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Abstract

This aim of this practical was to investigate the validity of isentropic flow equations for
compressible flow in a convergent duct. The different pressure distributions that occur at
varying lengths in the nozzle were also recorded and analyzed. The arrangement can be devised
to study the flow through a converging diverging nozzle from low to high speeds, including the
choking phenomenon and the determination of shock wave movement inside such a nozzle
based on pressure measurements.
Introduction
Converging-Diverging Nozzles have been widely used to accelerate fluids to supersonic speeds
at the nozzle exit. Nearly all rockets make use of this fact to create an effective propulsion
system to reach high velocities. Whilst their operation is of a simple appearance, the
combination of flows reached, be that subsonic and supersonic and the subsequent change of
properties such as pressure, density and temperature make the underlying investigation of their
performance more complicated than first expected. Their operation relies on the ratio between
the inlet stagnation pressure P0 and outlet back pressure Pb.

As this ratio is brought down from unity, the mass flow rate increases till amaximum value is
achieved where the Mach number in the throat becomes sonic (Mach no = 1). This is referred to
as "Choked flow". As the ratio is further decreased the flow becomes supersonic in the diverging
nozzle, till the design pressure ratio is achieved with supersonic flow occurring at the nozzle
exit. After this, the flow becomes more complicated and normal and oblique shock waves
begin to occur inside and outside of the nozzle respectively.

This experiment comprises a multistage motor driven air compressor unit supplied with seven
interchangeable test sections and all the instrumentation needed. Performance tests may be
carried out on compressor over a wide range of shaft speeds.

Convergent/ divergent duct design to produce Mach 1. A ring of pressure sensing point
is provided at the throat and at the discharge end of diffuser.
Three ducts at different diameters fitted with two pressure sensing rings to allow the
pressure loses incurred in a straight pipe to be studied in relation to Re #.
Test section to accommodate a range of plate orifices. The normal bore of the section is
34mm.
Pressure loses in a 90 bend in a relation to the flow velocity. Provision is also
incorporated whereby the radial pressure differences across the bend may be
investigated.
Theoretical Background
Throttle valve
The flow rate for all the experiments is controlled by a fine adjustment throttle valve fitted to
the compressor discharge port. Settings are held by tightening the clamp screw at the back of
movable throttle disc. The throttle assembly supplied with dynamometer driven compressor.

A substantial pressure recovery is obtained in the divergent portion of diffuser and a throat
depression po-p2 is achieved which is several times the pressure difference developed by the
compressor itself. At high throttle openings the speed of sound is reached and the duct
becomes chocked. Tapings for pressure measurement are provided at sections 1, 2 and 3.The
following assumptions are made throughout the theoretical development.

Flow variables are uniform over a cross-section perpendicular to the flow direction i.e.
the duct can be considered to be a single stream tube with one dimensional flow.

Flow is steady.

Potential energy changes are negligible.

Inclined Manometers
Inclined manometers provide greater readability by stretching a vertical differential along an
inclined indicating column, giving more graduations per unit of vertical height. This effectively
increases the instruments sensitivity and accuracy.

Vertical-Tube Manometers
The U-tube manometer is the basic and most widely used style of manometer. The Merriam U-
tube manometer is a versatile, economical instrument for the measurement of pressures,
vacuums or differential pressures.
Stagnation State
The actual stagnation state is the state achieved after an actual deceleration to zero velocity (as
at the nose of a body placed in a fluid stream), and there may be irreversibility associated with
the deceleration process. Therefore, the term "stagnation property" is sometimes reserved for
the properties associated with the actual state, and the term total property is used for the
isentropic stagnation state. The enthalpy is the same for both the actual and isentropic
stagnation states (assuming that the actual process is adiabatic). Therefore, for an ideal gas, the
actual stagnation temperature is the same as the isentropic stagnation temperature. However,
the actual stagnation pressure may be less than the isentropic stagnation pressure. For this
reason the term "total pressure" (meaning isentropic stagnation pressure) has particular
meaning compared to the actual stagnation pressure.
Flow Analysis
The variation of fluid density for compressible flows requires attention to density and other fluid
property relationships. The fluid equation of state, often unimportant for incompressible flows,
is vital in the analysis of compressible flows. Also, temperature variations for compressible flows
are usually significant and thus the energy equation is important. Curious phenomena can occur
with compressible flows.

