MMS 1 (1) pp.

87103 Intellect Limited 2015

Metal Music Studies

Volume 1 Number 1
2015 Intellect Ltd Article. English language. doi: 10.1386/mms.1.1.87_1

Nelson Varas-Daz
University of Puerto Rico

Eliut Rivera-Segarra
Ponce School of Medicine and Health Sciences

Carmen L. Rivera Medina

Institute for Psychological Research

Sigrid Mendoza
University of Puerto Rico

Osvaldo Gonzlez-Seplveda
Ponce School of Medicine and Health Sciences

Predictors of communal
formation in a small heavy
metal scene: Puerto Rico
as a case study

Abstract Keywords
Heavy metal music has constantly been under scrutiny due to its perceived nega- communal experience
tive effects on its listeners. Quantitative research has focused on heavy metal music community
as a risk factor for mental health problems and antisocial behaviour. This research heavy metal
agenda has neglected to explore and quantitatively document how the music can Puerto Rico
foster positive outcomes among its listeners, in particular a strong sense of commu-
nity. Fans and producers of heavy metal music constantly reference community

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Nelson Varas-Daz | Eliut Rivera-Segarra

as an important aspect of the sonic experience. Still, few studies have addressed
the communal experience in heavy metal music from a quantitative perspective.
Therefore, the specific aims of this study were to (1) document levels of sense of
community among members of the Local Metal Scene (LMS) in Puerto Rico, (2)
explore differences on sense of community among core scene members and those at
its periphery, and (3) explore predictive variables that can explain sense of commu-
nity among its members. We present data from a larger study of the metal scene in
Puerto Rico, which used a mixed methods approach including ethnographic observa-
tions, qualitative interviews and surveys with members of Puerto Ricos metal scene.
Results evidence high levels of sense of community, with existing differences among
members of the same scene. Furthermore, our results identify six predictive variables
of importance for sense of community among the LMS in Puerto Rico.

Introduction
Research on heavy metal music is still a burgeoning area of interest for scho
lars from multiple traditional fields of inquiry (Spracklen, Brown and Kahn-
Harris 2011). The relative novelty of emerging research is allowing individuals
throughout the world to become better acquainted with manifestations of
heavy metal music in corners of the world that were previously unimagina
ble in the worldview of music consumers, producers and scholars. Research
on heavy metal scenes seems to be growing in regions of the world that
are peripheral to traditional metropolitan cities in which the music received
much attention. This has allowed for a generation of knowledge on the
cultural issues that help shape specific scenes outside of North American and
European settings (Wallach, Berger and Greene 2012).
One particular characteristic of some of these peripheral scenes is their
relatively small size in comparison to others. This characteristic has implica
tions for how its participants relate to each other on a daily basis. For example,
in small scenes face-to-face interaction is common, people tend to know most
other members and potential group cohesion is high. Shared physical spaces
tend to be few and frequently visited by scene members. Finally, sources of
local information on music tend to be commonly shared by all members. These
are just some factors that can foster strong linkages and communal identi
ties in small scenes. The communal experience in these scenes is an impor
tant aspect of everyday survival as support, manifested via resource sharing,
emotional encouragement and other actions, can be vital for continued exist
ence (Wallach and Levine 2012).
Research on these small scenes throughout the world has mostly used
ethnographic and qualitative research techniques to richly describe them and
their members (Bell 2012; Green 2012; Hecker 2012; Kawano and Hosokawa
2012; LeVine 2008). These approaches have been extremely valuable as they
allow for a deep understanding of these scenarios and the meanings ascribed
to the music by fans and musicians. Quantitative research has been absent
from this perusal on community formation in small heavy metal scenes. We
believe that this absence is linked to the previous use of quantitative methods
to pathologize heavy metal music through interpretations of correlations
between musical preference and risk behaviours among youth as causal rela
tions. Still, quantitative methods can potentially serve as a valuable tool to
understand the communal experience among members of small metal scenes
throughout the world if used and interpreted properly.

