Euler Textbook

LEONHARD EULER'S TENT AMEN NOVAE THE OKI AE MUSICAE:
A TRANSLATION AND COMMENTARY
BY
CHARLES SAMUEL SMITH
Subm itted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of th e re q u ire m e n ts

f o r th e degree of Doctor of Fhilosophy
i n th e G raduate School
Indiana U n iv ersity
J u n e , 1960
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
A c c e p t e d by t h e f a c u l t y o f - t h e G r a d u a t e S c h o o l }
I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y , i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f the
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e D o c t o r P h i l s op hy d e g r e e
D o c t o r a l Committee Chairma n
TABLE OP CONTENTS
PART ONE: INTRODUCTION
Chapter Page
I. LEONHARD EULER . . ............................................................... 2
L i f e ................................................................................................. 2
W o r k s ............................................................................................ 4
II. THE TENTAMEN NOVAE THEORIAE MUSICAE .................... 6
O r i g i n a l an d S u b s e q u e n t E d i t i o n s ............................. 6
B a c k g r o u n d a n d P u r o o s e . . ............................................ 8
C o n t e n t .............................................................. 1C
S o u n d ........................................................................................
Euphonic Values ............................................................... 12
M u s i c a l L o g a r i t h m s .......................................................... 14
E u l e r a n d S e v e n ...................................................................... ^
PART TWO: ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF THE

TENTAMEN NOVAE THEORIAE MUSICAE
PREFACE................................................................................................................. 22
I , , __ ON SOUND AND HEARING......................................................... 24
II. ON AGREEABLENESS AND THE PRINCIPLES OFHARMONY 65
III. ON MUSIC IN G E N E R A L .................................................... 87
IV. ON CONSONANCES....................................... 101
V. ON SUCCESSION OF CONSONANCES.....................................123
V I. ON SERIES OF CONSONANCES.............................................. 140
V II. ON THE CURRENT NAMES OF VARIOUSINTERVALS . . 152
iii
Chapter Page
V III. ON MUSICAL G E N E R A ...................................................................164
IX. ON THE DIATONIC-CHROMATIC G E N U S .................................186
X. ON SOME MORE COMPOSITE MUSICAL GENERA . . . . 207
XI. ON CONSONANCES IN THE DIATONIC-CHROMATIC GENUS 224
X II. ON MODES AND SYSTEMS IN THE DIATONIC-CHROMATIC

G E N U S .................................................................................................. 240
X III. ON THE PROCESS OF COMPOSITION IN A GIVEN MODE

AND A GIVENSYSTEM........................................................................268
XIV. ON CHANGE OF MODESANDSYSTEMS............................................. 336
BIB LIO GR A PH Y .................................................... ........................................348
A P P E N D I X ............................................................................................................352
A p p e n d ix A: E u l e r s N o te b o o k S k e t c h (1 7 2 6 ) f o r
a Proposed T rea tm e n t of M usical
C o m p o s i t i o n ..................................................653
A p p e n d i x B: A C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e D e g r e e s o f
_ A g r e e a b l e n e s s o f M a jo r a nd M in or
T riads in E u le r's D iatonic-
C h r o m a t i c G e n u s ........................................ 356
A p p e n d i x C: An A n a l y s i s o f E u l e r s C o n t i n u e d
F r a c t i o n f o r Approxim ating th e
R a t i o o f t h e O c ta v e t o t h e F i f t h 357
G l o s s a r y ............................................................................................. 35S
iv
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
PART ONE
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I
LEONHARD EULER
Life
E u l e r was b o r n on A p r i l 1 5, 1707, i n B a s e l ,
S w i t z e r l a n d , w h i c h was t h e home o f t h e B e r n o u l l i s , a famous
f a m i l y o f s c i e n t i s t s a nd m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . H is f a t h e r was a
C a l v i n i s t i c p a s t o r who was a l s o a m a t h e m a t i c i a n . B o th so n
a n d f a t h e r s t u d i e d u n d e r members o f t h e B e r n o u l l i f a m i l y .
The e l d e r E u l e r i n i t i a l l y h o p e d t h a t h i s s o n would
f o l l o w i n h i s f o o t s t e p s a nd become a m i n i s t e r , b u t he soon
a b a n d o n e d t h i s dr e a m a nd s e n t L e o n h a r d t o s t u d y m a t h e m a t i c s
u nder Jean B e rn o u lli a t th e U n iv e rs ity of B asel. He a l s o
s tu d ie d th e o lo g y , o r i e n t a l lan g u ag es, m e d ic in e, astronom y,
and p h y s ic s .
I n 1727 he l e f t B a s e l f o r S t . P e t e r s b u r g a nd i n 1730
he o b t a i n e d t h e C h a i r o f N a t u r a l P h i l o s o p h y a t t h e I m p e r i a l
Academy. The Te nta m e n n o v a e t h e o r l a e m u s i c a e was p u b l i s h e d
during t h i s s ta y in S t. P etersburg. I n 1735 he s u f f e r e d t h e
l o s s o f s i g h t i n h i s r i g h t e y e , b u t h i s enormous o u t p u t o f
m a t h e m a t i c a l a nd s c i e n t i f i c w or ks c o n t i n u e d u n a b a t e d . He
, commented a b o u t t h i s l o s s , " J ' a u r a i mo ins de d i s t r a c t i o n s . " 1
1 S m i t h , D. E . , H i s t o r y o f M a t h e m a t i c s , p . 52 1 .
3
I n 1741 E u l e r a c c e p t e d a n i n v i t a t i o n fr om King
F r e d e r i c k t h e G r e a t t o cone t o B e r l i n . He j o i n e d t h e
B e r l i n Academy a n d r e m a i n e d f o r t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s . I n 1766
he r e t u r n e d t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g , where he l i v e d u n t i l h i s
d e a t h on B e o t e m b e r 1 8 , 1 78 3 . He became c o m p l e t e l y b l i n d i n
1771 b u t c o n t i n u e d t o d i c t a t e h i s me mo irs t o h i s c h i l d r e n
an d p u p i l s .
M a g n i f i c e n t wo rk i t was t o o , a s t o n i s h i n g a t
onc e f o r i t s l a b o u r a n d i t s o r i g i n a l i t y . He d e v e l o p e d
an amazing f a c i l i t y f o r f i g u r e s , and t h a t r a r e g i f t of
m entally c a rry in g out f a r - r e a c h in g c a l c u l a t i o n s . It
i s r e c o r d e d t h a t on one o c c a s i o n when two o f h i s
p u o i l s , w o r k i n g t h e sum o f a s e r i e s t o s e v e n t e e n
t e r m s , d i s a g r e e d i n t h e i r r e s u l t s by one u n i t , a t t h e
f i f t i e t h s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e , a n a p p e a l was made t o
Euler, He went o v e r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i n h i s own m i n d ,
a n d h i s d e c i s i o n was f o u n d t o b e c o r r e c t . 2
A l t h o u g h E u l e r ' s m o s t i m p o r t a n t work was done i n
p u r e m a t h e m a t i c s , he was a man o f wide c u l t u r e . He was
i n t e r e s t e d i n many b r a n c h e s o f a p p l i e d m a t h e m a t i c s an d
science, and he was a n e x c e l l e n t c l a s s i c a l s c h o l a r w i t h
e x t e n s i v e kn o w le d g e o f g e n e r a l l i t e r a t u r e . I t Is said
t h a t he c o u l d r e o e a t V i r g i l ' s A e n e l d from memory an d c o u l d
g iv e th e f i r s t and l a s t l i n e s o f e ac h page of th e e d i t i o n
w h i c h he u s e d , " b u t such l i n e s from V i r g i l a s , 'The a n c h o r
^ T u r n b u l l , H. W ., "The B e r n o u l l i s a n d E u l e r , " i n
The World o f M a t h e m a t i c s , e d i t e d b y James R. Newman, pp.
4
d rops, the rushing keel i s staid ,' a l w a y s s u g g e s t e d t o him
a p r o b l e m a nd he c o u l d n o t h e l p e n q u i r i n g what w ou ld b e t h e
s h i p ' s m o t i o n i n s u c h a c a s e . 11^
Works
I n 1909 t h e S w i s s S o c i e t y o f N a t u r a l S c i e n c e s u n d e r
t o o k t h e g i g a n t i c p r o j e c t o f p u b l i s h i n g t h e c o m p l e t e wo rks
of E u ler, " th e most p r o l i f i c o f m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . T h i s
c o n tin u in g p r o j e c t has produced about f i f t y l a r g e volumes.
The t o t a l number a n t i c i p a t e d i s v a r i o u s l y e s t i m a t e d f r o m
80 t o 1 0 0 . The p u b l i c a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r p a r t s :
S e r i e s I , m ath em atics; S e r i e s I I , m echanics and astronom y;
Series I I I , o h y s ic s and m is c e lla n e o u s w orks;5 and
S e r i e s IV, n o t e b o o k s a n d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e .
Turnbull d e sc rib e s E u ler, th e m a th e m a tic ia n ,th u s :
In an u n t e c h n i c a l a c c o u n t i t i s im p o s s i b le t o
do j u s t i c e t o t h e m a t h e m a t i c s o f E u l e r : b u t w h i l e
Newton i s a n a t i o n a l h e r o , s u r e l y E u l e r i s a h e r o
f o r m athem aticians. Newton was t h e A r c h i m e d e s a n d
E u l e r was t h e P y t h a g o r a s . C-reat was t h e w ork o f
^ P i n k e l , B. P . , " L e o n h a r d E u l e r , " The A m e ri c a n

M a t h e m a t i c a l M o n t h l y , IV ( 1 8 9 7 ) , 30 0.
4C o u r a n t , R i c h a r d , a n d R o b b i n s , H e r b e r t , What 1 s
M ath e m a tic s? , p. 21.
^ S e r i e s I I I , Volume 1 , c o n t a i n s E u l e r ' s w r i t i n g s on
s o u n d a n d m u s i c , i n c l u d i n g t h e T e nta m e n.
5
E u l e r i n th e problems of p h y s i c s - - b u t only because

t h e i r m a t h e m a t i c a l p a t t e r n c a u g h t and r e t a i n e d h i s
atten tio n . H i s d e l i g h t was t o s p e c u l a t e i n t h e
r e a l m s o f p u r e i n t e l l e c t , a n d h e r e he r e i g n s a p r i n c e
of a n a ly s ts . Not e v e n g e o m e t r y , n o t e v e n t h e s t u d y
o f l i n e s and f i g u r e s , d i v e r t e d him: h i s u l t i m a t e and
c o n s t a n t aim was t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f t h e c a l c u l u s and
a n a l y s i s . . . . The f u l l s p l e n d o u r o f t h e e a r l y
G r e e k b e g i n n i n g s a nd t h e l a t e r w ork s of N a p i e r , Newton
a n d L e i b n i t z , was now d i s p l a y e d .
His m a th e m a tic a l achievem ents a re c o n c is e ly e x p re ss e d
i n the s ta t e m e n t t h a t "mathematics th ro u g h the c a l c u l u s as
we know i t t o d a y was s h a p e d l a r g e l y by t h e h a n d o f E u l e r .
T u r n b u l l , . c i t . , p . 150
^ L a s l e y , J . W., " M a t h e m a t i c s and t h e S c i e n c e s , " i n

M a t h e m a t i c s : Our G r e a t H e r i t a g e , p . 176.
CHAPTER I I
THE TENTAMEN NOVAE THEORIAE MUSICAE
O rig in a l and Subsequent E d itio n s
Th e T e n t a m e n n o v a e t h e o r l a e m u s l c a e i s th e m ajor
tre a tise on m u s i c o f L e o n h a r d E u l e r (1707-1783), g en erally
r e c o g n i z e d a s one o f t h e t r u l y g r e a t m athem aticians o f a l l
tim e. Th e e x t e n t of E u l e r s accom plishm ents i n m athem atics
and s c ie n c e has b e en o u t l i n e d .
As a m u s i c t h e o r i s t E u l e r h a s b e e n g i v e n a t t e n t i o n
by such w r i t e r s as H elm holtz, R iem ann, L ang, S hirlaw ,
Jeans, P ole, B ukofzer, Van d e r P o l , a n d ma n y o t h e r s . The
Tentam en i s m e n tio n e d f r e q u e n t l y , b u t i n m o s t c a s e s no
a t t e m p t i s made t o d e s c r i b e its co n ten ts. It i s th e purpose
of th is study to o ro v id e a w ider a c c e ss to E u l e r 's ideas
by means o f a f a i t h f u l , in te g r a l E nglish tr a n s la tio n of
the Tentam en.