For simplicity, the gas is assumed to be an ideal gas.

The gas flow is isentropic.

The gas flow is constant.

The gas flow is along a straight line from gas inlet to exhaust gas exit.

The gas flow behavior is compressible.


There are numerous applications where a steady, uniform, isentropic flow is a good
approximation to the flow in conduits. These include the flow through a jet engine, through the
nozzle of a rocket, from a broken gas line, and past the blades of a turbine.

Mach number = M Velocity = V

Universal gas constant = R Pressure = p

Specific heat ratio = k Temperature = T

* indicates Sonic conditions Density =

Area = A
Energy equation for the steady flow:

To model such situations, consider the control volume in the changing area of the conduit of Fig.
The continuity equation between two sections an infinitesimal distance dx apart is

If only the first-order terms in a differential quantity are retained, continuity takes the form

The energy equation is:

This simplifies to, neglecting higher-order terms,:

Assuming an isentropic flow, the energy equation becomes:

Substitute from the continuity equation to obtain

Terms of the Mach number:

This equation applies to a steady, uniform, isentropic flow. There are several observations that
can be made from an analysis of Eq. (9.26). They are:
For a subsonic flow in an expanding conduit (M <1 and dA>0), the flow is decelerating
(dV <0).

For a subsonic flow in a converging conduit (M <1 and dA <0), the flow is accelerating
(dV >0).

For a supersonic flow in an expanding conduit (M >1 and dA >0), the flow is accelerating
(dV >0).

For a supersonic flow in a converging conduit (M >1 and dA <0), the flow is decelerating
(dV <0).

At a throat where dA =0, either M =1 or dV =0 (the flow could be accelerating through M


=1, or it may reach a velocity such that dV =0).
Supersonic flow

A nozzle for a supersonic flow must increase in area in the flow direction, and a diffuser must
decrease in area, opposite to a nozzle and diffuser for a subsonic flow. So, for a supersonic flow
to develop from a reservoir where the velocity is zero, the subsonic flow must first accelerate
through a converging area to a throat, followed by continued acceleration through an enlarging
area.

The nozzles on a rocket designed to place satellites in orbit are constructed using such
converging-diverging geometry. The energy and continuity equations can take on particularly
helpful forms for the steady, uniform, isentropic flow through the nozzle. Apply the energy
equation with Q_ W_S 0 between the reservoir and some location in the nozzle to obtain

Any quantity with a zero subscript refers to a stagnation point where the velocity is zero, such as
in the reservoir. Using several thermodynamic relations equations can be put in the forms:
If the above equations are applied at the throat (the critical area signified by an Asterisk (*)
superscript, where M =1), the energy equation takes the forms

The critical area is often referenced even though a throat does not exist. For air with k =1.4, the
equations above provide

T* =0.8333T

p* =0.5283p_o

* =0.6340

The mass flux through the nozzle is of interest and is given by:

With the use of Eq. (9.28), the mass flux, after applying some algebra, can be expressed as

If the critical area is selected where M =1, this takes the form

Which, when combined with previous it provides:


Consider a converging nozzle connecting a reservoir with a receiver. If the reservoir pressure is
held constant and the receiver pressure reduced, the Mach number at the exit of the nozzle will
increase until Me=1 is reached, indicated by the left curve in the figure. After Me =1 is reached
at the nozzle exit for , the condition of choked flow occurs and the velocity
throughout the nozzle cannot change with further decreases in . This is due to the fact that
pressure changes downstream of the exit cannot travel upstream to cause changes in the flow
conditions. The right curve of Fig2. Represents the case when the reservoir pressure is increased
and the receiver pressure is held constant. When , the condition of choked flow also
occurs; but Eqn indicates that the mass flux will continue to increase as is increased. This is
the case when a gas line ruptures.

A supersonic flow can turn very sharp angles, since nature provides expansion fans that do not
exist in subsonic flows. To avoid separation in subsonic nozzles, the expansion angle should not
exceed 10. For larger angles, vanes are used so that the angle between the vanes does not
exceed 10.
Isentropic Converging-Diverging Flow in Cross Section
Compressible Flow, Choking, and Converging-Diverging Nozzles

There are two models that assume variable area flow: First is isentropic and adiabatic model.
Second is isentropic and isothermal model. Clearly, the stagnation temperature, T0, is constant
through the adiabatic flow because there isn't heat transfer. Therefore, the stagnation pressure
is also constant through the flow because the flow is isentropic. Thus, knowing the Mach
number or the temperature will provide all that is needed to find the other properties.