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 Predictors of communal formation in a small heavy metal scene

Moral panics and heavy metal music in academic

research
It has been well documented that heavy metal music generated social moral
panics during the 1980s (and still does in some spaces), when its visibility was
heightened due to its access to massive media outlets like radio and television
(Hjelm, Kahn-Harris and Levine 2012). This moral panic, in its essence, was a
reaction to the perceived threat posed by heavy metal music on the well-being
of youth. Concerns over its effects on anti-social behaviour, mental health
problems and uncontrolled sexuality were just some of the issues raised by
concerned parents and politicians. Academic researchers were not ideologi
cally distant from these concerns. An examination of published research in
peer-reviewed journals evidences that this anxiety over youth well-being and
health, permeated most research ventures related to heavy metal music. Of
course, some of this genuine interest on youth health was also accompa
nied by outright disdain for heavy metal music. It would be safe to state that
researchers interpreted heavy metal music consumption as a risk factor for
youth.
The most evident concern regarding the influence of heavy metal music
on youth was related to issues such as antisocial behaviour, depression,
alcohol and drug abuse, and even neck injuries as a result of head bang
ing practices (Arnett 1996; Mast and McAndrew 2011; Patton and McIntosh
2008; Scheel and Westfeld 1999; Shafron and Karno 2013). Although it
could be argued that health related researchers were focusing on heavy
metal as a risk factor due to genuine concern over youth health, we must
also recognize that social research is frequently deployed as a mechanism
for social control (Petersen and Lupton 1997). This is particularly evident for
individuals and practices that are seen as non-conforming to social norms.
Consumers of heavy metal music seemed, at face value, to be a risk group
in light of what was perceived as a social rupture with appropriate sounds
(i.e. heavy distortion), behaviours (i.e. moshing), and aesthetics (i.e. black
shirts and long hair). Therefore, this type of research had a twofold agenda.
On the one hand it intended to raise alarm over the health risks of this
music for youth, while simultaneously fostering the idea that the problem
(i.e. music production and consumption) had to be controlled in some way
(i.e. censorship, legislation).
Research that aimed to counteract these negative correlations between
heavy metal music and risk behaviours would be scarce. When not engaged
in research on heavy metal as a risk factor, academic researchers would
indirectly devalue non-pathological explorations into heavy metal music.
For example, Phillipov (2012) has argued that academic research on music
tended to focus on genres such as punk and hip hop, as these were perceived
as giving voice to groups that were socially oppressed. Working-class youth
and racial/ethnic minorities could voice their critique of society via these
genres. On the other hand, heavy metal music was somewhat abandoned
in light of the perception that it was unable to voice the concerns of any
oppressed group. It was perceived as having a lack of political agenda in
favour of those who consumed it. In this manner, research on heavy metal
music that did not pursue highlighting its potential pathological implica
tions for youth was almost non-existent. Researchers did little to counter
act the pathologization of heavy metal music by other fields of study like
psychology and medicine.

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Nelson Varas-Daz | Eliut Rivera-Segarra

Focusing on strengths: Understanding predictors

of community in heavy metal music
Times have changed for heavy metal music, and now almost forty years into
the existence of the genre academic research has positioned its gaze on the
music and its culture from different perspectives. This turning of the tide stems
directly from the engagement of heavy metal music fans who have themselves
become academic researchers and shed light on the musical genre from a vari
ety of fields like musicology, anthropology, sociology and psychology, to name
a few (Brown 2011; Weinstein 2011). Also, these researchers have aimed to
shed light on other aspects to heavy metal music that are not limited to the
documentation of its potentially risk inducing implications. These research
ventures have focused on cultural aspects that heavy metal music fans share
in their everyday practices (Weinstein 1991), gendered practices ascribed to the
music (Walser 1993), and the historical formation of local scenes (Hecker 2012),
among many other non-pathological subjects. This type of research has begun
to challenge the existing literature that seemed to focus almost exclusively on
heavy metal music as a risk factor. It has evidenced that the linkages between
music consumption and risk are more complex than initially expected (some
times non-existent) and even highlighted the positive implications of involve
ment in scenarios where heavy metal music is produced and consumed.
One of those positive implications of heavy metal music in the social
arena has to do with community formation. Heavy metal music is literally
overwhelmed with references to the communal. Shared experiences through
music, geographical spaces, dress codes, dancing styles and common symbols
(i.e. hand gestures) are just some of the examples that point towards the
importance of a common or shared experience in the process of cresting or
consuming this musical genre (Snell and Hodgetts 2007). Although this might
seem contradictory in light of the importance placed on individualism in the
music (Fellezs 2012; Olson 2012), specifically in genres such as black metal,
the communal experience is there and readily visible to anyone attending a
concert. Heavy metal music references the concept of community consistently,
even if not uniformly across subgenres.
A close examination of theoretical contributions to understanding the
communal experience will reveal interest in specific variables that at differ
ent times have garnered academic attention. For example, community
psychologists have written extensively about the role of geographical prox
imity in the creation of communal consciousness (Rappaport and Seidman
2006; Snchez 2000). After all, shared spaces are a vital part of getting to
know one another. In the case of the metal community these spaces include
concert halls, bars and malls. Also, the role of the Internet and social media
are currently vital spaces of communal interaction for heavy metal music fans
(Podoshen, Venkatesh and Jin 2014; Venkatesh et al. 2014). Psychologists
have also focused on the functional aspects of the community via variables
such as sense of community, social capital, social support and in-group
vs. out-group dynamics (Montero 2002, 2009). These endeavours have aimed
to examine the served purpose of communities, specifically what do people
gain from entering communal practices even when potentially losing their
individuality (Wenger 1998). Sociological approaches have focused on how
communities are imagined when face-to-face interaction is scarce (Anderson
2006). This focus places importance on how communities develop a historical
perspective that strengthens their existence. Sociology would also focus on

