IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 42, NO.
3, MAY/JUNE 2006
Current-Source Connection of Electrolytic
Cell Electrodes: An Improvement for
Electrowinning and Electrorefinery
Eduardo P. Wiechmann, Member, IEEE, Guillermo A. Vidal, and Antonio J. Pagliero
AbstractThis paper presents a current-source connection for
electrolytic cells facilities, enlarging actual production boundaries.
Specifically, the aim of production-level increase, quality improve-
ment, and costs reduction in electrowinning and electrorefining
plants have been limited by the currentdensity (CD) dispersion.
In fact, the cathodes of a plant designed to operate with a nominal
320 A/m2 CD per cathode, usually presents CDs in a range
between 220 and 420 A/m2 (31% variations). Industrial tests
performed in a copper ER plant proved that the proposed connec-
tion halves dispersion. It has been estimated that a 15% earnings
increase should be obtained with the increase of efficiency, quality,
and production.
Index TermsCurrent density (CD), current efficiency, elec-
trorefining (ER), electrowinning (EW), short circuits.
I. I NTRODUCTION
T HE WORLD production of high-purity copper and zinc is
obtained by electrochemical methods, either electrowin-
ning (EW) or electrorefining (ER). Both processes are similar
and are based in the electrochemical deposition of a metal that
is contained in a charged electrolyte. By forcing a dc current
from an inert anode (mainly lead calcium tin anodes) through
the electrolyte to the cathode, the metal ions are reduced at the
cathode surface (mainly stainless steel in copperaluminum in
zinc), being deposited as metal. Impurities are not deposited at
the cathode, obtaining a high-purity level metal deposit.
Today processes are carried out in tankhouses with several
hundreds of tank or cells. Up to 91 anodes and 90 cathodes
(Phelps Dodge Miami Mining Corporation, Miami, AZ, USA)
are inserted in each cell, and up to 3136 cells (Norilsk Copper
Smelter, Norilsk, Russia) can be employed in one tankhouse.
An average tankhouse contains around 50 000 cathodes in four
groups of 250 cells with 50 cathodes each [1], [2]. Normally,
Paper PID-05-31, presented at the 2004 Industry Applications Society
Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA, October 37, and approved for publication
in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Mining
Industry Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society. Manuscript
submitted for review October 15, 2004 and released for publication January
26, 2006. This work was supported by Fondecyt (Chilean Fund for Scientific
and Technological Research) under Project 1040473.
E. P. Wiechmann is with the Electrical Engineering Department, University
of Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile (e-mail: wiechmann@ieee.org).
G. A. Vidal was with the Metallurgical Engineering Department, University
of Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile. He is now with Inchalam SA, Concepcion,
Chile (e-mail: Guillermo.vidal@ieee.org).
A. J. Pagliero is with the Metallurgical Engineering Department, University
of Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile (e-mail: apaglier@udec.cl).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2006.872933
0093-9994/$20.00 2006 IEEE
851
every one of these groups is fed by a 12-pulse transformer
rectifier injecting 32 000 A. The process voltage ranges from
0.3 V in copper ER, 2.0 V in copper EW to 3.0 V in zinc EW.
The electrochemical process is current dependent. According
to Faradays Law, for depositing 1 mol of metal, its equivalent
charge shall be applied to an electrochemical cell. Thus, for
depositing 1 ton of zinc, 820 kAh shall be injected to the sys-
tem. The process dynamic will vary depending on the manner in
which this electric charge is transferred to the electrochemical
cell. In effect, for accumulating 820 kAh, 820 kA can be trans-
ferred in 1 h, or 35 kA for the period of one day (approximately
23.4 h). The operational maximum current density (CD) is set
to ensure the deposit quality. As a matter of fact, depending
on the electrolyte conditions such as concentration, impurities
level, temperature, and controlling agents, an optimal process
dynamic is eligible.
