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S.W. R IENSTRA
E INDHOVEN U NIVERSITY OF T ECHNOLOGY
F LOWA IR S C OURSE ,
25 O CTOBER 2012
L E M ANS
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Summary of equations for fluid motion, mean flow and small perturbations.
Acoustic energy with mean flow
Shear flow, uniform mean flow, no mean flow, plane waves
Lorentz/Prandtl-Glauert transformation
Boundary conditions: hard walls, soft walls without and with mean flow
Duct of arbitrary cross section, 1D waves and junctions, modes, hard/soft walls, cut-on cut-off
Group and phase velocity
Circular duct, hard/soft-walled, without/with flow
Source expansion, modal power
Behaviour of soft-wall modes, surface waves
Propeller in duct, Tyler-Sofrin rule
Greens function
Open end radiation, reflection coefficient
Slowly varying ducts, WKB and Webster
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mass:
t
+ v = v
momentum:
t
+ v v = p +
energy :
t
+ v e = q p v + :v
t
+ v h = dtd p q + :v
T
t
+ v s = q + :v.
where
p
T ds = de + pd 1 = dh 1 d p, h =e+ , p = RT,
dp d CP
de = C V dT, dh = C P dT, ds = C V CP , c2 = RT, =
p CV
for a perfect gas (i.e. C V , C P constant). In acoustics, no heat conduction, no viscosity:
d dv ds
dt
= v,
dt
= p,
dt
=0
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v = V 0 + v0, p = p0 + p 0 , = 0 + 0 , s = s0 + s 0
linearise,
0 V 0 = 0,
0 V 0 V 0 = p0 ,
V 0 s0 = 0,
d p0 d0 p0
ds0 = C V CP , c02 =
p0 0 0
and
t
+ V 0 0 + 0 V 0 + v 0 0 = 0
0
t + V0
v 0 + 0 v 0 V 0 + 0 V 0 V 0 = p0
0
t + V
0
s + v 0 s0 = 0
0 = 0)
with (assuming sinit
0 p0 0
s = CV CP .
p0 0
Soundspeed perturbations c0 usually serve no purpose in linear acoustics.
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t
E + I = D
p02 0 T0 s 02
E=
20 c02
1 02 0
+ 2 0 v + V 0 v + 0
2C p
,
p 0
0 0
I = 0 v + V 0
0
0
+ V 0 v + 0 V 0 T 0 s 0 ,
D = 0 V 0 0 v 0 0 v 0 0 V 0 + s 0 0 v 0 + 0 V 0 T0 s 0 0 V 0 T 0 .
(viscous stress and heat conduction are neglected for simplicity).
1
No mean flow and a uniform medium: E = p02 + 12 0 v 02 , I = pv 0 , D = 0.
20 c02
In vortical flow, the interaction with the mean flow source or sink.
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v = U0 (r)ex + v 0 , p = p0 (r) + p0 ,
= 0 (r) + 0 , p0 = c0 (r)2 0 .
ACOUSTIC FIELD :
t
+ U0 x 0 + 0 v 0 = 0,
0
0
t
d 0
+ U0 x v + 0 dr U0 v er e x + p0 = 0,
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V 0 = U0 e x , S, 0 , p0 are constant, so
t
+ U0 x 0 + 0 v 0 = 0
0
0 t + U0 x v = p0
0 2 0
t + U0 x ( p c0 ) = 0
v 0 = 0 + 0 ,
with 0 = 0
2 0
c02 2 p0
t + U0 x p = 0.
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No mean flow:
V 0 = 0, S, 0 , p0 are constant, so
0
t
+ 0 v 0 = 0, 0 t v 0 = p0 ,
t ( p
0
c02 0 ) = 0
2
c02 2 p0 t 2
p0 = 0.
c02 2 p0 + 2 p0 = 0,
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p(x, t) = F(n x c0 t)
satisfy
2 p
2
p = (n n)F = F , 00 00
t 2
= c 2 00
0 F
and so satisfy
2 p
c02 2 p 2 = 0.
t
Typically important:
p(x, t) = F(x c0 t), p(x, t) = A e itik x
where
k= n
c0
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Lorentz/Prandtl-Glauert transformation:
It is useful to know that the convected wave equation
2 0
c02 2 p0
t + U0 x p = 0.