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 Predictors of communal formation in a small heavy metal scene

the emotional connectedness of the communal experience in late modernity

through the concept of tribes (Maffesoli 1996). The central idea here being
that modern institutions based on metanarratives of progress and rationality
have run their course and a return to more primitive-style groupings is taking
place focusing on emotional connectedness. These academic perspectives on
the communal experience have competed with each other at different times,
striving to place focus on different variables of interest. Still, these extensive
contributions, when examined as a whole, have focused on the importance
of place, function, emotional connectedness and shared history as important
aspects of the communal experience.
Research on heavy metal music has not been absent from the perusal
on community formation. In fact, some efforts have aimed to discuss the
communal experience in heavy metal via discussions on the theoretical use
of the concept of scene (Kahn-Harris 2007), while others have explored the
processes through which communities are formed around the shared musi
cal experience (Wallach and Levine 2012). Further research has aimed to look
at smaller communities throughout the world to explore their histories and
establish comparisons with more widely known scenes in larger metropolitan
cities (Varas-Daz and Rivera 2014). This emphasis on community formation
represents a genuine shift from traditional research on heavy metal music as
a risk factor for its consumers, and focuses on an approach that highlights the
potential strengths, or positive implications, of involvement in the genre.
This shift recognized the extensive literature that points to the poten
tially positive implications of participation within communities. For example,
research has shown that feeling part of a community has a significant positive
impact on a range of outcomes for both, individuals and groups (Davidson and
Cotter 1991). Higher levels of sense of community have been associated with
lower levels of depressive symptoms and suicide ideation (Bailey and McLaren
2005). It has also been found to be a protective factor against violence, trau
matic experiences and general mental health problems (Greenfield and Marks
2010; Li and Chan 2011; Roussi, Rapti and Kiosseoglou 2006). Further research
has also documented how sense of community can foster social engagement
(Brodsky, Campo and Aronson 1999); cardiovascular health (Lee and Cubbin
2002); sense of well-being, general life satisfaction (Davidson and Cotter 1991;
Farrell, Aubry and Coulombe 2004); positive changes in health behaviours
(Hystad and Carpiano 2012); and a higher self-esteem and perceived social
support (Prezza et al. 2001; Prezza and Costantini 1998).
Scholarly research on heavy metal music has begun to document how these
communal experiences are potentially positive and beneficial for its members.
As stated earlier, most of those endeavours have been carried out via quali
tative techniques and ethnographic observation. Quantitative approaches
that aim to document variables of importance on community formation
among heavy metal fans are scarce, and therefore needed to generate a more
complete understanding of how these communal experiences are formed and
which elements play an important role in fostering that shared process. Our
study aims to shed light on this process, as we will explain subsequently.