The T e n t a m e n w a s f i r s t published in 1739 in
S t. P etersb urg, R ussia, w h e r e E u l e r was a p r o f e s s o r a t the
I m p e r i a l A c ade my o f S c i e n c e s . T h i s Academy w a s b r o u g h t
in to b e in g by C a th e rin e I.
I n 1752 L o r e n z C h r i s t o o h Iviizler^ b e g a n a German
iM iz le r (1711-1778) a ls o founded th e S o c l e t a t d e r
m u s ik a lis c h e n .V issen sch aften in L e ip z ig in 1738. Bach and
T elem ann were m em b ers. S in ce th e S o c ie ty w anted to reform
m usic by d raw in g up a system o f m u s ic a l s c i e n c e , M i z l e r 's
deep i n t e r e s t in E u l e r 's th e o ry i s not s u r p r is in g .
7
t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l L a t i n i n h i s Neu e r r o f f n e t e
m u s i k a l l s c h e B i b l i o t h e k , one o f t h e e a r l i e s t m u s i c p e r i o d
ic als. When p u b l i c a t i o n c e a s e d i n 1 7 5 4 , o n l y t h e p r e f a c e
an d f i r s t f o u r c h a p t e r s o f t h e t r a n s l a t i o n h a d a p p e a r e d .
A French t r a n s l a t i o n , Musicue m a t h e m a t i q u e , a p p e a r e d
i n lb65 i n P a r i s . The t r a n s l a t o r i s an on ym ou s. A rchibald^
m entions a n o t h e r F re n c h e d i t i o n i n 1839.
I n 1926 a new e d i t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l a p p e a r e d a s
p a r t o f t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f E u l e r ' s c o m p l e t e w o rk s u n d e r t h e
a u s p i c e s o f th e Swiss S o c ie ty of N a t u r a l S c ie n c e s . The
e d i t o r was E d u a r d B e r n o u l l i . The p r e s e n t t r a n s l a t i o n was
made fr om t h i s e d i t i o n , w h i c h i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y a r e p r i n t
of the o r ig in a l L atin v e rs io n . O r i g i n a l e d i t i o n s a r e t o be
found in s e v e r a l l i b r a r i e s i n t h e United S t a t e s and a r e
o f t e n l i s t e d i n th e c a t a l o g s o f r a r e book d e a l e r s . The
e x i s t i n g number o f c o p i e s seems t o s u p p o r t P o l e ' s s t a t e m e n t
t h a t t h e T e nta m e n " f o u n d g e n e r a l f a v o r d u r i n g t h e l a s t
cen tu ry ."3
E. T. B e l l i n t r o d u c e s h i s t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u l e r ' s
p r o o f t h a t e v e r y i n t e g e r i s a sum o f f o u r s q u a r e s w i t h t h e
s t a t e m e n t t h a t " t h e e f f o r t h a s b e e n made t o g i v e a f r e e
t r a n s l a t i o n t h a t s h a l l c l e a r l y co nvey E u l e r ' s m e a n i n g , i n
^ A r c h i b a l d , R. C . , " M a t h e m a t i c i a n s a n d M u s i c , " The

A m e r ic a n M a t h e m a t i c a l M o n t h l y , XXXI ( 1 9 2 4 ) , 2 2 .
^ P o l e , W i l l i a m , The P h i l o s o p h y o f M u s i c , p . 20 6.
8
p re fe re n c e to fo llo w in g too c l o s e l y th e r a t h e r poor L a tin
of the d a y . T h i s procedure has been follow ed in th e
present tra n s la tio n . F or t h e most p a r t , E u l e r i s c a r e f u l
t o d e f i n e h i s t e r m i n o l o g y , b u t wo rds a n d d e f i n i t i o n s a r e
e n c o u n t e r e d w h i c h a r e t o be f o u n d n e i t h e r i n c l a s s i c a l
L atin d ic tio n a r ie s nor in l a t e r d i c t i o n a r i e s . I n some
c ases the c o n te x t provided the answ er, fn o t h e r s , an
unabridged E n g lish d ic t i o n a r y provided c lo s e ly co rresp o n d
i n g w ord s w i t h m e a n i n g s germa ne t o t h e c o n t e x t . O bsolete
u n i t s o f m e a s u r e m e n t p r e s e n t e d some d i f f i c u l t y . The
F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n , Musique m a t h e m a t l q u e , p r o v i d e d s o l u
t i o n s t o many p r o b l e m s .
B ac k g r o u n d and P u r p o s e
I n h i s o r e f a c e t o t h e Te n ta m e n E u l e r h a s o u t l i n e d
h i s p u r o o s e , m a in i d e a s , a nd p l a n o f t r e a t m e n t . E u le r had
a l m o s t c o m p l e t e d t h e Te nt a m e n i n 1731, a b o u t e i g h t y e a r s
before p u b lic a tio n . This in fo r m a tio n plus a s u c c in c t
statem en t o f puroose i s c o n tain ed in a l e t t e r 5 w r i t t e n in
^ S m i t h , D. E . , A S o u r c e Book i n M a t h e m a t i c s , p . 9 1 .
5The l e t t e r s a r e q u o t e d by A r c h i b a l d , o . c l t . ,
p. 22.
9
May, 1 7 3 1 , t o D a n i e l B e r n o u l l i : 6
My m a in p u r p o s e was t h a t I s h o u l d s t u d y m u s ic
a s a p a r t o f m a t h e m a t i c s a nd d e d u c e i n a n o r d e r l y
m a n n e r , fr o m c o r r e c t p r i n c i p l e s , e v e r y t h i n g w hic h
c a n make a f i t t i n g t o g e t h e r a n d m i n g l i n g o f t o n e s
pleasing. I n t h e whole d i s c u s s i o n I h a v e n e c e s s a r
i l y had a m e ta p h y s ic a l b a s i s , w h erein t h e cause i s
c o n t a i n e d why a p i e c e o f m u s i c c an g i v e one p l e a s u r e
a nd t h e b a s i s f o r i t i s t o be l o c a t e d , a nd why a
t h i n g to us p l e a s i n g i s to a n o t h e r d i s p l e a s i n g .
B e r n o u lli's rep ly follow s:
I cannot r e a d i l y d iv in e wherein t h a t p r i n c i p l e
s h o u l d e x i s t , ho w e v e r m e t a p h y s i c a l i t may b e , w he re by
t h e r e a s o n c o u l d b e g i v e n why one c o u l d t a k e p l e a s u r e
i n a p i e c e o f m u s i c , a n d why a t h i n g p l e a s a n t f o r u s ,
may f o r a n o t h e r b e u n p l e a s a n t . One h a s i n d e e d a
g e n e r a l i d e a o f harmony t h a t i t i s c h a r m i n g i f i t i s
w e l l a r r a n g e d and t h e c o n s o n a n c e s a r e w e l l m a nag e d,
b u t , a s i t i s w e l l known, d i s s o n a n c e s i n m u s ic a l s o
h a v e t h e i r u s e s i n c e by me ans o f th e m t h e charm o f
the im m ediately fo llo w in g consonances i s b ro u g h t out
t h e b e t t e r , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e common s a y i n g o p p o s l t a
j u x t a se p o s i t a magis e l u c e s c u n t ( o p p o s i te s p l a c e d
to g e th e r shine b r i g h t e r ] ; a ls o in the a r t of D a in tin g ,
shadows m u s t be r e l i e v e d by l i g h t .
N icolas Puss, e ig h te e n th century m athem atician, said
t h a t t h e T en ta me n " h a d no g r e a t s u c c e s s , a s i t contained
t o o much g e o m e t r y f o r m u s i c i a n s , and t o o much m us ic f o r
geom eters."^
^ D a n i e l B e r n o u l l i ( 1 7 0 0 - 1 7 8 2 ) a n d E u l e r were p i o n e e r s
i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r y o f p i n e s and
vibrating strin g s.
^ M o r i t z , R. E . , On M a t h e m a t i c s a nd M a t h e m a t i c i a n s ,
p . 156.
10
E u le r's deep i n t e r e s t in v ib r a tin g b o d ie s , aco u stics,
and m usic b e g a n e a r l y in h is life. H is f i r s t p u b licatio n
i n t h e s e a r e a s was a d i s s e r t a t i o n on s o u n d w h i c h a p p e a r e d
in 1727. Th e l a s t a p p e a r e d some s i x t y years la t e r . H is
n o te b o o k sketch f o r a s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t o f m usic a p p a r e n t l y
wa s ma de i n 1 7 2 6 w h e n E u l e r wa s n i n e t e e n . It is on ly an
o u tlin e, but it is e v i d e n c e t h a t E u l e r was w e l l a c q u a i n t e d
w ith th e m usic l i t e r a t u r e of h is day. F u rth e r evidence of
h is in terest in m usic is f o u n d i n h i s w e l l know n s e r i e s of
letters, or lesso n s, on n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y , addressed to a
G e rm a n p r i n c e s s , the P rin c e s s of A nhalt D essau.
C ontent
Sound. E u l e r was r e c o g n i z e d i n h i s day a s an
au th o rity on a c o u s t i c s , a n d h e was t h u s e m i n e n t l y q u a l i f i e d
to begin h is treatise o n m u s 3 c w i t h a s u m m a ry i n C h a p t e r I
of the "p rin cip les of sounds and h e a r i n g w hich c o n s t i t u t e
th e m a t e r i a l upon w hich m usic d e p e n d s ." Th e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s ,
a s he p r e s e n t s th e m , a r e gen erally co rrect.
A unicue featu re of th is s u m m a ry i s h is form ula in
S ection 9 fo r th e frequency of a v ib ra tin g strin g :
35 5 I 3 1 6 6 n
113 V a
See A p p e n d i x A.
11
Here a i s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s t r i n g and n i s t h e r a t i o o f
th e s t r e t c h i n g w eight t o th e w eight of th e s t r i n g . 3166
r e p r e s e n t s th e l e n g t h i n th o u sa n d th s of a Rhenish fo o t
o f a pe nd ulu m w h i c h t a k e s one s e c o n d f o r one o s c i l l a t i o n .
Today s u c h a pendulum i s c a l l e d a s e c o n d s p e n d u lu m , a n d
its l e n g t h , 39.11V i n c h e s a t s e a l e v e l , l a t . 45, is a
well-known p h y s i c a l c o n s t a n t . A. J . E l l i s g i v e s t h e
f o l l o w i n g l o g a r i t h m i c form of t h e f o r m u l a :
2 log V= 1.98485 + lo g W - (log w + lo g L).
Here L i s t h e s t r i n g l e n g t h , W t h e s t r e t c h i n g w e i g h t i n a n y
u n i t , w t h e w e i g h t o f t h e s t r i n g i n t h e same u n i t , a n d V
Q
t h e p i t c h n u m b e r . 57
I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t E u l e r s f o r m u l a r e q u i r e s
only th e s im p le s t o f m easurem ents: w e i g h t an d l e n g t h .
The u s u a l f o r m u l a s i n m o d e r n p h y s i c s t e x t s f o r t h e
frequency of a v ib r a tin g s t r i n g are
an d
whe re L = l e n g t h , T = t e n s i o n , m = mass p e r u n i t l e n g t h ,
^ H e l m h o l t z , Hermann L. F . , On t h e S e n s a t i o n s o f Tone
as a P h y s i o l o g i c a l B a s i s f o r th e Theory o f M u sic , p . 441.
E l l i s was t h e t r a n s l a t o r
12
d = d e n s i t y , and r = r a d i u s . I t i s n o t known how E u l e r
developed h i s fo rm u la.
Euphonic V a l u e s . E uler l i s t s - t h r e e a t t r i b u t e s of
music c a p a b le o f conveying a g r e e a b l e n e s s : (1) p i t c h ,
(2 ) d u r a t i o n , and ( 3 ) i n t e n s i t y . The Te nta me n c o n s i s t s
c h i e f l y o f a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f euphonic v a lu e s under th e
f i r s t of these c a te g o rie s . E u le r h i n t s t h a t such a t r e a t
me nt o f d u r a t i o n c o u l d b e made a l o n g t h e same l i n e s , b u t
he d o e s n o t p u r s u e t h i s s u b j e c t . The e l e m e n t of i n t e n s i t y ,
not lending i t s e l f e a s i l y to quantification, is not
in v estig ated .
