent if below 2.0 mpy. The corrosion rates for copper would be,
perhaps, 10% of those for mild steel.
Oxidizing Biocide
Oxidizing biocides are powerful chemical oxidants, which kill virtually all micro-
organisms, including bacteria, algae, fungi and yeasts. Common oxidizers are
chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and bromine, ozone, and organo-chlorine slow release
compounds.
Chlorine
Chlorine is the most widely adopted biocide for large circulating water systems. It
provides a residual biocide in the treated water and can be readily checked. It is
cheap and readily available as a pure gas, as well as in the form of various liquid and
solid compounds. Its effectiveness increases when it is used with other non-oxidizing
biocides and biological dispersants.
Chlorine is a very strong oxidizing agent but must be carefully controlled and
monitored due to effluent quality control guidelines. The killing efficiency of chlorine
dramatically declines as the pH goes above 7.5. Because most cooling tower
scale/corrosion treatment programs operate at an alkaline pH, chlorine chemistry
might not be efficient. Chlorine demand is further affected by ammonia or amines in
the water, which react irreversibly to form the much less potent chloramines.
Chlorine when used in excess will damage wood and organic fill in cooling towers
and is corrosive to metals. Usually it is only used in systems large enough to justify
equipment for its controlled feed. Where chlorine is used on a continuous basis, the
concentration of free chlorine should be maintained at 0.3 to 0.5 mg/L to minimize the
attack on materials of construction. For cleaning purposes, shock feed of up to 50
mg/L can be used, provided this high chlorine content is held for no more than 8 h
and the system is thoroughly flushed and drained, to remove dead organic matter
and excess chlorine. Chlorine can be dosed in the form of sodium hypochlorite.
Caution - Chlorine and hypochlorites must be applied carefully, because excessive
chlorine will increase corrosion and may contribute to deterioration of cooling tower
wood and reduction of heat transfer efficiency.
Chlorine dioxide
1. Chlorine dioxide does not react with ammonia this reduces the disinfectant
dose relative to chlorine.
2. Chlorine dioxide does not react with organics to the extent that chlorine or
bromine does; this reduces the cooling water demand for chlorine dioxide
relative to chlorine or bromine.
3. It is more effective than free chlorine at high pH values. Also, chlorine dioxide
is very effective against Legionella and its relatively long half life allows
chlorine residual remains in cooling tower water circuit for a relatively long
period.
Chlorine dioxide and some of the chemicals used to generate it are hazardous.
Alternatives to Chlorine
Due to safety concerns, Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) has replaced gaseous chlorine
at many facilities. Sodium hypochlorite is generally furnished as a solution that is
highly alkaline and therefore reasonably stable. Federal specifications call for
solutions having 5 and 10 percent available chlorine by weight. Shipping costs limit
its use to areas where it is available locally. It is so furnished as powder under
various names, such as Lobax and HTH-I5. The powder generally consists of
calcium hypochlorite and soda ash, which react in water to form sodium hypochlorite.
A popular alternative is bromine which has similar killing powers to chlorine, but
functions more effectively at alkaline pH. Another factor in favour of bromine is that it
does not react irreversibly with ammonia or amines. The primary disadvantages of
bromine vs. simple bleach are that an extra chemical is needed and feed systems
are a bit more complex.
Ozone
Ozone is a powerful biocide and virus deactivant that is capable of oxidizing many
organic and inorganic compounds. When reacting with another molecule, the ozone
molecule is destroyed, producing carbon dioxide, water, and a partially oxidized form
of the original reactant molecule. Any residual ozone will decompose and recombine
as oxygen, producing no toxic or carcinogenic by-products.
The effectiveness of ozone is about 100 to 300 times more than chorine and is not
significantly affected by pH. However, ozone is corrosive to some materials, and the
cooling system construction materials need to be resistant to ozone attack.
Application of ozone is not suitable under the following situations where excessive
organic material in the water or high operating temperature has a high depletion of
applied ozone:
1. High organic loading from air, water or industrial processes that would require
a high chemical oxygen demand (COD) since ozone oxidizes the organics
and insufficient residual may remain for the water treatment.
3. Make up water is hard (>500 mg/L as CaCO3) or with sulphates greater than
100 ppm. Softening and / or pre-filtering of makeup water is recommended.
4. Since ozone has a short half life (usually less than 10 minutes), it readily
decomposes into oxygen after oxidization. It is not recommended in large
systems or systems that have long piping runs that would require long
residence times to get complete coverage.