Exploring community in the context of Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico is the smallest of the Larger Antilles in the Caribbean. The Island
has mainly Hispanic cultural roots due to its history of colonization under
Spain since 1493. In 1898 Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States as part

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Nelson Varas-Daz | Eliut Rivera-Segarra

of the spoils of the SpanishAmerican War (Fernndez 1996). After more

than 100 years of political and cultural relations with the United States, the
island has a mixture of cultural influences from its Hispanic heritage and more
current influences form the mainland US. Currently, 3.6 million Puerto Ricans
live on the Island while the diaspora to the United States has surpassed
4.2 million individuals.
Puerto Rico has had an underground metal scene since 1985. Since its
emergence the scene has sustained itself in complete underground status. Most
average Puerto Ricans are completely unaware of the scenes existence. When
heavy metal music is discussed in the media, it is dismissed as unrelated to local
culture and therefore unimportant to everyday life on the Island. In this setting,
a small scene has faced the need to establish close links in order to survive in a
culturally hostile environment. Little support from radio and established media
outlets has served to strengthen the perception of communal unity among its
members. Due to its small geographical space, scene members tend to know
each other, interact frequently face-to-face, and constantly share the limited
spaces that allow for live music. In this sense, geographical closeness and
the need to survive in a cultural space where heavy metal music is perceived
as alien, positions Puerto Ricos metal scene as an interesting case study to
examine the communal experience related to the consumption of heavy metal
music. Therefore, the specific aims of this article are to (1) document levels
of sense of community among members of the Local Metal Scene (LMS) in
Puerto Rico, (2) explore differences on sense of community among core scene
members and those at its periphery, and (3) explore predictive variables that
can explain sense of community among its members.

Method
The data presented in this article is part of a larger study that aimed to docu
ment the history of Puerto Ricos underground metal scene, while also explor
ing how local cultural factors influenced the development and maintenance of
that community (Varas-Daz and Rivera 2014). In order to achieve the over
all aims of the study we implemented a mixed methods research design in a
sequential fashion (Tashakkori and Teddlie 2003). The data gathering tech
niques included ethnographic observation, in-depth qualitative interviews,
archival document analysis and a quantitative survey. For the purposes of this
article we will focus on the quantitative data gathered via the survey.

Participants
A sample of 402 participants completed our survey instrument. In order to be
included in the final data analysis, participants had to meet all the specific crite
ria identified by local community gatekeepers as important to be considered
part of the local scene. These screening criteria included (1) acknowledging
the existence of an LMS, (2) feeling part of the LMS, (3) participating in the
LMS, (4) attending a local event in the past month, and (5) knowing at least
one band from the local scene. Chi-square analyses confirmed the existence
of two distinct groups in our sample in light of the criteria identified by the
community gatekeepers (see Table 1). We labelled these groups as Core,
for those who met all five criteria, and Periphery for those who did not. As
shown on Table 1, the 173 Core participants consistently met all five crite
ria. Once we filtered participants via these screening criteria our final sample
was composed of 173 individuals. The demographic data for this group can

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 Predictors of communal formation in a small heavy metal scene

Periphery N Core N Chi-square

(%) (%)

Acknowledging the existence

of a local metal scene (LMS)
Yes 168 (49.3) 173 (50.7) 49.55*
No 55 (100)
Feeling part of the LMS
Yes 91 (34.5) 173 (65.5) 102.42*
No 77 (100)
Participating in the LMS
Yes 140 (44.7) 173 (55.3) 13.41*
No 28 (100)
Attending a local event in
the past month
Yes 127 (42.3) 173 (57.7) 92.43*
No 89 (100)
Knowing at least one band
form the LMS
Yes 166 (49) 173 (51) 43.47*
No 47 (100)

* p < .001

Table 1 Percentage distribution of screening criteria by type of participant in the

local heavy metal scene.

be seen in Table 2. Overall, the final sample was mostly male, heterosexual,
middle class, with college education and currently employed.

Measures
Our survey included 47 questions developed in collaboration with members of
the local scene and taking into consideration our ethnographic observations
and qualitative interviews. These questions addressed six specific thematic
areas: (1) demographic information, (2) musical interests, (3) knowledge of
bands in the local scene, (4) reasons for scene participation, (5) experiences of
discrimination, and (6) sense of community. All questions were assessed via
true/false, fill-in and Likert type scale formats.
In order to measure sense of community we used the Brief Sense of
Community Scale (Peterson, Speer and Millan 2008). This is an eight-item self-
report instrument that assesses four dimensions of the communal experience:
(1) needs fulfillment, (2) group membership, (3) influence over the group, and
(4) emotional connection. It uses a 5-point Likert response option format that
ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree. In a previous study conducted
in the United States, the Cronbachs alpha for the overall BSCS was .92, while
among sub-scales it ranged from .77 to .94. For the purpose of the current study,
the BSCS was translated into Spanish and slightly modified. Specifically, the
word neighbourhood was replaced with community and participants were
informed in the instructions that we used this word to refer to the LMS.