The p r i n c i p a l f e a t u r e s o f E u l e r ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a r e
found i n C hapter I I . F o r h im a l l c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t o n e s a r e
c o n s o n a n c e s , b u t s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n s may b e c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r
v arious degrees of a g re ea b le n ess. E u l e r 's p o in t of
d e p a rtu re i s a p sy ch o lo g ica l one. The whole s t r u c t u r e o f
classificatio n i s e r e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e r a t i o s o f
the u n iso n , o c tav e , tw e lf th , and d o u b l e o c t a v e , r e p r e s e n t e d
r e s o e c t i v e l y by t h e r a t i o s 1 : 1 , 1 : 2 , 1 : 3 , a n d 1 : 4 . The
u n i s o n , c l a s s i f i e d a s the most a g r e e a b l e i n t e r v a l , b e l o n g s
to th e f i r s t degree of a g r e e a b l e n e s s . The o c t a v e , 1 : 2 ,
b e lo n g s to the second d e g re e . 1 : 3 and 1 : 4 r e c e i v e a n e q u a l
r a n k i n g and a r e a s s i g n e d t o t h e t h i r d d e g r e e . This
e s t a b l i s h e s an i n d u c t i v e p a t t e r n . (See S e c t i o n 23 a nd t h e
succeeding p o r tio n of Chapter I I . ) The l e a s t common
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
13
m u ltip le of th e num bers r e p r e s e n t i n g th e p itch es of a
succession of to n e s, a ch o rd , a s u c c e ssio n of ch o rd s, or
any gro u p o f t o n e s , h as a unique d e g re e of a g r e e a b l e n e s s .
E uler c a lls th is l e a s t common m u l t i p l e an e x p o n e n t.
F or exam ple, c o n s id e r th e m ajor t r i a d w ith to n es in
th e ratio 4 :5 :6 . The l e a s t coirmon m u l t i p l e o f t h e s e num bers
is 60. The t a b l e in S ectio n 31, C hanter I I , shows t h a t
th is assig n s the t r i a d to th e n i n t h d e g re e of a g r e e a b le n e s s .
However, the ta b le is not a b so lu te ly necessary since in
S e c tio n 6, C h a p t e r I V , E u l e r s h o w s how t o f i n d the d e g ree
by u s e o f t h e f o r m u l a j3 - n + 1 , w h e r e js i s the sum o f t h e
prim e f a c t o r s of th e exponent and n i s t h e number o f t h e s e
facto rs. The f a c t o r s of the e x p o n e n t o f 60 may b e ex h ib ited
as 2^*3*5, w here srl2 and n s 4 , Thus, s - n + l = 9.
S ir James J e a n s ' comments a r e o f p a r t i c u l a r in terest
here:
I n 1738 th e m a t h e m a t i c i a n E u l e r a t t e m p t e d an
e x p l a n a t i o n on p s y c h o lo g i c a l l i n e s , say in g t h a t th e
h u m a n m i n d d e l i g h t s i n l a w a n d o r d e r , a n d so t a k e s
p le a su re in d is c o v e rin g i t in n a tu re . The s m a l l e r
t h e nu m b ers r e c u i r e d t o e x p r e s s t h e r a t i o of tw o
f r e q u e n c i e s , t h e e a s i e r i t i s - - s u c h was h i s a r g u m e n t - '
t o d i s c o v e r t h i s ls w a n d o r d e r , a n d so t h e p l e a s a n t e r
i t i s to h e a r th e sounds in q u e s tio n . E u l e r w ent so
f a r as to pro p o se a d e f i n i t e q u a n t i t a t i v e m easure o f
the dissonance of a chord. H is p l a n was t o e x p r e s s
th e fr e q u e n c y r a t i o o f the ch o rd i n q u e s ti o n by th e
s m a l l e s t num bers p o s s i b l e , and th e n to f i n d th e
s m a l l e s t number i n t o w h ich a l l t h e s e c o u ld b e d i v i d e d
ex actly . T h is l a s t num ber, he t h o u g h t , gave a
m easure o f th e d isso n a n c e of th e c h o rd . F o r exam ple,
t h e f r e q u e n c y r a t i o o f t h e n o t e s o f t h e common c h o r d
14
C E G c ' is 4 :5 :6 :8 . The m e a s u r e o f d i s s o n a n c e i s
a c c o r d i n g l y 12 0 , s i n c e t h i s i s t h e s m a l l e s t numbe r
o f w h i c h 4 , 5 , 6 , and 8 a r e a l l f a c t o r s .
I t i s e a s y t o c r i t i c i s e t h i s t h e o r y fr om a l l
sides. In t h e f i r s t p la c e i t f a i l s to e x p l a i n t h e
f a c t s , s i n c e i t a s s i g n s t h e same m e a s u r e o f d i s s o n
a n ce , 120, t o th e ch ord o f th e s e v e n th C E G B ( w ith
frequency r a tio s 8 :10 :1 2 :1 5 ) as to the f a r le s s
d i s s o n a n t common c h o r d . A g a i n i f we p u t one n o t e ,
s a y E, o u t o f t u n e b y one p e r c e n t o f i t s f r e q u e n c y
( a b o u t a s i x t h o f a s e m i t o n e ) we i n c r e a s e E u l e r ' s
m e a s u r e o f d i s s o n a n c e 1 0 0 - f o l d ; i f we now r e d u c e
t h e o u t - o f - t u n e n e s s t o a t e n t h o f t h i s , we i n c r e a s e
t h e measure o f d i s s o n a n c e a n o t h e r t e n f o l d . I f on e
note i s only i n f i n i t e s i m a l l y out of tu n e , th e
m e a s u r e o f d i s s o n a n c e a t once s h o o t s up t o i n f i n i t y ,
w h ic h i s a c o m p l e t e r e d u c t l o a d a b s u r d u m . F i n a l l y ,
E u l e r ' s t h e o r y f a i l s t o e x p l a i n why we e n j o y h e a r i n g
t h e common c h o r d , w i t h i t s 120 u n i t s o f a n n o y a n c e ,
when we c o u l d r e d u c e t h e a n n o y a n c e t o 24 u n i t s b y
d r o p p i n g E o u t o f t h e c h o r d , an d c o u l d e l i m i n a t e t h e
a n n o y a n c e a l t o g e t h e r by s i t t i n g i n s i l e n c e . 10
E u le r might r e p l y t h a t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a c t u a l l y
a s s i g n s d e g r e e s o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s t o c o n s o n a n c e s , s i n c e he
c o n s i d e r e d any c o m b in a tio n of t o n e s a co n so n an ce. As t o
i n t o n a t i o n , E u l e r makes i t c l e a r t h a t he c o n s i d e r s p e r f e c t
t u n i n g i m p o s s i b l e and c o n c e d e s t h a t t h e e a r h a s some
f l e x i b i l i t y i n t h i s m a t t e r ( b u t n o t enough to j u s t i f y
equal tem peram ent). A l s o , E u l e r makes c l e a r t h a t m u s i c
s h o u l d ha v e much v a r i e t y a n d t h a t t h e h i g h e s t a g r e e a b l e n e s s
does not l i e in s i m p l i c i t y .
M usical L o g arith m s. C a jo ri s t a t e s t h a t "the
m i r a c u l o u s pow ers o f mo de rn c a l c u l a t i o n a r e d u e t o t h r e e
l O j e a n s , S i r J am e s , S c i e n c e & M u s i c , p p . 1 5 5 - 1 5 6 .
15
inv en tio ns: t h e A r a b i c N o t a t i o n , D e c im a l F r a c t i o n s , a n d
L ogarithm s. A l o g a r i t h m i s a c t u a l l y a n e x p o n e n t w h ic h
i n d i c a t e s t h e pow er t o w h i c h some number c a l l e d t h e b a s e
m u s t b e r a i s e d t o y i e l d t h e g i v e n n um be r. A frequently
u sed b a s e i s 10. S i n c e 10^ 10 0, we s a y t h e l o g a r i t h m
o f 100 2. I n l i k e m a n n e r , t h e l o g a r i t h m o f 1000 i s 3 .
I f we h a v e t h e p r o d u c t o f 100 a n d 1 0 0 0 , i t c a n be w r i t t e n
thus: 10^* 10^ 1 0 ^ . Thus 5 i s t h e l o g a r i t h m o f t h e
product. The i m p o r t a n t t h i n g h e r e i s t h a t t h e p r o d u c t i s
found by m u l t i p l i c a t i o n b u t th e l o g a r i th m o f t h e p ro d u c t
i s found by a d d i t i o n . This f a c t i s u s e f u l to m u sician s
in adding o r s u b t r a c t i n g m u sic a l i n t e r v a l s s i n c e the
l o g a r i t h m s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i n t e r v a l s may a l s o b e
added o r s u b tr a c te d to f in d the lo g a rith m of th e r e s u l t i n g
in terv al.
I f 10, 2, and are used su ccessiv ely as b ases,
th e c o rre sp o n d in g lo g a r ith m i c measurements o f th e o c ta v e ,
2 : 1 , would be . 3 0 1 0 3 , 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 , a n d 1 2 . 0 0 0 0 0 . The l a s t
base, v3^/~2 , i s u s e f u l i n t h e c ase of e q u a l tem peram ent,
s i n c e h e r e t h e s e m i t o n e r a t i o i s ' vs ^ / _2" :1. Using 1200
c e n t s t o c o r r e s p o n d t o 1 2 , A. J . E l l i s ( 1 8 1 4 - 1 8 9 0 ) was
ab le to r e p r e s e n t th e v a r io u s to n e s o f th e chrom atic s c a l e
i n e o u a l t e m o e r a m e n t b y m u l t i p l e s o f 100 c e n t s . This
^ C a i o r i , F l o r i a n , A H is to r y o f M ath e m a tic s, p. 49.
16
u s e f u l l o g a r i t h m i c m e a s u r e m e n t c a n a l s o be a p p l i e d t o
i n t e r v a l s o t h e r t h a n th o s e found i n e a u a l tem peram ent.
L ogarithm s a r e a l s o u s e f u l in d e term in in g t h e approxim ate
d e c i m a l v a l u e o f s u c h an e x p r e s s i o n a s IS/7.
L o g a r i t h m s w e re i n v e n t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y i n t h e
s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y J o h n N a p i e r , a S c o t s m a n , and by
Jo o st B urgi, a Sw iss.
Guy W a r r a c k s t a t e s t h a t i n t h e T e n ta m e n E u l e r made
t h e f i r s t u s e o f l o g a r i t h m s t o show d i f f e r e n c e s o f p i t c h . ^
O t h e r w r i t e r s a n d v a r i o u s s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e b o o k s on
music a l s o g iv e E u l e r t h i s c r e d i t . A c t u a l l y , E u l e r was
p r e c e d e d i n t h i s m a t t e r b y a t l e a s t two men. A rchibald
c r e d i t s C h r i s t i a n Kuygens ( 1 6 2 9 - 1 6 9 5 ) , who u s e d m u s i c a l
l o g a r i t h m s i n h i s p u b l i c a t i o n "Novus c y c l u s h a r m o n i o u s " i n
Opera v a r i a , 1 7 2 4 . ^ Barbour l i s t s the in v e n to r of m usical
l o g a r i t h m s a s B i s h o p J u a n C ar am ue l d e L o b k o w it z ( 1 6 0 6 - 1 5 8 2 ) ,
who u s e d them i n h i s Mathe s i s n o v a , 1 6 7 0 . I n c o m p a r i n g
l o g a r ith m s o f t h e f i f t h and the o c tav e in th e Tentamen,
E u l e r u s e d a c o n t i n u e d f r a c t i o n f o r th e f i r s t tim e f o r such
a purpose.I
^ W a r r a c k , Guy, "Mu si c a n d M a t h e m a t i c s , " Music and

L e t t e r s , XXVI ( 1 9 4 5 ) , 22.
Â rchibald, op. c i t . , p . 17.
l ^ B a r b o u r , j . ivi. , T u n i n g and T e m p e r a m e n t , p . 3. See

a l s o B a r b o u r , " M u s i c a l L o g a r i t h m s , ,r S c r l p t a M a t h e m a t l c a ,
VII (1940), 21-31.
15T e n t a m e n , S e c t i o n 3 8 , C h a n t e r IV.