The process dynamic is given by the CD. This operational
parameter is calculated as the mean current that flows through
the cathodes times the cathodes area. Ideally individual CDs
must be maintained as close as possible to the target CD. In
the present days, elevated CDs for these processes are around
320 A/m2 . Important efforts are focused on increasing this
value, thus reducing the required period of time to produce the
same amount of metal, and permitting the facility to produce
more tons of metal in a year. Consequently, the nominal plant
capacity is boosted.
As mentioned before, the electrochemically deposited metal
quantity, and quality, depends on the applied current. Also, a
modern plant will obtain its better performance when all the
cathodes operate at 320 A/m2 . However, this last sentence is
still a utopia, because a heavy current dispersion is observed
in each plant, altering the operational conditions. Under cor-
rect operational conditions, cathodes operating with 220 and
420 A/m2 can be encountered in the same cell. This negative
effect is produced by slight parameter variations that are ampli-
fied by the electrodes electrical connection.
In 1901, Walker patented the electrical connection between
electrochemical cells, which is known as the Walker connection
(or Walker system). He proposed a small section conductive
bar to transmit the current from one cell to another. This bar
connects all the cathodes from one cell (outgoing current) with
all the anode of the next cell (incoming current). Thus, each cell
has their anodes electrically coupled and submitted to the same
voltage. Also, the cathodes of each cell are electrically con-
nected and operating with a unique cathode voltage. Therefore,
852 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 42, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2006

between the 51 anodes and the 50 cathodes, it is only one

applied voltage and several paths to transfer the current. Thus,
any oddness in the process will lead to a current unbalance.
The CD unbalance is one of todays process limitation. In
fact, it reduces the process quality, restricts the CD level, and
diminishes the process efficiency. Thus, a proposal to avoid
these unbalances is well appreciated by this industry. This paper
proposes an electrical load rearrangement obtained by a new
segmented intercell bar and presents results obtained from an
industrial trial.

II. B ACKGROUND : W ALKER C ONFIGURATION

The Walker configuration was patented by Arthur L. Walker
in 1901, U.S. Patent 687 800 [3]. This invention has been
widely used and is up to this day the most common industry
practice. It is based in a distributing intercell bar of relative
small cross-sectional area located between adjacent cells. The
cathodes of one cell and the anodes of the next succeeding cell
make electrical contact with such distributing bar by resting
on it, and are equally distributed throughout its length. As
noted by Walker, the distributing intercell bar do not require
to carry more than a fraction of the entire process current, for
the reason that the current passing from each cathode to the
distributing bar will find its path of least resistance to be through
one or more of the immediately adjacent anodes of the next
tank. Because of this, he comments, the distributing bar will
have a current capacity in total equal to that of a conductor bar
(bus bar) having a cross-sectional area equal to the sum of the
cross-sectional areas of the distributing bar between adjacent
cathodes and anodes.
The observation made by Walker also shows the configura-
tions main disadvantage. Specifically, due to the fact that the
current finds its path through the least resistance, the current
distribution in each cell is highly dependent to the resistance
path. Electrically, each cell with the Walker configuration can
be seen as nth parallel-connected resistances, each representing
an anodecathode pair, and all of them are fed by a unique
voltage. Obviously, the current flows through the less resis-
tance paths, impairing the CD of each anodecathode couples.
Among the factors affecting these resistances, which are worth
mentioning: electrode positioning and separation, electrolyte
conductivity, and contact resistance between electrodes and the
distributing bar. Critical factors for this configuration are as
follows.
1) Electrode contact: each electrode is connected to the elec-
trical circuit by a single contact. If contact quality varies
significantly, the current distribution between electrodes
is also compromised.
2) Electrode spacing: electrodes should be placed carefully
to ensure proper spacing unless a special capping board
is used.
Fig. 1 shows a tankhouse with the cells and electrodes.
III. C URRENT -S OURCE C ONNECTION
The current-source connection of electrochemical cell elec-
trodes presented in this paper was developed and designed by us
Fig. 1. Electrolytic tankhouse cells and electrodes.