Ozone exposure for workers is also a consideration. US- OSHA has established an
exposure limit of 0.1 ppm in the air over an 8-hr exposure period. Monitoring of ozone
concentration is required if towers are located at ground level, adjacent to personnel.
Hydrogen Peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a powerful oxidizer, with its power stronger than
chlorine and chlorine dioxide, but weaker than ozone. However, it can be catalyzed
into hydroxyl radicals (OH-), which is more powerful than ozone, for micro-organisms
control. Catalysts, such as iron, copper or other transition metals compounds can be
added to hydrogen peroxide to generate hydroxyl radicals for more rigorous
oxidation. This is the most powerful method to destroy micro-organisms and trace
organics in water.
Hydrogen peroxide decomposes into oxygen and water readily. It is a simple and
effective treatment technology when comparing with conventional water treatment
chemicals and does not cause any gaseous release or chemical residue problem.
However, hydrogen peroxide is totally soluble in water, which may cause safety
problems if high concentration >8% H2O2 by weight is used. Safety precaution in
storage, delivery, handling and disposal of hydrogen peroxide shall be considered,
which shall be complied with related guidelines.
The most effective use of oxidizing biocides is to maintain a constant level of residual
in the system. Oxidizing biocides are usually maintained at a continuous level in the
system. Dosage may be adjusted in response to regular testing but fully automatic
control of biocide level in using reliable and durable measuring systems is desirable
since overdosing can lead to increased corrosion and adversely affect the water
treatment performance. Shock dosing is also applicable, which can enhance the
effectiveness by faster killing action.
Non-Oxidizing Biocide
However, the non-oxidizing biocides are more costly and normally justified only in
small systems, as a supplement to an oxidizing biocide in a large system, or when a
particular problem exists in a large system and an alternative to the use of chlorine is
required.
1. They are well suited to applications that are highly concentrated or fouled.
3. They are active at low levels and are environmentally degradable, providing
minimal discharge problems.
4. They will not attack organic scale inhibitors and are less corrosive than
chlorine at normal dosages.
Disadvantages to using non-oxidizing biocides:
Typically, except in air conditioning cooling systems, non-oxidizing biocides are used
only as a supplement to chlorine. If, during operation, it is determined that a non-
oxidizing biocide is required because of severe fouling problems, the chemical
supplier should be consulted on the method of feed. Normally, the supplier will lease
the storage and feed equipment for a minimal charge.
BIO - DISPERSANTS
Bio-dispersants do not kill organisms; they loosen microbial deposits, which can then
be flushed away. They also expose new layers of microbial slime or algae to the
attack of biocides. Bio-dispersants are an effective preventive measure because they
make it difficult for micro-organisms to attach to equipment and / or pipe work
surfaces to form deposits. Bio-dispersants can greatly enhance performance of
biocides particularly oxidizing biocides. Possible bio-disperants include Acrylates,
Ligonsulphonates, Methacrylates and Polycarboxylic acids, etc.
5. Intermittent chlorine dioxide feed systems typically dose at about 1.5 mg/l as
ClO2 for
12 hours per day to the circulating water flow. Shock chlorine dioxide feed is
typically done 24 times per day, with duration of 2030 minutes.
To stay within the chlorine discharge limits, feed rates of 3ppm chlorine or less are
required, depending on the circulating water system.
UV Treatment
UV disinfection, with secondary dosing using a suitable biocide, is one of the most
cost-effective and efficient methods of reducing biofilms in cooling water. When used
in conjunction with a secondary chemical biocide, UV works instantaneously against
all water-borne microorganisms including those resistant to chlorine.
The treatment systems are very compact and can usually be easily retrofitted to
existing water treatment systems. In addition, secondary dosing does not require the
complex monitoring equipment necessary if biocides are used as a primary
disinfectant. All these factors add up to a simple, effective treatment process that
saves the operator time and money while providing reliable protection against the
spread of dangerous diseases.
UV is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum between visible light and X-rays. The
specific portion of the UV spectrum between 185-400nm (also known as UV-C) has a
strong germicidal effect, with peak effectiveness at 265nm. At these wavelengths UV
kills microorganisms by penetrating their cell membranes and damaging the DNA,
making them unable to reproduce and effectively killing them.
Ionization indicates the electrolytic generation of copper and silver ions in cooling
tower water. If properly managed, copper and silver ion concentrations at 20 to 30
g/L and 10 to 15 g/L, respectively, can be effective to kill bacteria in the systems.