17
K u l e r a nd S e v e n . The f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n i s t a k e n
f ro m a d i c t i o n a r y o f 1 7 9 5 :
M u s i c a l n u m b e r s , a r e t h e numb ers 2 , 3 , a n d 5 ,
t o g e t h e r w ith t h e i r com posites. They a r e so c a l l e d , -
b e c a u s e a l l t h e i n t e r v a l s o f m u s i c may b e e x p r e s s e d
by such numbers. T h i s i s now g e n e r a l l y a d m i t t e d by
m usical t h e o r i s t s . Mr. E u l e r seems t o s u p p o s e , t h a t
7 o r o t h e r p r i m e s m i g h t be i n t r o d u c e d ; b u t h e s p e a k s
o f t h i s a s a d o u b t f u l an d d i f f i c u l t m a t t e r . Here 2
corresponds to the o ctave, 3 to the f i f t h , o r r a t h e r
to th e 1 2 th , and 5 t o th e t h i r d m a jo r, o r r a t h e r the
seventeenth. From t h e s e t h r e e may a l l o t h e r i n t e r v a l s
b e f o u n d . 16
This d e f i n i t i o n i s , i n a s e n s e , a s y n o p s i s of t h e T e n t a m e n ,
s i n c e f o r E u l e r " t r u e ha rm ony" l a y i n t h e r a t i o s o f whole
numbers, sp ecifically , th e r a t i o s of "m usical num bers,"
t h e i r powers and t h e i r p r o d u c t s . The a u t h o r o f t h e
d e f i n i t i o n , h o w e v e r , a p p a r e n t l y h a d n o t r e a d two l a t e r
p a p e r s b y E u l e r i n w h i c h he d e c i d e d t h a t a c c e o t a n c e o f
seven, in th eo ry , i f not in fa c t, was t h e way o u t o f
r a t h e r d i s t r e s s i n g d il e m m a s c r e a t e d i n t h e T e n t a m e n . The
two b r i e f p a p e r s a r e C o n j e c t u r e s u r l a r a i s o n de q u e l q u e s
d i s s o n a n c e s g e n e r a l e m e n t r e g u e s d a n s l a m u s i c u e a n d Du
v e r i t a b l e c a r a c t e r e de la m u s l q u e mode m e , b o t h of w h ic h
a p p e a r e d i n 17 64.
I n t h e T e n ta m e n E u l e r a s s i g n s t h e d o m i n a n t s e v e n t h
to th e s i x t e e n t h d e g re e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s and c l a s s i f i e s i t
l ^ H u t t o n , C h a r l e s , A M ath e m a tic al and P h i l o s o p h i c a l

D i c t i o n a r y , Vol. I I , pp. 136-137. P u n c tu a tio n of the
o rig in a l d e fin itio n is retained.
IQ
a s " u n b e a r a b l e " a s an e n t i t y . ^ About t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s
a f t e r t h e T en ta me n a o p e a r e d , a f t e r he h a d u n d o u b t e d l y
o b s e rv e d co m p o sers1 p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r th e dominant s e v e n th ,
he w r o t e t h e b r i e f C o n j e c t u r e i n whic h h e a t t e m p t s an
explanation fo r the acceptance of th e chord. R euresenting
i t by th e r a t i o 3 6 : 4 5 : 5 4 : 6 4 a n d c o n c e d i n g t h e h e a r i n g more
f l e x i b i l i t y t h a n he d i d i n t h e T e n ta m e n , h e s a y s t h a t t h e
ear substitutes 63 i n p l a c e o f 64 so t h a t t h e r a t i o becom es
36:45:54:63, or 4 : 5 : 6 : 7 , which i s e a s i e r t o p e r c e i v e . He
a l s o s a y s t h a t t h e h e a r i n g m u s t make s u c h s u b s t i t u t i o n s f o r
th e i r r a t i o n a l r a t i o s of e q u al tem peram ent, which i s r e j e c t e d
i n t h e T e n t a m e n , a s one w o u ld e x p e c t , since h i s theory r e s t s
on t h e r a t i o s o f whole n u m b e r s . However, i t must h a v e
o c c u r r e d t o E u l e r by t h e t i m e o f t h e C o n j e c t u r e t h a t e q u a l
t e m o e r a m e n t would h a r d l y ha v e s t r a i n e d t h e h e a r i n g more
t h a n some o f t h e common c o n s o n a n c e s i n h i s own d i a t o n i c -
c h r o m a t i c g e n u s , a v a r i a n t o f j u s t i n t o n a t i o n w h i c h he
d e v i s e d i n t h e h op e o f a c h i e v i n g maximum a g r e e a b l e n e s s . 18
I n h i s Du v e r i t a b l e c a r a c t e r e de l a m u s lq u e moderne
E u l e r s t a t e s t h a t t h i s r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e number 7 i s t h e
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of th e music o f h i s day.
F e t i s s a i d t h a t E u l e r was " t h e f i r s t t o see t h a t t h e
-^See S e c tio n 29, C h a n te r X I I I .
1 9 g e e A p p e n d ix B.
19
c h a r a c t e r o f modern m u s i c r e s i d e s i n t h e c h o r d of t h e
Dominant S e v e n t h , and t h a t i t s d e t e r m i n i n g r a t i o i s t h a t
o f t h e number 7 . " 1 9
E u l e r i s th u s i n c l u d e d w ith Mersenne, T a r t i n i , F e t i s ,
S e r r e , Hauptmann, E l l i s , P errett, and o t h e r s who h a v e
advocated e x te n s io n of Z a r l i n o 's s e n a r io , 1 :2 :3 :4 :5 :6 , to
in c lu d e 7. Z a r l i n o , D e s c a r t e s , Rameau, H e l m h o l t z , O t t i n g e n ,
Riem ann, a nd H i n d e m i t h h a v e o p p o s e d t h i s e x t e n s i o n .
I n t h e T e n t a m e n , S e c t i o n 2 0 , C h a p t e r X, a f t e r g i v i n g
h is reasons f o r r e je c tin g seven, Euler in clu d es a tab le
f o r t h e g e n u s w i t h an e x o o n e n t o f 2m*3^ *5^*7. I n modern
t i m e s , w i t h E u l e r ' s g e n u s i n m i n d , A. D. F o k k e r h a s c on
s t r u c t e d an e x p e r im e n ta l o rg a n In Haarlam, H o lla n d , in th e
T eyler M u s e u m .^ l T his organ p e rm its h e a rin g such genera
a s 3 * 5 * 7 , 3 * 3 * 7 , 3*7 * 7 , 5 * 5 * 7 , 5 * 7 * 7 , 7*7 * 7 .
l ^ S h i r l a w , M at t h ew , The T h e o r y o f Harmony, p . 3 4 8 .
^ ^ p a r t c h , H a r r y , Gene s i s of a_ M u s i c , p. 93.
2 l F o k k e r , A. D . , " E x p e r i e n c e s m u s i c a l e s a v e c l e s
g e n r e s m u s i c a u x de L e o n h a r d E u l e r c o n t e n a n t l e s e p t i e m e
ha rm on io .u e , " I n t e r n a t i o n a l G e s e l l s c h a f t f u r M u s i k w i s s e n s c h a f t ,
K o n g r e s s b e r l c h t , pp. 113-115.
PART TWO
ENGLISH TRANSLATION OR THE TENTAMEN NOVAE THEORIAE MUSICAE
AN ATTEMPT AT A NEW THEORY OF MUSIC BASED 0! CORRECT
PRINCIPLED OF HARMONY AND CLEARLY
EXPOUNDED BY THE AUTHOR
LEONHARD EULER
PREFACE
In th o s e e a r l i e s t tim es i n which music began to be
c u l t i v a t e d , t h o s e t h i n g s by w h ic h m u s i c i s r e n d e r e d
p l e a s i n g t o t h e h e a r i n g an d b y w h i c h i t a f f e c t s t h e s p i r i t
w i t h d e l i g h t wer e q u i t e c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d n e i t h e r t o l i e
i n t h e jud gm en t o f men n o r t o d e p e n d on c u s t o m . Pythagoras,
who f i r s t c o n s i d e r e d t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f m u s i c , knew t h a t
t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o n s o n a n c e s by w h ic h t h e e a r s a r e p l e a s e d
i s c o n c e a l e d i n p e r c e p t i b l e p r o p o r t i o n s , e v e n i f i t was n o t
y e t c l e a r t o him how t h e s e r a t i o s were u n d e r s t o o d by
the h e a r in g . But s i n c e he h a d o b s e r v e d l e s s c l e a r l y t h e
t r u e p r i n c i p l e s o f h a r m o n y , he h a d a t t r i b u t e d t o o much
t o h i s p r o p o r t i o n s and h a d n o t l e a r n e d t o e s t a b l i s h a c t u a l
l i m i t s o f i n d e b t e d n e s s t o the m. F o r t h a t r e a s o n he was
j u s t l y c r i t i c i z e d by A r i s t o x e n u s , who, i n o r d e r to combat
the p r i n c i p l e o f P y th a g o ra s, f e l l b a c k t o o much upo n an
o p p o s i t e v i e w p o i n t , a s he s t r o v e t o remove a l l nower o f
numbers and r a t i o s f r o m m u s i c . Y et, n o t even A ris to x e n u s
d a r e d t o a s s e r t t h a t a w e l l - c o m p o s e d m e lo dy i s p l e a s i n g
t o t h e e a r s s i m p l y fr om c h a n c e an d w i t h o u t a n y r e a s o n ; b u t
he d e n i e d t h a t so much o f t h e r e a s o n f o r m u s i c a l p l e a s u r e
l a y i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n s f i x e d by P y t h a g o r a s . And, w h i l e he
t h o u g h t a l l judg me nt o f c o n s o n a n c e s r e m a i n e d f o r t h e e a r s ,
he c h o s e t o i g n o r e t h e v e r y s o u r c e r a t h e r t h a n t o a d m i t
23
Pythagoras' p r i n c i p le , i n s u f f i c i e n t a nd h i t h e r t o i n v o l v e d
i n many e r r o r s . I n d e e d , t o d a y one m i g h t ha v e e v e n more
j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r d o u b t i n g w h e t h e r any m u s i c t h e o r y e x i s t s
whic h c a n e x p l a i n why any m e lo dy p l e a s e s o r d i s p l e a s e s ;
f o r n o t o n l y do we a b h o r t h e m u s i c o f b a r b a r i a n s , w h i c h
u s u a l l y i s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y p l e a s i n g t o th e m , b u t t h e s e
b a r b a r i a n s , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , f i n d n o t h i n g a t a l l a g r e e
a b le In ou r m u sic . But i f an yo ne w i s h e s t o c o n c l u d e
t h a t t h e r e i s no b a s i s a t a l l f o r t h e a g r e e a b l e n e s s w h i c h
m u s i c g i v e s u s , he w o u l d be m a k in g a h a s t y j u d g m e n t . Since
a m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h i s p e r i o d may b e composed o f
i n n u m e r a b l e p a r t s , h o n e s t ju d g m e n t b e g i n s w i t h c a r e f u l
o b s e r v a t i o n a n d e x a m i n a t i o n o f s i n g l e comoo nen t p a r t s , n o t
w ith the b a r b a r i a n s a v e rsio n o r our ap p ro b atio n . I f we
b e g i n o u r ju d g m e n t w i t h t h e s im p le s t c o n so n an ces o f which
a l l m u s i c i s co m pose d; o c t a v e s , f i f t h s , f o u r t h s , t h i r d s ,
an d s i x t h s , m a j o r a n d m i n o r , we d i s c o v e r no d i s a g r e e m e n t
among a l l p e o p l e s ; b u t r a t h e r , by u n a n im o u s c o n s e n t , a l l
o f t h e s e i n t e r v a l s a r e c o n s i o e r e d more p l e a s i n g t o t h e
h e a r i n g th a n th e d i s s o n a n c e s , namely, the t r i t o n e , sevenths,
s e c o n d s , a nd i n n u m e r a b l e o t h e r s w h ic h c a n be f o r m e d . Since
no r e a s o n i s o f f e r e d an d s i n c e i t c a n n o t b e a s c r i b e d t o
c u s to m a l o n e , t h e t r u e c a u s e o f t h i s c o n s e n s u s w e l l
deserves in v e s tig a tio n . There f o l l o w s , i n a l m o s t t h e same
way, t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f two o r more c o n s o n a n c e s i n
24
s u c c e s s i o n , whose c o n n e c t i o n w i t h o u t s y s t e m c a n n e i t h e r
please nor d is p le a s e . But more a t t e n t i o n a n d s k i l l i s
r e q u i r e d f o r o b t a i n i n g e n j o y m e n t fr o m s e v e r a l s u c c e s s i v e
consonances th a n from s i n g l e , i s o l a t e d ones; f o r , in order
t h a t s i n g l e c o n s o n a n c e s may p l e a s e , i t is su ffic ie n t if
t h e y a r e u n d e r s t o o d , and t h e o r d e r , w h i c h i s c o n t a i n e d
w ithin them selves, is perceived; but i f s e v e ra l consonances
are p re sen ted s u cc e ssiv e ly , it is e s p e c ia lly necessary f o r
p le a s in g r e s u l t s t h a t the o rd e r c o n tain ed in the sequence
be u n d e r s t o o d . But i f t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f t h e s e t h i n g s ,
i n which a c e r t a i n o r d e r e x i s t s , i s so g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d
t h a t t h e o r d e r c a n be p e r c e i v e d o n l y b y t h e m o s t s e n s i t i v e
ears, i t i s no w o n d e r i f d u l l e r e a r s f i n d no a g r e e a b l e n e s s
at a ll. T h e r e f o r e , when b a r b a r i a n s g e t l i t t l e o r no
e n j o y m e n t fr om o u r m u s i c , i t d o e s n o t f o l l o w t h a t e i t h e r no
agreeableness e x is t s a t a l l or th a t i t p l e a s e s us b ecause
of f a m i l i a r i t y a lo n e , but r a t h e r i t s h o u l d be c o n c l u d e d
t h a t t h e r e i s f a r more o r d e r a nd a g r e e a b l e n e s s i n o u r
m u sic , o f which o n ly th e l e a s t p a r t i s p e r c e iv e d by th e
barbarians. But f a m i l i a r i t y i n t h i s m a t t e r i s mo3t
v a l u a b l e , c e r t a i n l y n o t f o r p e r s u a d i n g anyo ne t h a t a
c e r t a i n m u s ic a l c o m o o sltio n i s p l e a s i n g , which i s d i s p l e a s i n g
to o t h e r s , b u t f o r e x e r c i s i n g and s h a rp e n in g t h e a u d i t o r y
sense i t s e l f , so t h a t i t can p e r c e iv e a l l o r d e r s w ith
which su ch music i s f i l l e d . The m o s t e l e m e n t a r y m u s i c , b y
25
i t s g r e s t s i m p l i c i t y , a f f e c t s us w i t h a v e r s i o n b e c a u s e we
a r e a c c u s t o m e d t o r i c h e r c o m p o s i t i o n s a n d t o l o o k i n g f o r much
more o r d e r ; a nd t h i s m u s i c s h o u l d b e l e f t t o t h o s e who do
n o t y e t e x e r c i s e and p e r f e c t t h e i r e a r s in t h i s m anner.