Fig. 2. Current-source connection by segmenting the intercell bar. The cath-
odes are straight bars, while the anodes are curved.
for our company Optibar, a Chilean research company focused
on design and commercialization of an innovative technology
for electrometallurgy plants. The aim of this invention was to
inhibit a short circuit formation and to equalize the current dis-
tribution between electrodes [4], [5]. Short circuits are formed
on the cathode surface when a higher CD is observed. In this
case, the metal deposit grows until it reaches the anode, estab-
lishing an electrical (not electrochemical) path between anodes
and cathodes, thus highly reducing the process efficiency.
The segmented intercell bar (Optibar) resembles a common
multipole electrical connector. It uses as many double contact
segments as anodecathode couples are to be connected. The
main technical claim is since the deposit is current depen-
dent, a current-source load arrangement scheme should be the
best solution approach. The proposed connection scheme is
showed in the Fig. 2, in which it can be seen that the current
outgoing from one cathode is directly injected to one anode of
the next cell. In this figure, cathode hangers are straight bars,
while anodes ones are curved.
In the Walker arrangement, a reduction of the resistance
between an anode and a cathode results in a higher current
flow through these electrodes. An identical resistance variation
results in a smaller current deviation when using the Inter-
Cell Plus current-source-based bar. This connection provides
an intrinsic capability to withstand parameter deviations. Fur-
thermore, the arrangement generates preferred paths for the
electrical current or current channels. These channels share
WIECHMANN et al.: CURRENT-SOURCE CONNECTION OF ELECTROLYTIC CELL ELECTRODES
Fig. 3. Segmented intercell bar in operation.
Fig. 4. Histogram of calculated CDs.
similar circuit equivalent resistances producing balanced cur-
rents throughout the cell. Each equivalent circuit resistance is
comprised of a number of contact and electrolyte resistances in
series. This also means that resulting resistances will be more
balanced as the number of series cells increases. This effect
reduces the system sensitivity to parameter variations.
IV. I NDUSTRIAL T EST FOR O PTIBAR
The performance of this current-source connection was test-
ed in an industrial facility. For direct comparison, a tankhouse
section compromising 20 cells was implemented with one
half of the cells connected under the conventional scheme,
and the other half-employing Optibar for the current-source
connection. Different current, voltage, temperature, and elec-
trochemical measurements were taken three times a day (one
per shift), for a period of four months. These data have been
used to evaluate both systems. The industrial test bar is shown
in the Fig. 3.
A. CD Dispersion
The current that flows out from the cathode through the
hanger bar was measured in each of the 50 cathodes of each cell,
accumulating around 210 000 values. The CD was calculated,
dividing the measured value by the cathode area. The Fig. 4
shows a comparative histogram of the obtained CDs for both
connections.
With the Walker configuration, the system exhibits CDs
between 240 and 400 A/m2 . The main difficulties of operating
853
Fig. 5. Short-circuit occurrence in ten cathode cycles.
with this CD dispersion are that the cathode copper quality
and weight varies greatly. The current efficiency, determined
as the percentage of the really deposited versus theoretical
copper weight (according to Faradays Law), is reduced when
the cathodes operates with offset to its optimal CD. For worst,
cathodes with elevated CDs tend to form dendrites and short
circuits. To overcome these, a reduction of the CD dispersion
becomes mandatory.
The use of Optibar reduces the CD dispersion. The minimum
changes from 240 to 290 A/m2 and the maximum from 400
to 350 A/m2 . Naturally, operational problems were highly
reduced. On top, short circuit formation was inhibited further
enhancing the current efficiency and product quality.
B. Short Circuit Formation
With the trend of boosting the process current the occurrence
of short circuits is a main issue. An abnormal CD increase will
form an oversized deposit, thus reducing the distance between
anode and cathode. This will reduce the equivalent resistance
between these two electrodes, further increasing the CD. This
vicious process will progress until the deposit contacts the
anode, establishing a metallic contact between the electrodes.