The ions assist in the control of bacterial populations in the presence of a free
chlorine residual of at least 0.2 mg/kg.
It should be noted that in hard water systems, silver ion concentrations is difficult to
maintain due to build-up of scale on the electrodes, and the high concentration of
dissolved solids precipitating the silver ions out of solution. For both hard and soft
water, the ionization process is pH sensitive and it is difficult to maintain silver ion
concentrations above pH 7.6. It is not recommended to adopt ionization in systems
having steel or aluminium heat exchanger since deposition of the copper ion and
subsequent galvanic corrosion is significant.
SECTION - 6 TURBIDITY CONTROL
Another problem area besides organic growth is turbid water, so lets now study
turbidity.
Turbidity in water is caused by suspended matter in a finely divided state. Clay, silt,
organic matter, microscopic organisms, and similar materials are contributing causes
of turbidity. While the terms turbidity and suspended matter are related, they are
not synonymous. Suspended matter is the amount of material in water that can be
removed by filtration. Turbidity is a measurement of the optical obstruction of light
that is passed through a water sample.
Turbid makeup water to cooling systems may cause plugging and overheating where
solids settle out on heat exchanger surfaces. Corrosive action is increased because
the deposits hinder the penetration of corrosion inhibitors.
Turbidity Treatment
Filtration is the most common method for removing suspended matter such as mud,
silt and microbial matter from water by collecting the solids on a porous medium.
Removing suspended matter helps the overall water management program's
success by eliminating deposit-causing substances, as well as chemical treatment
products to work more effectively.
1. Full-flow filtration: Full flow filtration continuously strains the entire system
flow. For example, in a 100-ton system, the flow rate would be roughly 300
GPM. A filter would be selected to accommodate the entire 300 gal/min flow
rate. In this case, the filter typically is installed after the cooling tower on the
discharge side of the pump. While this is the preferred method of filtration, for
higher flow systems, it may be cost prohibitive.
Both in-line filtration and side-stream filtration processes help in reducing suspended
solids to an acceptable level. These filters not only reduce the potential for settling of
particulates in condenser tubes and low-flow locations, but also remove microbes
and particulates that would otherwise consume some of the polymers utilized for
scale control.
Filtration Equipment
3. Sand filters (Permanent media filters) Sand filters are used for water
purification. The degree of suspended solids removal in sand filters depends
on the combinations and grades of the medium being used in the vessel.
Typical sand filter can remove suspended contaminants down to 10m.
Specialized fine sand media filters are designed to remove suspended
particles down to less than 1m. Multimedia vessels with each layer
containing medium of different size may also be used for low suspended
solids application. When the vessel has retained enough suspended solids to
develop a substantial pressure drop, the unit must be backwashed either
manually or automatically by reversing the direction of flow.
5. Bag type filters Bag filters are composed of a bag of mesh or felt
supported by a removable perforated metal basket, placed in a closed
housing with an inlet and outlet. Filter bags can be made of many materials
(cotton, nylon, polypropylene and polyester) with a range of ratings from
0.01mm to 0.85mm. Mesh bag are generally coarser, but are reusable.
However, periodic replacement of filters is required to ensure the efficiency of
filters.
Coagulants, flocculators, and sedimentation basins are also used but are more
common to large water treatment facilities.
Selection Recommendations
The type and density of the suspended solids is a key for selecting an effective filter.
Sand, corrosion products and scales are very dense whereas vegetation,
microbiological biomass and oily/greasy products are very light and float readily in
the water. Bacteria are very small -- actually minute -- while corrosion products such
as chips are very large. Selection of the filter and its media must identify these
considerations. As a rule of thumb, keep the following tips in mind:
1. If mainly sand and other dense particulates are present, a cyclone separator
is ideal.
2. If the suspended solids are lightweight, then a sand filter or cartridge filter will
work well.
3. For a cooling tower system operating 24 hours per day, use a side-stream
filtration system that filters the entire volume of the system four to five times
per day. As an alternative, 3 percent to 5 percent of the recirculation rate is
used. Using this calculation method, if the recirculation rate is 5,000 gal/min,
filter 150 to 250 gal/min.
5. If oil and/or grease are present with suspended solids, use an oil water
separator and then filter the separated water to remove suspended solids.