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the lined inlet and exhausts ducts are important applications of relatively simple duct acoustics.
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n Z () C (Note orientation n)
Dissipated energy:
P = h I ni = h p0 v 0 ni = 1
2
Re(Z )|v0 n|2 .
Passive walls: Re(Z ) 0.
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p0 = Z (v 0 n), Z C.
For a point near the wall but still (just) inside the mean flow (Ingard 1959, Myers 1980)
h i p0
0
i(v n) = i + V n (n V )
Z
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Regularise by keeping boundary layer thickness slightly nonzero, for example (linear shear)
0 0
i + U
x
2
p 0 i 3 i + 3 U 1
x
(v n)
Z () = 2
.
0
i(v0 n) +
0 x 2
p 0 1 i
3 n
(v n)
Other regularisations (e.g. including real boundary layer mean flow profile and viscosity effects)
are more complicated but refine also the acoustic solution.
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Waves in ducts
A1 f (x c0 t)
g(x + c0 t) A2
h(x c0 t)
Coupling is approximately possible if diameters are small enough: assume pillbox A1 , A2 .
ZZZ
i0 v + p dx = 0 p() p() = i0 2 Av 0
ZZZ if Ai 0
c
[i + 0 v] dx = 0 A2 0 u() A1 0 u() = i2 A 0
0
( compact region)
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Duct modes
y
A
duct
x
z
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Duct modes 2D
In 2D this becomes
iti x 2 2
p(x, y, z, t) = e f (y), k f + f yy = 0, k=
c0
This is solvable as
p
iti xi ()y
p(x, y, t) = e , () = k2 2 : plane waves!
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A
duct
x
z
2 2 2
x 2
+ 2 + 2 p + k 2 p = 0,
y z
with k = /c0 ,
Z ( p n) = i0 p at wall
with solution
X
p(x, y, z) = An n (y, z) ein x
n=0
Mode n is n-th eigensolution of Laplace eigenvalue problem on a duct cross section:
2 2 2
n + n = n n , (+ B.C.)
y2 z 2
where q
n2 = k 2 n2 , or n = k 2 n2 modal wave numbers
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Note: if k 0, all modes are C
cut-off except 1 = 0! k
k
Soft walls: n and n complex
C
k
k
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A
duct
A
x
z
2 2 2 2
c02
x 2
+ 2 + 2 p i + U0
y z x
p = 0, with iZ ( p n) = 0 (i + U0 x )2 p at wall.
Modal solution
X
p(x, y, z) = An n (y, z) ein x
n=0
Mode n is n-th eigensolution of Laplace problem on a duct cross section:
2 2 2
n + n = n n , (+ B.C. containing n )
y2 z 2
where
q p
kM 1
n2 = (k Mn ) 2
n2 , or n = 2 2 k2 2 n2 , = 1 M2
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C
k
1M
k
1+M
C
k
1M
k
1+M
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Modal phase velocity: t Re(n )x = constant, or v ph = .
Re(n )
d 1
n
Modal group velocity: vg =
d
Note:
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Hard walls:
0
jm
Jm0 (m a) =0 m =
a
Soft walls without flow:
Z m Jm0 (m a) = i0 Jm (m a) m (Z )
iZ m Jm0 (m a) = ( U0 m )2 Jm (m a) m (Z )
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0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
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If p(0, t, ) = p0 (r, ) describes a source in a hard-walled duct, then (projection) for x > 0
Z 2 Z a
1
Am = p0 (r, )Um (r) e im r drd
2 0 0
and Bm = 0. The same for x < 0 with Am and Bm interchanged. Same: mode matching at junction.
Note that only a finite number of modes (cut-on modes) survive at large distances (1 mode if ka 1).
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X X
P = Re(m )(|Am | |Bm | ) + 2 Im(m ) Im( A Bm ).
2 2
m
0 m=
=1
The summation over Re(m ) contains only a finite number of non-zero terms: the cut-on modes.
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Behaviour of m as a function of Z .