I t is evident th a t these judgments o f good and bad
y i e l d a t h e o r y o f m u s i c , i n w h i c h , fro m t h e m os t d e f i n i t e
an d i n d u b i t a b l e p r i n c i p l e s , c a n b e f o u n d an e x p l a n a t i o n o f
th e n a t u r e of t h o s e t h i n g s which p l e a s e as w e l l a s th o s e
which d i s p l e a s e . Therefore, i n t h e p r e s e n t w or k, I r e s o l v e
t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s a n d t o b a s e a t h e o r y of
m u s i c upon the m. A l t h o u g h many u n d e r t o o k t h i s t a s k , y e t
none h a v e a d v a n c e d b e y o n d a t h e o r y o f c o n s o n a n c e s , a n d ,
i n d e e d , e v e n t h i s h a s n o t b e e n t r e a t e d so t h a t i t m i g h t b e
used in th e p r a c t i c e of m usic. However, e v e n i f we do n o t
c o m p l e t e t h e t a s k , we l e a v e t o o t h e r s t o d e c i d e w h a t e v e r
may be w o r t h w h i l e i n t h i s b o o k . M e a n w h il e , t h e h i g h l y
t e s t e d p r e c e p t s a r i s i n g from o u r t h e o r y a g r e e w i t h the
m u s i c so e x c e l l e n t l y t h a t we c a n n o t a t a l l d o u b t t h e
s o l i d i t y and t r u t h o f t h i s t h e o r y . I n t h i s p r o c e d u r e we
ha v e e s p e c i a l l y a d h e r e d t o t h e f u n c t i o n o f a n a t \ ; r a l
p h i l o s o p h e r an d i n q u i r e d i n t o t h e t r u e r e a s o n s f o r t h o s e
t h i n g s which a r e o b s e rv e d n o t o n ly to p l e a s e b u t a l s o to
displease. Then, i f th e o r y i s found to a g re e w ith e x
perience, it seems t o u s t h a t o u r p r e s c r i b e d t a s k w i l l
hav e b e e n done w e l l .
26
In the f i r s t p l a c e , t h e r e f o r e , it is f i t t i n g that
t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f so und be a t t a c k e d a g a i n a t t h e v e r y
source. Not o n l y h a v e we s e t f o r t h t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s more
a c c u r a t e l y t h a n h a s b e e n d o n e h i t h e r t o , b u t a l s o we ha ve
a d a p t e d t h e m a in e l e m e n t s f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e
fou n d atio n s of m usic. <Ve h a v e c l e a r l y shown what k i n d o f
v i b r a t i o n s o f a i r p a r t i c l e s a l l s oun d c o n s i s t s o f an d how
t h a t m o t i o n a f f e c t s t h e a u d i t o r y s e n s e , r e s u l t i n g In t h e
comprehension o f sound. Thus i t was o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e
h e a r in g of a tone i s s i m p l y t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f many p u l s e s
f o l l o w i n g e a c h o t h e r a t e q u a l i n t e r v a l s o f t i m e , and t h e
d e g r e e o f h i g h n e s s o r l o w n e s s o f s o u n d s i s d e t e r m i n e d by
the frequency of those p u ls e s , so t h a t t h e more p u l s e s
s t r i k i n g t h e e a r i n t h e same p e r i o d , t h e h i g h e r t h e s oun d
i s reckoned to b e . Then we e x am in ed v a r i o u s m e th o d s of
p r o d u c i n g s o u n d s , w h i c h we r e d u c e d t o t h r e e k i n d s , a n d
d e t e r m i n e d fr o m t h e s e m e t h o d s t h e s p e e d o f t h e p u l s e s w h i c h
a g i v e n body o f s o u n d s t r a n s f e r s i n t o t h e a i r . From t h i s
we c o u l d d e t e r m i n e t h e number o f p u l s e s p r o d u c e d i n t h e
i n t e r v a l o f one s e c o n d by e a c h o f t h e u s u a l p i t c h e s I n
m usic. And i n t h i s t r e a t i s e we ha ve p r e s e n t e d a n e n t i r e l y
new t h e o r y o f s o u n d s p r o v i d e d by win d i n s t r u m e n t s , and
h e r e a g r e e m e n t t i l t h e x p e r i e n c e I s so g r e a t t h a t t h a t
t h e o r y m u s t b e a ck n o w le d g e d t o b e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e
facts. I n a d d i t i o n , we c a r e f u l l y i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e
27
i i n t e n s i t y o f s o u n d s , a n d we showed how t o o r o d u c e m u s i c a l
i n s t r u m e n t s so t h a t a l l t o n e s , h ow e ver d i v e r s e i n r a t i o o f
D i t c h , c a n s t i l l b e p r o d u c e d w i t h e q u a l c o w e r , f r o m w h ic h
it i s s e e n t h a t t h e r e r e s u l t s no l i t t l e h e l p i n t h e manu
fa c tu re of m usical in stru m en ts.
Music t h e o r y r e s t s up o n d u a l f o u n d a t i o n s , one o f
w h ic h i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e e x a c t" k n o w le dge o f s o u n d , t h a t
w h ic h p r o p e r l y b e l o n g s t o n a t u r a l s c i e n c e and i s s u f f i c i e n t
ly s e t f o r t h in th e f i r s t c h a n te r . The o t h e r f o u n d a t i o n i s
b a s e d on m e t a p h y s i c s , f o r we n e e d t o know how s e v e r a l
sounds, sim u ltan eo u s as w e ll as s u c c e s s iv e , p le a s e o r
d is p le a s e the a u d it o r y p e r c e p tio n . Lea by r e a s o n a s w e l l
as e x p e r i e n c e , we a t t a c k e d t h a t o r o b l e m and drew t h e
c o n c l u s i o n t h a t two o r more s o unds a r e p l e a s i n g when t h e
r a t i o , w h i c h e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e numb er s o f v i b r a t i o n s
p r o d u c e d a t t h e same t i m e , i s u n d e r s t o o d ; on t h e o t h e r
h a n d , d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n i s p r e s e n t when e i t h e r no o r d e r i s
f e l t o r t h a t o r d e r which i t seems t o h a v e i s s u d d e n l y
confused. Then we showed how t h e o r d e r o f s o u n d s , w h i c h i s
c o n t a i n e d i n t h e r a t i o o f v i b r a t i o n s p r o d u c e d a t t h e same
time o r in e q u a l n e r i o d s of t i m e , i s d i s t i n c t l y p e r c e i v e d ;
f ro m t h i s , t h e n , we p r o c e e d e d t o c o n s i d e r t h e f a c t t h a t
some r a t i o s a r e p e r c e i v e d more e a s i l y t h a n o t h e r s . Inquir
i n g i n t o t h e c a u s e o f t h i S d i o t i n c t i o n , we g r a d e d t h i s
oerceptive a b i l i t y i n c e r t a i n d e g r e e s , which are o f
28
g r e a t e s t I m p o r t a n c e i n m u s i c and a l s o may be f o u n d t o b e o f
g r e a t v a lu e i n o t h e r a r t s and s c i e n c e s o f which b e a u t y i s
a p art. Those d e g r e e s a r e a r r a n g e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h
the ease o f p e r c e i v i n g th e r a t i o s , an d a l l t h o s e r a t i o s
which can be p e r c e i v e d w i t h e q u a l f a c i l i t y a r e r e l a t e d to
t h e same d e g r e e . Thus, to th e f i r s t degree b e lo n g s only
one r a t i o , the s im p le s t of a l l , i.e ., e q u a l i t y , which,
wherever i t ex ists, i s a t on ce m o s t e a s i l y p e r c e i v e d a n d
i s c r e a t e d by two e q u a l s o u n d s . A fter th is comes t h e
s e c o n d d e g r e e , t o w h i c h , i n l i k e m a n n e r , b e l o n g s o n l y one
r a t i o , which i s th e d o u b le r a t i o ; f o r t h i s i s more e a s i l y
p e rc e iv e d th a n a l l o th e r s ex cep t th e r a t i o of e q u a l i t y ,
and i n m u s i c i t f o r m s t h e i n t e r v a l w h i c h i s c a l l e d d i a p a s o n
or o c tav e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , two r a t i o s , na m e l y t h e
t r i p l e an d q u a d r u p l e , w e re f o u n d t o b e l o n g t o t h e t h i r d
degree, s i n c e t h e s e two r a t i o s a r e p e r c e i v e d w i t h e q u a l
facility ; and, I n t h i s m a n n e r , we f o l l o w e d up t h e r e m a i n
ing d e g re e s i n t u r n , in c lu d in g in each only those r a t i o s
perceived w ith equal f a c i l i t y . We c a l l t h e s e d e g r e e s o f
agreeableness because i t I s u n d e r s t o o d f r o m th e m how much
a g r e e a b l e n e s s e a c h c o n s o n a n c e h a s i n i t s e l f o r , what
am o u n ts t o t h e same t h i n g , how much f a c i l i t y I s r e q u i r e d
fo r perceiving i t ; whence i t i s u n d e r s t o o d how much more
e a s i l y some r a t i o s c a n be o e r c e i v e a t h a n o t h e r s , w h e r e v e r
t h e y may a o p e a r . B esides, i t w i l l be c l e a r t h a t th e
29
d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s of th e s e r a t i o s does n o t l i e i n t h e names
w h i c h t h e a n c i e n t s g a v e t o them, a n d t h a t t h e P y t h a g o r e a n s
were m i s t a k e n i n s a y i n g t h a t m u l t i p l e r a t i o s a r e more
e a s i l y p e r c e i v e d t h a n s u p e r p a r t i c u l a r r a t i o s , and s u p e r
p a r t i c u l a r r a t i o s a r e more e a s i l y p e r c e i v e d t h a n s u p e r -
partien ts. But t h e c r i t e r i o n i s t o b e s o u g h t fr o m a n o t h e r ,
f a r - r e m o v e d s o u r c e fr o m w h ic h a r i s e a k n o w le d g e and
ju d g m e n t o f c o n s o n a n c e s a g r e e i n g much more s u b s t a n t i a l l y
w ith ex p erien ce. Upon t h e s e two p r i n c i p l e s , one n h y s i c a l ,
t h e o t h e r m e t a p h y s i c a l , we b u i l d t h e w h o l e t h e o r y o f
m usic.