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Nelson Varas-Daz | Eliut Rivera-Segarra

Demographics N % SD

Gender
Men 142 82.1
Women 31 17.9
Age
Mean 32.12 9.63
Range 1253
Sexual orientation
Heterosexual 169 97.7
Homosexual 1 .6
Bisexual 3 1.7
Social class
Upper 1 .6
Middle-Upper 17 9.8
Middle 117 67.6
Middle-Lower 30 17.3
Lower 6 3.5
Level of education
High school 43 24.9
Associates degree 31 17.9
Bachelors degree 77 44.5
Masters degree 14 8.1
Doctoral degree 4 2.3
Other 4 2.3
Employment
Yes 120 69.4
No 53 30.4
Religious
Yes 59 34.1
No 113 65.3
Race
White 101 58.4
Black 5 2.9
Trigueo (Mixed) 45 26.0
Indian 3 1.7
Other 19 11.0

Note: N = 173.

Table 2: Sample characteristics.

Procedure
In order to plan our survey administration procedure we held weekly meet
ings during one month with local scene members to discuss the content of our
questionnaire. We engaged in this procedure as part of our community-based
participatory approach that aimed to make community members part of our

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 Predictors of communal formation in a small heavy metal scene

effort, and not just subjects under study. This process, along with our status
as local scene members, helped us surpass traditional suspicion of academic
research present in underground communities that have traditionally been
criminalized by researchers through their almost exclusive focus on pathology.
Once the final content of the survey was agreed upon, the questions were
uploaded to an iSurvey platform. This software allows for data gathering via
iPad technology while offline in the field. Participants answer questions in the
application, which then gathers the data and uploads it into a data file once
access to the Internet is available. iSurvey software is useful as it eliminates
data entry errors, allows for a more dynamic survey experience when answer
ing questions and seamlessly integrated skip patterns within questions with
out burden on participants.
Participants completed the survey at two local concerts during 2013.
Both concerts included international and local bands as part of the bill. Most
participants took fifteen minutes to complete the survey.

Data analysis
Original source data were collected via iSurvey software, which automati
cally uploads information to an SPSS (version 17.0) database for analytical
purposes. Non-parametric statistics like Chi-square analyses were used to
evaluate the existence of two distinct groups in the sample in light of the
criteria identified by the community gatekeepers. Students t-test was used
to evaluate statistically significant differences among the Core and Periphery
groups in terms of sense of community.Once the Core group was identified
as statistically distinct from the Periphery, the rest of the analyses were run
for this subsample of 173 participants. Descriptive analyses were conducted to
describe the sample in terms of demographic information, musical interests,
knowledge of bands in the local scene, reasons for scene participation, experi
ences of discrimination and sense of community.
Multiple regression analyses were used to evaluate the variance of sense
of community explained by several variables: (1) demographic characteris
tics, (2) receiving support from people in the scene, (3) feelings of belong
ing to an international scene, (4) number of reasons for scene participation,
and (5) experiences of discrimination. The model was evaluated in terms of
the criteria for models accuracy and regression assumptions. Only one case
was identified as an outlier; however this case has no influence over the
parameters estimated according to Cooks, Leverage and Mahalanobis criteria
(Field 2012). The model did not meet the homoscedasticity assumption and
therefore the residual variances were not equal at each level of the predictors,
which may limit the generalization of our results. However, it should not be
overlooked that this is a sample (Core group) with very specific characteristics
when compared to the rest of the participants. For all statistical tests, p values
of 0.05 or lower were considered statistically significant.