With the conventional Walker system, the short-circuit-current
availability is the whole process current, up to 32 kA. This
current increase is only controlled by the voltage produced by
the high current flowing through the equivalent resistance. The
Optibar current-source connection establishes a series connec-
tion of electrodes inhibiting this vicious process. Therefore, as
shown in Fig. 5, the occurrence of short circuits is substantially
reduced.
Moreover, remaining short circuits produced by electromet-
allurgical or alignment reasons are limited in magnitude since
the new bar does not interconnect electrodes of the same cell.
V. I MPACT ON P ROCESS P ERFORMANCE
The enhancement in CD dispersion and short circuit for-
mation affects directly the process performance. Effectively,
after cathode harvest, the copper deposit was weighted and
physically and chemically analyzed. With the copper weight,
the current efficiency for both systems was determined. The
system operating with the Walker connection exhibits a mean
95.0% current efficiency, while with the Optibar system the
mean current efficiency increases up to 96.5%. This 1.5%
854
Fig. 6. CD distribution with Walker (W) and Optibar (O) intercell bars. The
segmented intercell bar allows to operate with a 5% and 10% CD increase.
current efficiency difference is a direct production-level in-
crease, mainly by losses control.
The physical and chemical quality was also improved. With
the Walker system, the cathode rejection due to a low-quality
level was 4.8%. This copper cannot be sold as a high-grade
copper, thus reducing its price. Usual problems were a high-
granular level (physical quality) and elevated impurities content
(chemical quality). The current-source connection exhibits a
reduced 1.5% cathode-rejection level. None of the affected
electrodes compromises physical quality, and the chemical
quality was affected by anodic slimes.
Another important customer requirement is to get a ho-
mogeneous copper weight. The conventional Walker system
produces copper with a weight varying from 125 to 175 kg. This
variation of 25 kg was reduced to 15 kg with the current-
source connection.
VI. CD I NCREASE
The current distribution enhancement reduces the highest CD
in the cells from 380 to 350 A/m2 , giving an extra operational
margin of 10% in CD increase. Fig. 6 shows the current
distribution obtained with a CD increase of 5% and 10%.
The narrower dispersion in CD allows in increasing the
process current without exceeding the highest CD obtained with
the conventional Walker connection.
VII. E CONOMIC I MPACT
The process parameter improvements discussed above are
directly related to an economical impact. Table I resumes all the
mentioned improvements and is the basis for the next economic
evaluation.
Direct impact on the process revenue is given by the increase
in the current efficiency and in the CD, and by the cathode-
rejection reduction. The better current efficiency allows pro-
ducing more copper (or the process metal) with the same
energy injection. Thus, without any further costs, the incomes
are raised. The same effect is applied to the cathode rejection
by low quality. This metal can be now sold as a high grade
and must not be disposed as a scrap. With the CD-increase
capability, the process shall provide more energy, thus incurring
in a higher costs. However, the whole process will increase its
earnings (income minus costs) in the same percent amount.
Evaluating Table I into the economical impact, the process
earnings can be raised up to 15% (2% from the current effi-
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 42, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2006
TABLE I
PARAMETERS IMPROVEMENT WITH OPTIBAR
ciency improvement, 4.5% from the cathode-rejection reduc-
tion, and 8.5% from the CD increase). In fact, as these variables
are related, it is difficult to obtain the maximum benefit in
the three variables together. Thus, the operator will have to
decide either to operate with a maximum CD with not so good
efficiency and quality, or the opposite, or something in between.
Todays process incomes are around U.S. $500/ton for zinc
EW, U.S. $1000/ton for copper ER, and U.S. $1500/ton for
copper EW. Thus, a 100 000 ton/year capacity plant can earn
7.5, 15, and 22.5 million of dollars in a year by employing the
current-source technology.
VIII. C ONCLUSION
The base metals are commodities. Consequently, their price
is determined by international markets and the producers shall
reduce their costs and increase their production levels to im-
prove their benefits. The segmented intercell bar Optibar is a
suitable alternative for this purpose.
The process improvement, i.e., CD-dispersion reduction, cur-
rent efficiency rise, and the CD level increment mean a 15%
earning raise.