Chemical Dosing
The purpose of most chemical treatment control programmes (other then certain
biocides) is to maintain a constant concentration in the recirculating water at
all times. In order to maintain a stable chemical concentration in cooling water,
a number of application methods can be adopted, including:
Chemicals are added to the system manually on a routine basis. Shot / slug dosing
is the most economic and effective application method, which may be adopted in
small-scale cooling tower installation. However, it is not recommended because
chemical concentration cannot be controlled accurately and large fluctuations in
chemical levels are always found.
Continuous / intermittent dosing makes use of mechanical devices, such as timer and
pump for chemical dosing. It is the simplest type of automatic dosing system. Since
chemical dosing frequency and amount is regulated by the pre-set value,
fluctuation of chemical concentration inside cooling tower water is always found.
Bleed-off Control
b. Timer / intermittent control: a simple interval timer is set to open and close the
bleed valve intermittently;
d. Proportional control: an impulse water meter on the make up line actuates the
bleed valve
e. To regulate valve in the bleed line so that the flow cannot exceed the make
up water to the system;
f. To provide an alarm signal when solenoid valve and flow switch signals in the
bleed-off line do not correspond.
b. Bleed-off and chemical dosage would not occur at the same time so
that wastage of chemicals on drainage can be avoided;
Monitoring Devices
Flow meter
Chemical feeding requirements are proportional to the make up water flow. Many
chemical feeding systems are designed according this basis, which is the simplest
automatic dosing method. Flow meters including orifices venturi, flow tubes and
turbine meters can be used to suit the design.
Level sensor
Make up water supply to cooling tower sump depends on water level of cooling tower
basin. Hence, chemical dosing can be controlled by monitoring of the water level.
However, this dosing method is not accurate and cannot control the
concentration of chemicals contained in the cooling system water precisely.
Conductivity sensor
pH sensor
Carbon steel corrosion rate decreases with an increase in pH value, and the scale
potential for most scale forming compounds increases with pH value. Also, water
treatment chemicals work in specific range of pH value. Hence, pH value
measurement is often the basic principle for acid dosing to maintain effective water
treatment programme.
ORP probe
Turbidity sensor
Control Devices
Timer
It is a simple device allowing operator to set the operation of chemical dosing valve,
hence, chemical dosing frequency, in a fix interval. Also, circulation of water during
system intermittent down time can be achieved by using timer control.
Dosing pump
Motorized valve
Water treatment may involve application of relatively aggressive and toxic chemicals,
which is the major concern. All personnel involved must be fully conversant with the
safe handling of the products.
a. Material safety data sheet (MSDS) and relevant recognized data sheet for
chemicals used in water treatment process shall be provided by water
treatment services providers and included in the operation and
maintenance manual. MSDS and relevant warning / safety label shall be
provided on the surface of water treatment chemical bucket. The MSDS and
labels shall be properly protected against water and chemical damage.
b. Eye wash bottles or washing basin with fresh water tap shall be provided
adjacent to water treatment chemicals tanks or any appropriate location for
emergency use. Water treatment chemical shall be stored at an
appropriate location to facilitate chemical handling.
c. Mechanical / natural ventilation shall be provided to the room entirely /
partially used for water treatment chemical storage.
d. Electrical fittings and luminaries serving water treatment chemical storage
area shall be weather-proof and corrosion resistant type.
e. Warning signs shall be erected to alert for operation and maintenance
personnel of the potential hazard caused by cooling tower.
f. Warning signs shall also be erected to restrict the unauthorized access to
chemical storage areas and cooling towers.
g. Workers exposed to hazardous substances and engaged in processes of
cleaning and disinfection and water treatment shall undergo regular health
surveillance with a medical practitioner. In case any worker develops
respiratory, cutaneous and other symptoms when exposed to
hazardous chemicals, immediate medical attention shall be sought.
Course Summary
In today's world of expensive energy and replacement costs, it is more vital than
ever, for heat exchange equipment to be kept free of insulating deposits. The cooling
duty and power requirements of refrigeration equipment depend primarily on the
evaporating and condensing temperatures. The condenser in particular due to warm
water and in an open loop is susceptible to scale deposits that shall raise the
condensing temperature of the system. Higher the condensing temperature, higher
shall be the power drawn by the compressor and lower shall be the performance.
The four principal reasons for water treatment in HVAC systems is to (a) to limit
corrosion, (b) to prevent the build-up of scale and sediment, and (c) to reduce the
amount of bacteria, including Legionella, and other microorganisms and (d) to affect
energy conservation.
Select your chemical treatment vendor with care. A simplest approach for HVAC
system is to perform vendor evaluation on "cost to treat 1000 gallons makeup water"
and highest "recommended system water cycle of concentration."