Results
Results from our study evidence the complexities entailed in exploring predic
tive variables of community formation among heavy metal fans in Puerto Rico.
Although our ethnographic research component and qualitative in-depth
interviews provided us with very specific criteria for who should be considered
part of the LMS (i.e. Core group), those individuals who did not meet the
conditions (Periphery group) should not be overlooked. As seen in Table 1,

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Nelson Varas-Daz | Eliut Rivera-Segarra

a significant amount of participants in the Periphery group met some of the

screening criteria proposed by community gatekeepers although they did not
become part of the Core group. For example, they knew of the local scenes
existence, some felt part of the local scene and even participated in it. Others
also reported having attended shows in recent months and knew local bands
by name. Still, the periphery group members did not meet all of these criteria
simultaneously. These results evidence that the audience in local metal shows
is more varied than expected, and even when some characteristics are shared
these may not be enough to foster communal formation with these specific
individuals.
Even though these varied individuals coexist in the LMS, quantitative
analysis confirmed the importance of the selection criteria described by the
community gatekeepers who identified the existence of two distinct groups.
When assessed for levels of sense of community, Students t-test analy
sis demonstrated that participants in the Core group obtained a statisti
cally significant higher mean ( X = 34.36; SD = 5.17) when compared to the
Periphery group ( X = 27.13; SD = 8.32) (t = 10.43; df = 364, p < .001). In fact,
higher levels of sense of community were present in participants that met all
criteria and were therefore considered part of the Core group (see Graph 1).
These results evidence that the criteria used by local scene members to deter
mine who is really part of the scene is accurate and validated quantitatively.
This confirmation would allow us to further examine predictors of such sense
of community with this specific subsample.
Statistical analysis evaluating potential predictors for sense of community
evidenced several variables of importance. These included (1) age, (2) level
of education, (3) social class, (4) considering oneself religious, (5) receiving
support from people in the LMS, (6) feelings of belonging to an international
heavy metal scene, (7) number of reasons to participate in the LMS (partici
pants could choose from a range of one to six reasons) (see Table 3), and (8)
perceived discrimination towards metal fans in the local context. These variables
accounted for 21 per cent of the variance in sense of community (R2adj = .21;
f = 6.41 (8, 160); p < .001) (see Table 4).
While keeping the rest of the variables in the model constant, the stan
dardized betas suggest that age was the variable that accounted for most of the

Graph 1: Sense of community mean score by type of participant.

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 Predictors of communal formation in a small heavy metal scene

N %

To have fun listening to the music I enjoy 151 87.3

To share with people who think like me 139 80.3
Because the scene is like a family to me 106 61.3
To create a stronger scene 95 54.9
Because it makes me feel positive emotions 91 52.6
Because its a space without violence 88 50.9

Note: N = 173; Participants could select multiple answers.

Table 3: Reasons to participate in the local heavy metal scene.

variance, followed by receiving support from people in the heavy metal scene
in second place and number of reasons to participate in the LMS in third.
The unstandardized betas suggest that, while keeping the rest of the variables
in the model constant, for each unit of change in age sense of community
increases by .18 units. For those participants who received support from
people in the heavy metal scene (operationalized as 1 = Yes and 2 = No)
sense of community increased by 2.04 units of change, while keeping the rest
of the variables in the model constant. Results also evidenced that for each
additional reason to participate in the scene, sense of community increased by
2.04 units. In addition, the results evidenced that, while keeping the rest of the
variables in the model constant, perceived discrimination, level of education
and considering oneself religious (operationalized as 1 = Yes and 2 = No)
were all statistically significant individual predictors of sense of community.
In summary, sense of community increased for those participants who were
older, had received support from others in the LMS, reported more reasons
for participating in the LMS, had mostly technical education or training, who

Variables in Model Beta STD Error t p

Constant a
27.18 .3.68 7.39 .000
Age .177 .04 .33 4.13 .000
Level of education .804 .39 .16 2.06 .041
Social class .75 .58 .09 1.29 .199
Religiosity 1.63 .80 .15 2.03 .045
Receiving support from people 2.03 .52 .28 3.91 .000
in the local metal scene
Feeling you belong to an inter 1.29 1.38 .07 .93 .352
national heavy metal scene
Number of reasons to partici .71 .21 .24 3.41 .001
pate in the heavy metal scene
Perceive discrimination towards .97 .43 .16 2.23 .027
metal fans in Puerto Rico

Note: R2adj = .21; f = 6.41 (8, 160); p < .001.

Table 4: Regression coefficients for variables that explain variance in sense of

community.