As t o t h e p l a n f o l l o w e d i n t h i s t r e a t i s e , I first
d i v i d e d m u s i c i n t o two p r i n c i p a l t y o e s i n w h i c h b e a u t y
and a t t r a c t i v e n e s s a r e u n i t e d . One t y p e r e s t s u p o n t h e
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n low a nd h i g h s o u n d s ; t h e o t h e r d e p e n d s
upon t h e d u r a t i o n o f s o u n d s . But t o d a y ' s m u s i c i s u s u a l l y
h i g h l y s e a s o n e d w i t h b o t h t y p e s ; y e t e v e n now e x a m p l e s c a n
be o b s e r v e d i n w h i c h one t y p e o r t h e o t h e r f i n d s f a v o r .
I n t h i s t r e a t i s e we d e c i d e d t o d e a l c h i e f l y w i t h t h a t
a g r e e a b i e n e s s w h i c h a r i s e s fr o m t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f
s o u n d s b y t h e r a t i o o f h i g h n e s s a nd l o w n e s s , s i n c e t h e
o t h e r _ t y o e w o ul d b e l e s s d i f f i c u l t t o t r e a t and ca n b e
u n d e r s t o o d from o u r t r e a t m e n t o f t h e f i r s t t y p e . In th e
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f h ig h n e s s and lowness th e p r o p o r t i o n s use
2 , 3 , or 5 as f a c t o r s ; in the d is c r i m i n a t i o n of d u r a tio n ,
30
m u s i c i a n s h a v e n o t r e a c h e d t h i s p o i n t b u t ha v e drawn a l l
a g r e e a b l e n e s s o f t h i s k i n d fr om t h e numb ers 2 and .3 a l o n e .
I n t h i s a u r a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y , t h e h e a r i n g c a n n o t co mpr eh end
such com posite r a t i o s as i t can i n t h e c a t e g o r y o f i n t e r
vals. In e x p la n a tio n , therefo re, of m u sical com position
w h i c h p a y s so much a t t e n t i o n to th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een
h i g h an d low s o u n d s , we b e g a n by t r e a t i n g o f t h e c o n s o n a n c e s
o r o f s e v e r a l t o n e s o c c u r r i n g a t t h e same t i m e . We l i s t e d
and p r o p e r l y a r r a n g e d a l l c o n s o n a n c e s w h i c h c a n o c c u r i n
m u s i c , fr om w hi c h i t c a n be d e c i d e d f o r t h w i t h how much
more e a s i l y some c o n s o n a n c e s c a n be p e r c e i v e d t h a n o t h e r s .
Then we p r o g r e s s e d t o a s u c c e s s i o n o f two c o n s o n a n c e s and
showed how t h e y o u g h t t o b e c o n n e c t e d so t h a t t h e s u c c e s s i o n
i t s e l f m i g h t be r e n d e r e d p l e a s i n g t o t h e h e a r i n g . Then we
e x t e n d e d t h e same p l a n t o a s e r i e s o f s e v e r a l c o n s o n a n c e s
an d i n t h e same way t o a n y m u s i c a l works w h a t e v e r , s i n c e
the d u r a tio n of sounds i s not c o n s id e re d . M o r e o v e r , we
r e f e r r e d t h e ju d g m e n t o f t h e s e s e p a r a t e m a t t e r s t o n u m e r i c a l
e x p o n e n t s i n w hi c h may be e n c o m p a s se d a l l t h e e s s e n c e and
n a t u r e o f s i n g l e c o n s o n a n c e s a s w e l l a s o f two o r more i n
succession. From t h i s a r o s e f i r s t t h e e x p o n e n t s of s i m p l e
c o n s o n a n c e s , t h e n t h e e x p o n e n t s o f two c o n s o n a n c e s i n
s u c c e s s i o n , an d t h e n t h e e x p o n e n t s o f a s e r i e s o f s e v e r a l
c o n s o n a n c e s f o l l o w i n g e a c h o t h e r , and by t h e s e t h r e e
cate g o rie s; u n i v e r s a l m usic, co n sid e re d In g e n e r a l , i s
31
encompassed. Then we were drawn t o v a r i o u s k i n d s o f
m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n , an d f i r s t t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m u s i c a l
genera p resen ted i t s e l f , i n w h ic h a m u s i c a l g e n u s i s
d e f i n e d as a c o m b in a tio n of v a r i o u s tones s u i t a b l e f o r
p r o d u c i n g h a rm ony. I n l i k e m a n n e r , we r e d u c e d t h e t r e a t
ment o f t h i s m a t t e r t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f e x p o n e n t s . And
so we e n u m e r a t e d a l l m u s i c a l g e n e r a fro m t h e s i m p l e s t up
t o t h e m os t c o m p l i c a t e d , w h a t e v e r t h e e a r can t o l e r a t e t o
t h i s p o i n t ; a n d i n t h i s e n u m e r a t i o n we l o o k e d i n t o t h e
g e n e r a u s e d i n t h e m os t a n c i e n t a s w e l l a s more r e c e n t
tim es, in c l u d i n g the s i m p l e s t genus o f Mercury, th e
d i a t o n i c , c h r o m a t ic , and enharm onic g e n e ra o f t h e a n c i e n t s .
The f i r s t two o f t h e s e were e s p e c i a l l y i n a c c o r d w i t h
t h o s e f a c t s s u o p l i e d by ha rm ony, b u t o f t h e o t h e r s , n a m e l y ,
t h e c h r o m a t i c an d e n h a r m o n i c , o n l y a s l i g h t c o r r e l a t i o n i s
t o be o b s e r v e d . Since th e a n c i e n t s a r r i v e d a t th e s e
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s p a r t l y by h e a r i n g a l o n e and p a r t l y by
confused c a l c u l a t i o n , it i s no wonder i f t h e y f o u n d so
little s e m b l a n c e o f t r u e ha rm ony; y e t t o d a y t h e f a u l t s o f
these p a r t i c u l a r genera of t h e i r s a re q u ite e v id e n t. They
b u s ie d them selves w i t h th e d i a t o n i c genus f o r a long tim e
b e f o r e i t was d e c l a r e d s u i t e d to t r u e ha rm o n y , s i n c e i t is
s a id not t o have been a c c e n te d u n t i l Ptolemy. Our e i g h t e e n t h
g e n u s a g r e e s r e m a r k a b l y w i t h t h a t w h i c h i s now m o s t w i d e l y
u s e d an d i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g e n u s ,
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
32
for i t c o n t a i n s i n one o c t a v e t w e l v e t o n e s d i f f e r i n g f r o m
one a n o t h e r by n e a r l y e q u a l i n t e r v a l s , n a m e l y , by s e m i t o n e s
a nd l i m m a t a , e i t h e r m a j o r o r m i n o r . Y e t , h o w e v e r much t h i s
genus has been a d m itte d i n t o p r a c t i c e i n times p a s t ,
m u s i c i a n s h a v e s t i l l c o n s t a n t l y i n t r o d u c e d c h a n g e s by w h i c h
i t h a s b e e n made more p l e a s i n g t o t h e h e a r i n g , a n d t h e s e
c h a n g e s w ork ed so w e l l t h a t t h e arrangem ent of sounds,
w h i c h i s now so h i g h l y a p o r o v e d by m u s i c i a n s , may d i f f e r
fr om t r u e h a rm ony o n l y i n t h e t o n e d e s i g n a t e d a s B^, and
s u c h a n a g r e e m e n t w o u ld s c a r c e l y be e x p e c t e d f r o m t h e
h earing alone.
We h a v e e x a m i n e d i n some d e t a i l t h i s d i a t o n i c -
c h ro m a tic genus which i s most p e r f e c t l y i n a c c o r d w i t h th e
t r u e p r i n c i p l e s o f h a rm o n y , and we s e t f o r t h how i t may
be a p p l i e d t o v a r i o u s m e t h o d s o f c o m p o s i t i o n ; b u t we a l s o
p r e s e n t e d s e v e r a l w e l l - a r r a n g e d g e n e r a so t h a t i t may be
c l e a r t h a t music i s c ap a b le of even f u r t h e r e x p a n s io n .
Then, h a v in g r e v e r t e d to th e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c genus,
we e n u m e r a t e d a l l c o n s o n a n c e s w h i c h c a n b e f o u n d i n t h i s
g e n u s , a nd we sho wed how e a c h s h o u l d b e p r o d u c e d w i t h t h e
most p l e a s i n g r e s u l t s . F i n a l l y , we e x p l o r e d t h e p r i n c i p l e
o f m u s i c a l modes more c a r e f u l l y t h a n h a d b e e n done b e f o r e ,
and we s u b d i v i d e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l modes i n t o t h e i r own
s p e c i e s and s y s t e m s . By t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s no l i t t l e light
i s s h e a upon th e c o m p o s i tio n o f m u sic . We s e t f o r t h a l l
33
t h e s e m a t t e r s a s b a s i c and f u n d a m e n t a l , upon w h ic h a
c o m p l e t e t h e o r y o f m u s i c may b e e r e c t e d , and we commit t o
th e e x p e r t m u s ic ia n s th e f u r t h e r s tu d y and a d a p t a t i o n to
practice, l i t t l e d o u b tin g t h a t from t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s * music
t h e o r y a s w e l l a s m u s i c p r a c t i c e c a n be b r o u g h t a t l e n g t h
to th e h i g h e s t peak o f p e r f e c t i o n .
CHAPTER I
ON SOUND AND HEARING
1 . S i n c e i t was p r o p o s e d t h a t we t r e a t m u s i c l i k e
a philosophic d is c i p lin e , i n w hich n o th in g can he
p r e s e n t e d u n l e s s i t s c o n c e p tio n and t r u t h can he e x p l a i n e d
b y p r e c e d e n t k n o w l e d g e , we d e c i d e d t o p r e s e n t , b e f o r e
everything e ls e , t h o s e p r i n c i p l e s o f s o u n d s and h e a r i n g
w hich c o n s t i t u t e th e m a t e r i a l upon w hich music depends;
and t h i s encompasses th e f i n a l g o a l of m u sic, i . e . ,
d e l i g h t o f t h e e a r s , f o r t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s show now t o
p r o d u c e t o n e s a nd t o j o i n them t o g e t h e r s k i l l f u l l y so
t h a t p l e a s i n g ha rmony a f f e c t s t h e s e n s e of h e a r i n g w i t h
d elig h t. Thus, ou r purpose r e q u i r e s a d i s c u s s i o n of th e
n a t u r e , p r o d u c t i o n , and v a r i e t i e s of sounds; and a
s u f f i c i e n t k n o w le d ge o f p h y s i c s a n d m a t h e m a t i c s i s
d esirable. Then, c e r t a i n l y , i f along w ith th e se s u b je c ts
t h e s p e c i a l o r g a n s o f h e a r i n g be c o n s i d e r e d , we w i l l
u n d e r s t a n d how we h e a r and c om pre hen d s o u n d . M oreover,
t h i s d i s c u s s i o n w i l l show how u s e f u l t h o s e s u o j e c t s may
be i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a n d d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f
m u s i c , s i n c e t h e a g r e e a b l e n e s s o f s o u n d s d e p e n d s o n , and
sh ou ld be e x p l a i n e d b y , tn e m a t t e r o f com prehension.
2. A l l t h o s e who h a v e w r i t t e n a t l e a s t w i t h
i n t e g r i t y on t h i s m a t t e r s t a t e t h a t sound e x i s t s i n th e
35
a i r , w h ic h i s t h e t r a n s p o r t i n g medium by w h i c h i t may be
s p r e a d i n any d i r e c t i o n f r o m i t s source* Indeed, I t could
n o t be o t h e r w i s e , since nothing b u t a i r surrounds our
e a r s and can b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e s i n t h e m . Although i t
may be s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f h e a r i n g b e c o n s i d e r e d
i n t h e same m a n n er a s t h o s e o f t a s t e a n d s i g h t w h ic h a r e
s t i m u l a t e d , n o t by a i r , b u t b y a c t u a l e m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e
object i t s e l f , yet, I f a sound-making i n s t r u m e n t be p la c e d
i n a vacuum p r o d u c e d b y a p n e u m a t i c pump, and if thereis
no c o n t a c t w i t h t h e o u t s i d e a i r , i t may be shown t h a t no
s o u n d w i l l be h e a r d , no m a t t e r how n e a r one may a p p r o a c h .