For low speed flows of liquids or gases, density may be assumed constant, without significant
loss of accuracy. At very high flow speeds, however, compressibility effects become important,
and in fact dominate the flow field. The most important parameter in compressible flows is
Mach number, Ma = V/c where V is the flow velocity and c is the speed of sound [c = (RT) 1/2 for
an ideal gas]. If the Mach number is small (less than about 0.3), compressibility effects are
unimportant. For 0.3 < Ma < 1.0, the flow is still subsonic (meaning velocity V is lower than the
speed of sound) but are important. At Ma = 1.0, the flow is called sonic, since V = c.

At Mach compressibility effects (i.e. changes in density numbers greater than 1.0, the flow is
called supersonic, since the velocity is greater than the speed of sound. Bullets fired from a gun
travel at supersonic speeds, as do certain jet aircraft. When Mach number becomes very large
(greater than about 3.0), the flow is called hypersonic. An example of hypersonic flow is
encountered when the space shuttle re-enter earths atmosphere and descends to earth.

As a gas is forced through a tube, the gas molecules are deflected by the walls of the tube. If the
speed of the gas is much less than the speed of sound of the gas, the density of the gas remains
constant and the velocity of the flow increases. However, as the speed of the flow approaches
the speed of sound we must consider compressibility effects on the gas. The density of the gas
varies from one location to the next. Considering flow through a tube, as shown in the figure, if
the flow is very gradually compressed (area decreases) and then gradually expanded (area
increases), the flow conditions return to their original values. We say that such a process
is reversible. From a consideration of the second law of thermodynamics, a reversible flow
maintains a constant value of entropy. We call this type of flow an isentropic flow.

Isentropic flows occur when the change in flow variables is small and gradual, such as the ideal
flow through the nozzle shown above. The generation of sound waves is an isentropic process.
A supersonic flow that is turned while the flow area increases is also isentropic. We call this an
isentropic expansion because of the area increase. If a supersonic flow is turned abruptly and
the flow area decreases, shock waves are generated and the flow is irreversible. The isentropic
relations are no longer valid and the flow is governed by the oblique or normal shock relations.

Choked flow is a compressible flow effect. The parameter that becomes "choked" or "limited" is
the fluid velocity. Choked flow is a fluid dynamic condition associated with the Venturi effect.
When a flowing fluid at a given pressure and temperature passes through a restriction (such as
the throat of a convergent-divergent nozzle or a valve in a pipe) into a lower pressure
environment the fluid velocity increases. At initially subsonic upstream conditions, the
conservation of mass principle requires the fluid velocity to increase as it flows through the
smaller cross-sectional area of the restriction. At the same time, the Venturi effect causes the
static pressure, and therefore the density, to decrease downstream beyond the
restriction. Choked flow is a limiting condition where the mass flow will not increase with a
further decrease in the downstream pressure while upstream pressure is fixed. Note that the
limited parameter is velocity, and thus mass flow can be increased with increased upstream
pressure (increased fluid density). Thus, accurate values of V and m are given by:

Vt = {2k (Po-Pt)/}

m = at 2 k (p-pt)
Procedure
Before use and when changing the range the following procedure should be carried out with the
compressor switched off. Level the manometer about both horizontal areas by adjusting the
two foot screws. Bring the meniscus to the zero mark by adjusting the diaphragm screw below
the inclined tube.

Part (A) To investigate isentropic flow equations for compressible flow


in a converging duct.

Procedure:
Connect an inclined tube manometer to read po-p1 using the 50.8mm range and a mercury
manometer to read p2-po. Adjust the flow to give approximately equal increments of po-p1 and
for each flow rate read both manometers. Read the barometer to read p0.

Part (B) To demonstrate phenomena of chocking.

Procedure:
Connect an inclined tube manometer to read po-p1 using the 50mm range and mercury
manometer to measure po-p2 and p0-p3. Adjust the flow rate to vary po-p3 in approx. equal steps.
Take a set of readings. For each flow rate read all manometers. Take readings of barometric
pressure po and atmospheric temperature.

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