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Nelson Varas-Daz | Eliut Rivera-Segarra

1. The 2010 US Census perceived discrimination towards heavy metal music in the country, and who
reported that for
Puerto Ricans 25 years
did not consider themselves religious.
or older 69.7 per cent
had completed high
school, 22.5 per cent Discussion
a Bachelors degree,
and6.1 per cent a As we stated in the introduction to this article, community formation is an
Masters degree or important issue for small groups due to the potentially positive consequences
higher.
it can have on their practices and daily lives. This is not to say that commu
nal formation does not have negative consequences (i.e. authoritarianism,
suppression of differences), as social research has also documented in the past.
Still, it can safely be argued that for metal music fans in Puerto Rico commu
nity is most frequently experienced as an important and positive aspect of
everyday life. Quantitative research on heavy metal music and its fans has
mostly focused on the perceived risk-inducing capacity of music consump
tion, and therefore neglected to examine the positive aspects of the music, in
particular community formation. Our results evidence the importance of the
communal experience among metal fans in Puerto Rico. Core scene members
scored high on sense of community (means score of 34 points out of a poten
tial 40) demonstrating its importance for LMS members.
Some of the variables included in our tested model shed important insight
into how the LMS is constituted. For example, older age was a good predic
tor of sense of community. After more than thirty years of existence Puerto
Ricos LMS is coming of age. Its initial members, many of them still active as
musicians and fans, are growing older and have begun to place even more
importance on the existence of the LMS as a space to manifest their interests
and interact with individuals who hold important value in their lives. This is
a phenomenon characteristic of a long-standing scene in which older partici
pants serve a vital role in maintaining group cohesiveness and mentoring new
members into the communal fold.
Self-reported social class was not a significant variable to predict sense of
community. This non-significant relationship might indicate that the consu
mers of heavy metal music are now quite varied and different from the work
ing-class groups which the music represented in its origins. Level of education,
which can be an important variable for social class self-identification yielded
important data. Our sample showed higher levels of education than the general
population in Puerto Rico.1 Our entire sample had completed their high school
education. Some reported having completed and associates degree (17.9 per
cent). More significantly, 57.2 per cent had completed some university degree.
These higher levels of education might dissipate perceptions of the working
class label that has accompanied heavy metal music since its origins. Still, our
model evidences that lower levels of education, within this unusually highly
educated sample, better predicted sense of community among participants.
The importance of communal formation in our model was stressed with
variables related to social support and reasons for participation. Those indi
viduals with a higher sense of community reported having received more
support from members of the LMS and having more reasons to be engaged
in the group (reasons varied from they are like my family to enjoying the
music). After musical enjoyment, sharing with other like-minded individu
als and the comparison of the LMS to a family were among the top three
reasons reported for participation. These results highlight the positive impli
cations of community formation for members of the LMS and stress that the
group cohesiveness formed extends beyond mere entertainment and includes

98
 Predictors of communal formation in a small heavy metal scene

instrumental support in times of need. Although participants identified feel

ing part of an international heavy metal scene, this did not influence their
sense of community with the LMS. Further research needs to examine if this
lack of association is related to the geographical distance from international
scenes, which makes face-to-face contact and social support less frequent or
non-existent.
Finally, our model did not overlook that heavy metal music is a vehicle
for critical thought and activity. In fact, heavy metal music has been widely
recognized as anti-establishment. Therefore, lower levels of religiosity were
significantly associated with sense of community among participants. In a
setting like Puerto Rico, in which religion is of vital importance and culturally
promoted (Varas-Daz et al. 2010), having a space of interaction in which reli
gions importance is examined critically can strengthen communal ties in the
LMS. Furthermore, participants are acutely aware that they are part of a group
living outside social expectation of what is appropriate behaviour and musical
taste on the Island. Therefore, perceived level of discrimination was signifi
cantly related to communal formation. Experiencing discrimination in everyday
activities only served to foster more sense of community within the LMS.
We hope that our initial effort into examining the predictors of communal
formation in Puerto Ricos LMS will serve as an important step, albeit prelimi
nary and exploratory, into how communities are formed and maintained via
quantitative research techniques. These studies, when considered as a body of
growing work, can help shed a more positive light on the lives of individuals
who produce and consume heavy metal music throughout the world.