On the high-competitive base metals market, and due to the
elevated production levels of the industry, the Optibar tech-
nology will provide new improved boundaries to the process
and will increase the incomes of the facilities that adopt this
technology first.
R EFERENCES
[1] T. Robinson, J. Quinn, W. Davenport, and G. Karcas, Electrolytic copper
refining2003 world tankhouse operating data, in Proc. Copper - Cobre,
J. E. Dutrizac and C. G. Clement, Eds., Santiago, Chile, Dec. 2003, vol. V,
pp. 366.
[2] T. Robinson, J. Jenkins, S. Rasmussen, M. King, and W. Davenport,
Copper electrowinning2003 world tankhouse operating data, in Proc.
Copper - Cobre, J. E. Dutrizac and C. G. Clement, Eds., Santiago, Chile,
Dec. 2003, vol. V, pp. 421472.
[3] A. Walker, Plant for the electrodeposition of metals, U.S. Patent 687 800,
Dec. 3, 1901.
[4] G. Vidal, E. Wiechmann, and J. Pagliero, Performance of intercell bars
for electrolytic applications, in Proc. 5th Int. Symp. Honoring Professor
Ian M. Ritchie, Hydrometallurgy, C. Young, A. Alfantazi, C. Anderson,
A. James, D. Dreisinger, and B. Harris, Eds., Vancouver, BC, Canada,
Aug. 2003, vol. II, pp. 13811394.
[5] , Performance of intercell bars for electrolytic applications, in Proc.
Copper - Cobre, J. E. Dutrizac and C. G. Clement, Eds., Santiago, Chile,
Dec. 2003, vol. V, pp. 377390.
WIECHMANN et al.: CURRENT-SOURCE CONNECTION OF ELECTROLYTIC CELL ELECTRODES
Eduardo P. Wiechmann (S84M85) received the
Bachelor degree in electronics engineering from
Santa Maria University, Valparaiso, Chile, in 1975,
and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering
from Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada,
in 1985.
Since 1976, has been with the University of Con-
cepcion, Concepcion, Chile, where he is a Professor
in the Electrical Engineering Department. His indus-
trial experience includes more than 6000 h in engi-
neering projects and consulting. He has published
numerous technical papers and has coauthored technical books. His research
interests are power converters, high-current rectifiers, ac drives, uninterruptible
power systems (UPSs), harmonics, and power-factor control in industrial power
distribution systems.
Dr. Wiechmann was the recipient of the year 2000 Concepcion City Award
for Outstanding Achievements in Applied Research. He is currently a Chair-
man for the IEEE Chilean Joint Chapter of the Industry Applications, Power
Electronics, and Industrial Electronics Societies.
Guillermo A. Vidal received the Bachelor degree in
electronics engineering, the M.Sc. degree in electri-
cal engineering, and the D.Sc. degree in metallurgi-
cal engineering from the University of Concepcion,
Concepcion, Chile, in 1998, 2000, and 2005,
respectively.
He is presently at Inchalam SA, Chile, working as
a Product Developer.
Dr. Vidal was awarded the Best Graduate Student
of 1998 promotion.
855
Antonio J. Pagliero received the Bachelor degree
in chemical engineering from the University of
Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile, in 1972, the DEA
degree in electrochemistry from the Scientific and
Medical University, Grenoble, France, in 1974, and
the Dr. degree in electrochemistry from the Polytech-
nic National Institute, Grenoble, France, in 1976.
Since 1976, has been with the University of
Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile, where he is a Pro-
fessor in the Metallurgical Engineering Department.
He is also a Consultant in electrometallurgy. Since
1984, he has been a member of the International Corrosion Council and,
since 1997, a Correspondant tranger of the Revue Acta Technica Belgica
(ATB) Mtallurgie, Blgium. From 1992 to 1994 and 2000 to 2002, he was
the Chairman of the Metallurgical Engineering Department. He has published
numerous technical papers and has coauthored technical books. His research
interests are hydrometallurgy and surface treatments.