Y e t , a s so on a s a i r i s p e r m i t t e d t o e n t e r , sound I s s g a i n
heard. From t h i s i t f o l l o w s t h a t a i r a n d I t s chang e
w h ic h t h e s o u n d - p r o d u c i n g i n s t r u m e n t c a u s e s , c o n s t i t u t e t h e
b a s i c m a t e r i a l o f sound.
3. I n o r d e r t h a t i t may b e c l e a r a s t o j u s t what
I s t h a t c h ang e o r m o d i f i c a t i o n o f a i r s t i m u l a t i n g t h e
sense of h e a r in g , i t w i l l be a p p r o p r i a t e t o c o n s i d e r a
p a r t i c u l a r case i n which a sound i s produced and t o
i n v e s t i g a t e the r e s u l t i n g e f f e c t i n the a i r . For th is
p u r p o s e , l e t u s c o n s i d e r a s t r e t c h e d s t r i n g whic h p r o d u c e s
sound when p l u c k e d . But t h i s p lucking produces In th e
s t r i n g n o t h i n g b u t a v i b r a t o r y m o t i o n by whic h i t moves
m o s t r a p i d l y t o and f r o b e t w e e n i t s e n d s , now on o n e s i d e ,
now on t h e o t h e r s i d e of I t s p o s i t i o n of r e s t . In the
36
case of th ic k e r s tr in g s , t h i s m o tio n can e a s i l y be s e e n
by t h e e y e s ; w i t h t h i n n e r s t r i n g s , even i f i t c a n n o t be
discerned, it s t i l l c a n n o t be d o u b t e d t o e x i s t . B esides,
i f one t o u c h e s a r i n g i n g b e l l , he w i l l a c t u a l l y f e e l t h e
v ibration. F inally, it is shown f r o m t h e l a w s o f
m e c h a n i c s t h a t b o t h t h e s t r i n g a nd t h e b e l l h a v e a v i b r a t
i n g m o t i o n when s t r u c k ; a nd f o r t h i s r e a s o n , kn o wle dg e
o f t h e b a s i c n a t u r e o f so und s h o u l d b e s o u g h t o n l y i n t h e
v i b r a t i n g m otion.
4. T h e r e f o r e , s in c e the change o f th e a i r produced
b y t h e v i b r a t i n g body n a t u r a l l y a f f e c t s t h e s e n s e o f
h e a r i n g , we s h o u l d i n v e s t i g a t e how t h e a i r i s a f f e c t e d by
the v i b r a t i n g body. We s e e t h a t t h e p u l s i n g m o t i o n
c o n s is ts in th e r e p e t i t i o n of successive v ib r a ti o n s . The
a i r s u r r o u n d i n g t h e v i b r a t i n g body i s s e t i n m o t i o n by
t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l v i b r a t i o n s and r e t a i n s s i m i l a r v i b r a t i o n s
w h ic h i t t r a n s f e r s i n l i k e m a n n e r t o more d i s t a n t a i r
p articles. I n t h i s way s u c h p u l s e s and v i b r a t i o n s a r e
s e n t o u t in to a l l the su rro u n d in g a i r , and th e o r i g i n a l
v ib r a tio n s are spread over a c o n sid e ra b le a r e a . From
t h i s i s observed th a t the in d iv id u a l p a r t i c l e s o f a i r
m u s t move i n a v i b r a t o r y m o t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e
body i t s e l f , w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t t h e p u l s e s become
s m a l l e r and w e a k e r a s t h e y s p r e a d f u r t h e r fr o m t h e s o u r c e ,
u n til, at la st, n o t h i n g more c a n be h e a r d a t a g r e a t
distance.
37
5. From t h e s e t h i n g s i t i s u n d e rs to o d t h a t only
p u l s e s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d th ro u g h the a i r t o th e e a r s hy the
sounding body; h e n c e , i t must be t r u e t h a t t h e s e n s a t i o n
o f s o u n d i s b r o u g h t a b o u t by t h e s e v e r y p u l s e s w h i c h a r e
p r o d u c e d i n t h e a i r a n d f a l l on t h e e a r . The s e n s a t i o n
o f h e a r i n g i s e x p l a i n e d i n t h i s way: There e x i s t s i n
t h e i n t e r n a l c a v i t y o f t h e e a r a s t r e t c h e d membrane, c a l l e d
tympanum f r o m i t s r e s e m b l a n c e t o a drum . T h i s membrane
r e c e i v e s t h e p u l s e s fr o m t h e a i r a nd r e t r a n s m i t s the m t o
the a u d i t o r y n e r v e s ; and th u s i t happens t h a t t h e r e i s the
s e n s a t i o n o f sound while t h e s e n e rv e s a r e a f f e c t e d .
T herefore, sound i s n o th in g b u t t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f sue-
c e s s i v e p u l s e s which o c cu r i n th e a i r p a r t i c l e s situated
a ro u n d t h e e a r , and any o b j e c t c a p a b le o f p ro d u c in g such
p u ls e s i s s u i t a b l e f o r producing sound.
6. The p r o p a g a t i o n o f s o u n d t h r o u g h t h e a i r i s n o t
i n s t a n t a n e o u s , b u t a c e r t a i n p e rio d of time i s r e q u i r e d
for i t to t r a v e l a given d is ta n c e . The r a t e o f s p e e d a t
which i t t r a v e l s i s u n i f o r m a nd d e p e n d s n e i t h e r u p o n the
s t r e n g t h o f the sound n or upon i t s quality. From e x p e r i
m e n t s , t h e o r e t i c a l c o m p u t a t i o n , and t h e n a t u r e o f v i b r a
tions, i t has been e s ta b lis h e d t h a t a l l s ou nd moves a
d i s t a n c e o f 1100 R h e n i s h f e e t ^ i n one s e c o n d , 2200 f e e t
Ône R h e n i s h f o o t e q u a l s a b o u t 12*355 i n c h e s *
38
i n two s e c o n d s , 3300 f e e t i n t h r e e s e c o n d s , and s o o n .
We o b s e r v e t h i s slow ness of sounds d a i l y . For example,
i f we s t a n d a t some d i s t a n c e f r o m a gun when i t i s f i r e d ,
we h e a r i t s r e p o r t a f t e r we s e e i t s f l a s h ; and i f we
s t a n d n e a r t h e g u n , we seem t o h e a r t h e n o i s e a n d s e e t h e
f la s h sim ultaneously. S i m i l a r l y , we do n o t h e a r t h u n d e r
u n t i l a f t e r t h e l i g h t n i n g , a n d , i n some p l a c e s f a v o r a b l e
f o r e c h o , a s h o u t i s f o l l o w e d by s e v e r a l r e p e t i t i o n s .
7. T h e r e f o r e , w h a t e v e r c an t h u s s e t i n m o t i o n
t h e s e s m a l l e s t p a r t i c l e s o f a i r so t h a t t h e y r e c e i v e a
v i b r a t o r y m o tio n , can a l s o produce sound. In a d d itio n
t o the use o f s o l i d o b j e c t s f o r t h i s p u rp o se, t h e r e are
two o t h e r m e t h o d s o f p r o d u c i n g s o u n d . F u r t h e r m o r e , from
t h e t h r e e m e t h o d s a r i s e t h r e e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of s o u n d s ,
i f one c o n s i d e r s t h e c a u s e s . The f i r s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
c o n s i s t s o f t h o s e w h ic h o r i g i n a t e i n a v i b r a t i n g b o d y ,
a n d t o t h i s g r o u p b e l o n g t h e s o u n d s o f b e l l s and s t r i n g s .
A n o t h e r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n c o m p r i s e s t n o s e w h i c h come fr o m
h ig h ly compressed a i r suddenly re g a in in g i t s o riginal
pressure. T h i s i n c l u d e s s u c h s o u n d s a s t h o s e made by
m uskets, cannons, t h u n d e r , and r o d s s n a p p e d t h r o u g h t h e
air. To t h e t h i r d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n we a s s i g n t h e s o u n d s o f
t h o s e i n s t r u m e n t s w h ic h a r e b l o w n , such as p i p e s , f l u t e s ,
e tc.; a nd t h e c a u s e o f t h e s e s o u n d s w i l l s u b s e q u e n t l y be
shown n o t t o d e p e n d on t h e v i b r a t o r y m o t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l
o f w h ic h t h e i n s t r u m e n t s c o n s i s t .
39
8. Prom t h e f i r s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n we a r e t o c o n
s i d e r c h i e f l y t h e s t r e t c h e d s t r i n g s , made e i t h e r o f m e t a l
o r o f tn e i n t e s t i n e s o f a n im a ls , which a re se t i n m otion
f o r p r o d u c i n g s o un d e i t h e r by s t r i k i n g o r by r u b b i n g .
They a r e p l u c k e d and s t r u c k i n t h e c a s e s o f h a r p s i c h o r d s ,
h a m s , a nd o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t s o f t h i s k i n d ; t h e y a r e r u b b e d
i n t h e c a s e s o f t h e p a n d u r a s a nd v i o l i n s , w i t h t h e a i d o f
s t r e t c h e d h o r s e h a i r s , t o which a ro u g h n e ss i s added w ith
rosin. I n any c a s e , the s t r i n g s r e c e i v e a v i b r a t o r y
m o tio n , f o r th e y a r e f o r c e d from a n a t u r a l p o s i t i o n o f
r e s t and t e n d t o r e t u r n t o i t . In f a c t , ru sh in g toward
t h i s o o s i t i o n w i t h an a c c e l e r a t e d m o t i o n , t h e y a c q u i r e
s u c h a g r e a t s p e e d upo n r e a c h i n g i t t h a t t h e y c a n n o t
suddenly d e c e l e r a t e , and t h e r e f o r e th e y cannot im m ediately
regain i t . For th is reason, t h e s t r i n g m u s t go b e y o n d
i t s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n and r e t u r n t o i t i n a s i m i l a r manner;
an d t h e s e o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l p e r s i s t u n t i l t h e y c o m p l e t e l y
d i e away b e c a u s e o f r e s i s t a n c e .
9. By c a l c u l a t i o n b a s e d on t h e la w s o f m o t i o n , i t
i s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e how many s u c h o s c i l l a t i o n s a
v i b r a t i n g s t r i n g o r body p r o d u c e s i n a g i v e n p e r i o d , i f
one t a k e s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e l e n g t h , w e i g h t , a nd t e n
sion of the s t r i n g . But i n o u r c a l c u l a t i o n we s h o u l d n o t
u s e t h e l e n g t h a nd w e i g h t o f t h e w hol e s t r i n g , b u t o n l y o f
t h a t p a r t w h i c h a c t u a l l y v i b r a t e s and p r o d u c e s sound, a nd
40
w h i c h i s u s u a l l y s e o a r a t e d from t h e w ho le s t r i n g b y two
fulcrum s. These fu lc ru m s p e rm it t h e d e s i r e d p o r t i o n o f
the s t r i n g to v i b r a t e . In o rd e r to determ ine the t e n s i o n ,
it i s m o s t e x p e d i e n t t o f i x one e n d o f t h e s t r i n g and t o
a t t a c h to th e o t h e r end a w e ig h t which s u s t a i n s the t e n
sion. W it h t h i s d o n e , i f t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s o u n d i n g
s t r i n g b e r e p r e s e n t e d by a i n t h o u s a n d t h s o f a f o o t and i f
the r a t i o of t h e suspended weight to the w eig h t of the
s t r i n g b e n s l , t h e number o f o s c i l l a t i o n s w h i c h t h i s s t r i n g
c o m o l e t e s i n a s e c o n d may be r e p r e s e n t e d t h u s :
355 I 3166n
mi/ ~ a
w'nere 3 5 5 : 1 1 3 d e n o t e s t h e r a t i o ^ o f t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f
a circle t o t h e d i a m e t e r and 3166 t h o u s a n d t h s o f a R h e n i s h
f o o t i s t h e l e n g t h o f a pe ndulu m w h i c h makes one o s c i l l a
t i o n a second.