6 Z C
real axis
imaginary
axis Re(Z ) =constant
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r=a
r=0
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a
m = 1, = 5, M = 0
c0
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5 5
4 4
Z=1.5+ i Z=1+ i
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 5
4 4
Z=0.7+ i Z=0.4+ i
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 5
4 4
Z=0.2+ i Z=0.1+ i
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
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k(m M) q m
2 ,
m = , m = 1 m m =
2 k
a
m = 1, = 5, M = 0.5
c0
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5 5
4 4
Z=3+ i Z=2+ i
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 5
4 4
Z=1+ i Z=0.5+ i
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 5
4 4
Z=0.2+ i Z=0.1+ i
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
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Propeller in duct
B blades, B-periodic with period 1 = 2/B :
Any periodic function can be written as a Fourier series. Here
X
X
im2 1
p(0, r, , 0) = qm (r) e = qm (r) eim B
m= m=
X
p(0, r, , t) = p(0, r, t, 0) = qm (r) eim B+im Bt
m=
X
X
p(x, r, , t) = Q m Jm B (m B,r) eim B, xim B+im Bt
m= =1
m B 2
m B 2 jm0 B,1 2
Cut-on if: m2 B,1 = c0
2
m B,1 = c0 a >0
0
j B,1
a
or: Mtip = c0 > B ' 1.
Ideally: subsonic tip speed no cut-on modes ! In reality: blades and vanes. . .
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with 1 = 2/V in a time step 1t = 1/ because vanes are fixed to our coord. system. So:
Finally (subtle!): Wave crest of each nm-component corresponds with n Bt m = constant,
n Ba
vphase = .
m
No radiated sound if |vphase | < c0 !
Since (usually) tip speed a < c0 , this is if
|n|B |m| = |kV + n B|, or: V 2|n|B. For 1st harmonic (n = 1): V 2B
(and this is how real engines are designed!)
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2b
pm pm 2 m 2
1 b (r r0 )
+ + b
p m = with 2 = 2 ( U0 )2 .
r 2 r r r2 4 2 r0
Fourier transformation in k and back-transformation in :
X Jm (mr)Jm (mr0 )
1 im (xx 0 )
pm (r, x) = sign(x x0 ) e
2i Q m Jm2 (m )
=1
Sum over modes!
Similar is possible for non-uniform shear flow. Modes + other waves + interaction of sound with shear
flow. . .
(see movies)
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Inside duct: incident mode with reflected field, p(x, r, ) = pm (x, r) eim where
X
ikm x
pm (x, r) = Um (r) e + Rm Um (r) e ikm x .
=1
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1 1.5
|R |
011
0.8 1
022
0.6 0.5 011
|R
021
| |R
022
|
012
0.4 0
021
0.2 |R | 0.5
012
0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1.5
122
0.8 1
|R |
|R
111
| 122
111
0.6 0.5
|R | 112
0.4 121 0
121
0.2 |R | 0.5
112
0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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90 100 90 100
120 60
120 60
60
60
150 30 150 30
20 20
180 0 180 0
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m n
t x
l
A
r
If free field wave number k = K is small and p ' p(X), we can simplify the reduced wave equation
2 p + k 2 p = 0,
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r = R(X), X = x, is small
m n
t x
l
A
r
WKB solution: Rx
im i m ( ) d
p(x, r, ) = Nm (X)m (r; X) e
where m = Um and m are slowly varying (in X) mode and modal wave number.
This yields (eventually) a solution (hard walls)
2 constant
Nm = q
0 2 (1 M 2 )m
2
0 , M, m vary with X; analogous but more complicated for soft-walled duct. Note the turning point.
(see movies)
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Rx constant
im i m ( ) d 2
p(x, r, ) = Nm (X)m (r; X) e , Nm = q
0 2 (1 M 2 )m
2
When 2 (1 M 2 )m
2 changes sign at some position x,
Nm is singular and wave number m changes from real (cut-on) to complex (cut-off): turning point.
(in reality: region.)
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
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Summary
Derivation of acoustic models: shear flow, uniform mean flow, no mean flow
Boundary conditions: hard walls, soft walls without and with mean flow
Duct modes: hard/soft walls, cut-on cut-off, group and phase velocity
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