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Suggested citation
Varas-Daz, N., Rivera-Segarra, E., Rivera Medina, C. L., Mendoza, S. and
Gonzlez-Seplveda O. (2015), Predictors of communal formation in a
small heavy metal scene: Puerto Rico as a case study, Metal Music Studies,
1: 1, pp. 87103, doi: 10.1386/mms.1.1.87_1

Contributors details
Nelson Varas-Daz, Ph.D., is a social psychologist and Professor at the
University of Puerto Rico. Varas-Dazs work on social stigma and communal
identities has appeared in the Interamerican Journal of Psychology, Qualitative
Health Research, American Journal of Community Psychology, AIDS Education &
Prevention, Qualitative Report and Global Public Health. His research has focused
on the social stigmatization of disease (i.e. HIV/AIDS, addiction), marginalized
groups (i.e. transgender individuals) and cultural practices (i.e. metal music, reli
gion). Dr Varas-Daz is currently the principal investigator for the first system
atic study of the heavy metal scene in the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico.
You can also contact the authors at the studys Facebook page at: Puerto
Rico Heavy Metal Studies.
Contact: University of Puerto Rico, Center for Social Research, Ro Piedras
Campus, P.O. Box 23345, San Juan, PR 009313345.
E-mail: nvaras@mac.com

Eliut Rivera-Segarra is a Ph.D. Clinical Psychology student at the Ponce School

of Medicine and Health Sciences, Puerto Rico. His research interests include
stigma theory, social determinants of health, and heavy metal studies. Rivera-
Segarra has presented his work on heavy metal studies at the Convention of the
Puerto Rican Psychological Association, the EMP Pop Conference, the International
Conference on Heavy Metal and Popular Culture and the Grimposium. His most
recent publications on metal studies are a chapter in the book Hardcore, Punk
and Other Junk published by Lexington Press in 2014 and an upcoming paper
on moshing in the Journal of Social Sciences.
Contact: Ponce School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Clinical Psychology
Program, P.O. Box 7004, Ponce, Puerto Rico 007327004.
E-mail: elirivera@stu.psm.edu.com

Carmen L. Rivera Medina, Ph.D., is statistician/methodologist at the Institute

for Psychological Research, and teaches advanced graduate statistics at the
Department of Psychology at the University of Puerto Rico, Ro Piedras
Campus. She has published on the psychometric properties of depression
instruments translated and adapted for Puerto Rican adolescents and adults,
to assess the measurement equivalence of the Spanish versions. Her current
interests include: manifestation of depression and alexithymia in Latino men
and adolescents; Latino and cross-cultural issues in psychology and health; the
analysis of psychometric properties of instruments and tests to be used with
Puerto Ricans and other Spanish-speaking minority groups; and the analysis
of longitudinal data and other emerging techniques for statistical analysis.
Contact: University of Puerto Rico, Institute for Psychological Research, Ro
Piedras Campus, P.O. Box 23345, San Juan, PR 009313345.
E-mail: clrivera@ipsi.uprrp.edu

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 Predictors of communal formation in a small heavy metal scene

Sigrid Mendoza is a Ph.D. Social Community Psychology student at the

University of Puerto Rico. She recently presented a paper in the Heavy Metal
and Popular Culture Conference on traditional Latin American and Caribbean
female norms and the heavy metal scene as a possible space to transgress
these traditional norms. Her research interests include gender dynamics and
feminism, heavy metal studies, ethnography, social construction of sexuality,
and neo-tribal community theory.
Contact: University of Puerto Rico, Center for Social Research, Ro Piedras
Campus, P.O. Box 23345, San Juan, PR 009313345.
E-mail: mendoza.sigrid@gmail.com

Osvaldo Gonzlez-Seplveda is a Ph.D. Clinical Psychology student at the

Ponce School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Puerto Rico. He has directed
various film projects, including No me visites/Let Bygones (2011), which was
presented at the XXXIII Movie Festival in La Habana, Cuba.
E-mail: osvalgonz@gmail.com

Nelson Varas-Daz, Eliut Rivera-Segarra, Carmen L. Rivera Medina, Sigrid

Mendoza and Osvaldo Gonzlez-Seplveda have asserted their right under
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the authors
of this work in the format that was submitted to Intellect Ltd.

103
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