10. As l o n g a s t h e y l a s t , these o s c i l l a t i o n s are
isochro nal. That i s , e a c h o s c i l l a t i o n t a k e s th e same
l e n g t h of tim e f o r c o m p le tio n , and the s i z e o f th e o s c i l l a
t i o n s does n o t d i s t u r b th is p attern , unless, p e r h a p s , when
the s t r i n g i s s t r u c k too p o w e r f u lly , the v i b r a t i o n s are
f a s t e r a t th e very b eg in n in g . The same r a t i o a p p l i e s t o
^ T h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r 71 was g i v e n b y t h e ^ C h i n e s e
Tsu C h ' u n g - c h i h I n t h e F i f t h C e n t u r y . The sy mb ol II I n
i t s o re s e n t sense has been i n use since E u le r adopted i t
i n 17 37 .
41
p e n d u l u m s , whose o s c i l l a t i o n s , i f th e y a re n o t too l a r g e ,
a r e a l l eo.ual I n t i m e . To i l l u s t r a t e the fonnula given in
the p re c ed in g p a ra g ra p h , I t o o k a s t r i n g 1510 t h o u s a n d t h s
of a R henish f o o t in l e n g t h and 6 1/5 g r a i n s i n w e ig h t;
I s t r e t c h e d i t b y a w e i g h t o f 6 p o u n d s ^ o r 460 80 g r a i n s .
Using th e g i v e n fo rm u la , we ha ve
a - 1510
an d
n = 4 6 0 8 0 : 6 1 / 5 = 7432
T h e r e f o r e , t h e nu mb er o f v i b r a t i o n s p r o d u c e d i n a s e c o n d
w i l l be
355 / 3166.7432
TT5V T5I5 -
I o b s e r v e d t h a t t h i s t o n e c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h t h e ke y d e s i g
n a t e d a s a on a n i n s t r u m e n t .
11. I f we c o n s i d e r s e v e r a l s t r e t c h e d s t r i n g s ,
t h e r a t i o s among t h e i r v i b r a t i o n s a r e e a s i l y d e t e r m i n e d .
I n t h e c a s e o f a ny two s t r i n g s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h i s r a t i o
may b e e x p r e s s e d a s
/" 51 r^2
\l a l V a2
w he re a ^ r e p r e s e n t s t h e v i b r a t i n g l e n g t h o f t h e f i r s t
string, a 2 , the v i b r a t i n g l e n g t h of th e second s t r i n g ,
^The o l d German p f u n d v a r i e d from 1 . 0 1 t o 1 . 2 3 U. S .

pounds.
42
and so o n . I f t h e s t r i n g s h a v e t h e same l e n g t h , t h e r a t i o
w i l l be ni/^ 2 strin g s a r e e q u a l i n w e i g h t and
l e n g t h , t h e r a t i o w i l l be a s t h e s q u a r e r o o t s o f t h e
w e ig h ts used f o r s t r e t c h i n g . And i f t h e s t r e t c h i n g
w eights a re eq u al and th e s t r i n g s d i f f e r in le n g t h , the
r a t i o w i l l b e a 2/ a ^ ; that is , t h e number o f v i b r a t i o n s
p r o d u c e d i n any g i v e n p e r i o d would v a r y a s t h e r e c i p r o c a l
ratio of t h e s t r i n g s ' len g th s, since the w eights are
p ro p o r tio n a l to the l e n g t h s .
12. D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of to n e s as to h i g h n e s s and
l o w n e s s d e p e n d s on t h e s l o w n e s s o r r a p i d i t y o f t h e v i b r a
t i o n s , and we s a y t h a t t h e l o w e r a s ou nd i s , t h e f e w e r
vibrations strik e th e e a r i n a c e r t a i n p e r i o d , and the
higher i t i s , t h e more s u c h v i b r a t i o n s a r e f e l t i n t h e same
period. The t r u t h o f t h i s i s e s t a b l i s h e d from e x p e r ie n c e
itself; f o r i f v a r io u s w eights a re a tta c h e d s u c c e s s iv e ly to
t h e same s t r i n g , we n o t e t h a t t h e t o n e s a r e h i g h e r i f t h e
w e ig h ts a re l a r g e r and low er i f th e y a re s m a l l e r . From
our foregoing d is c u s s io n i t is apparent th a t the h e a v ie r
w e i g a t s p r o d u c e t h e more r a p i d v i b r a t i o n s . For t h i s reason,
when t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f h i g h n e s s a n d l o w n e s s o f t o n e s i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y d e s i r e d , we w i l l m e a s u r e t h e t o n e s by t h e
number o f v i b r a t i o n s p r o d u c e d i n a c e r t a i n p e r i o d o r we
w i l l c o n s id e r th e to n e s as Q u a n t i t i e s o f which th e size is
f i x e d by t h e number o f v i b r a t i o n s o c c u r r i n g i n a p r e s c r i b e d
tim e.
43
13. J u s t a s we c a n r e a c t w i t h o u r s e n s e s t o t h i n g s
n e i t h e r t o o s m a l l n o r t o o l a r g e , e ve n i n s o u n d s some
m oderation i s re q u ire d . A ll p e r c e o t i b l e sounds w i l l l i e
w ithin c e r ta in l im it s , and t h e e a r w i l l no l o n g e r r e s o o n d
t o t h o s e s o u n d s w h ic h e x c e e d t h e l i m i t s b y g o i n g e i t h e r t o o
h i g h o r to o low. To a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , t h o s e l i m i t s c a n be
determ ined. The p i t c h e s a., C, a n d c ha v e 3 9 2 , 11 8 , a n d
1888 v i b r a t i o n s p e r s e c o n d , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Abo ut two
o c t a v e s l o w e r t h a n C and h i g h e r t h a n c , p o i n t s w he re t h e
s o u n d s c a n s c a r c e l y be h e a r d , we r e a c h t h e e x t r e m e s o f
p e r c e p t i b l e so und a n d e x n r e s s th e m by t h e nu mb er s 30 and
7 5 2 0 ; t h i s r a n g e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y wide and a d m i t s a g r e a t
d i v e r s i t y o f D i t c h e s , inasmuch as i t c o m prises about
eig h t octaves.
14. A f t e r th e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of h ig h n e s s and
4
l o w n e s s i n t o n e s , we s h o u l d c o n s i d e r t h e i r v a r i a t i o n s i n
intensity. The i n t e n s i t y o f a t o n e v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
p o s i t i o n o f t h e h e a r e r ; f o r t h e f u r t h e r h e i s fr o m t h e
vibrating strin g , t h e w e a k e r t h e t o n e seems t o h i m , since
the o ro p o g a tio n through th e a i r of v i b r a t i o n s as w e ll as
i i g h t c o n s t a n t l y beco mes w e a k e r . The r e a s o n f o r t h i s
d i m i n u t i o n i s t h a t s o u n d s p r e a d s i n t o more s p a c e a t g r e a t e r
d i s t a n c e s fr o m i t s s o u r c e ; a t tw ic e t h e d i s t a n c e i t must
be p e r c e p t i b l e i n f o u r tim es th e a r e a . H e nc e , i f t h e
a g g r e g a te o f a l l the v i b r a t i o n s i s i n p r o o o r t i o n , it
44
f o llo w s t h a t th e sound has o n e - f o u r t h th e s t r e n g t h a t
tw ice th e d i s t a n c e . S im il a r ly , a t th r e e tim es the d i s t a n c e ,
t h e sound w i l l b e o n e - n i n t h a s s t r o n g , and s o o n , so t h a t
th e i n t e n s i t y o f sound v a r i e s i n v e r s e l y as th e s q u a re of
the d is ta n c e .
15 . T h e s e s t a t e m e n t s h o l d t r u e i f t h e so und
spreads out e q u ally in a l l d i r e c t i o n s . But i f t h e r e
s h o u l d b e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u c h t h a t t h e sound t r a v e l s more
r e a d i l y i n one a r e a t h a n a n o t h e r , i t i s h e a r d more l o u d l y
t h e r e t h a n i t would be a c c o r d i n g t o r u l e . For example, i f
someone s h o u t s t h r o u g h one e n d o f a t u b e , he who p u t s h i s
e a r t o t h e o t h e r end w i l l h e a r t h e sound alm ost as w e ll as
i f he h a d r e c e i v e d i t f r o m t h e v e r y m o u th o f t h e s h o u t e r .
S i m i l a r i s t h e c a s e o f t h e s p e a k i n g t r u m p e t s , t h r o u g h w h ic h
sound i s p r o j e c t e d most p o w e rfu lly i n t o t h a t a r e a toward
which t h e tru m p et i s d i r e c t e d . Sounds a s w e l l a s r a y s of
l i g h t a r e r e f l e c t e d b y a s m o o th , h a r d s u r f a c e , and t h u s i t
i s p o s s i b l e t o c h a n g e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f s ound r a y s , w h i c h
a r e so named f r o m t h e s i m i l a r i t y to l i g h t rays; in th is
way i t can happen t h a t s e v e r a l r a y s a r e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r
a t t h e same p l a c e .
16. As t h e v i b r a t i n g s trin g transm its pulses
t h r o u g h t h e a i r by i t s o s c i l l a t i o n s , it is inevitable that
i t s m o t i o n w i l l c o n s t a n t l y d i m i n i s h and t h e s o u n d w i l l
become w e a k e r . T h i s i s c e r t a i n l y a n o b s e r v a b l e phenomenon
45
in the case o f th e v i b r a t i n g s t r i n g , f o r i n i t i a l l y th e
s o un d i s l o u d e s t , th e n becomes g r a d u a l l y f a i n t e r , u n t i l
fin ally it stops com pletely. How eve r, a s l o n g a s t h e
v ibrations l a s t , th e y rem ain i s o c h r o n a l and th e tone
re ta in s i t s p a rtic u la r pitch. At t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , t h i s
i n t e n s i t y in a g iv e n s t r i n g depends on t h e f o r c e u s e d to
set i t in m otion, so t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e f o r c e , t h e l o u d e r
the sound. B ut i f the s t r i n g i s s t r u c k t o o v i g o r o u s l y and
i s f o r c e d t o o f a r fr o m i t s n a t u r a l p o s i t i o n , a h i g h e r
sound i s p ro d u ced a t the v e ry b e g i n n i n g ; and t h i s irreg u lar
i t y o f v i b r a t i o n s c a u s e s t h e sound t o b e l e s s p l e a s i n g and
less d is tin c t,
17. This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y the case i f th e s t r i n g is
too lo o s e o r h a s i n s u f f i c i e n t t e n s i o n , f o r t h e n t h e r e a r e
g r e a t e r i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n o s c i l l a t i o n , and th e sound w hich
is produced i s n e i t h e r c o n s i s t e n t nor p le a s in g . For t h i s
reason, i n o r d e r t h a t a g r e e a b l e a n d c o n s i s t e n t t o n e s may
be p r o d u c e d , i t is n e c e ssa ry t h a t th e suspended w eights
s tr e tc h the s t r i n g s as f a r as p o s s ib le w ithout b reaking
th e m . The s t r e n g t h s o f s t r i n g s made o f t h e same m a t e r i a l
a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e i r t h i c k n e s s e s , and h e n c e t h e
w e ig h ts c a p a b le o f s t r e t c h i n g t h e s t r i n g s to t h e i r b r e a k i n g
p o in ts are p r o p o r tio n a l to the th ic k n e ss e s ; b u t the th ic k
nesses of s t r i n g s are p r o p o r tio n a l to t h e i r w eights d iv id ed
by t h e i r l e n g t h s , a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e s t r e t c h i n g w e i g h t s
46
m u s t be d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e w e i g h t s o f t h e s t r i n g s
a nd i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e l e n g t h . That i s , i f the
weignt of th e s t r i n g i s c a l l e d , th e l e n g t h a , and the
s t r e t c h i n g w eight , th e n sh o u ld v a ry as j^/a, o r a p /q
s h o u l d be a c o n s t a n t .
1 8. In th e o ro d u c tio n o f t o n e s of e q u a l i n t e n s i t y ,
we s h o u l d c o n s i d e r t h e f o r c e s e t t i n g t h e s t r i n g i n m o t i o n ,
i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s t r i n g and t h e s t r e t c h i n g
w eight. Even t h e p l a c e where t h e s t r i n g i s s tr u c k or
p l u c k e d s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d , b u t i f we a ssu me a l l s t r i n g s
t o b e s t r u c k i n t h e m i d d l e o r i n any p l a c e s i m i l a r on a l l ,
t h i s f a c t o r does n o t e n t e r I n t o the c o m p u tatio n . A fter
t h i s fo llo w s the f a c t th a t th e s tr o n g e r the s t r i k i n g fo rc e
is, t h e more i n t e n s e the so u n d . M usical in s tru m e n ts are
u s u a l l y made so t h a t a l l s t r i n g s are s tr u c k w ith equal
f o r c e , and h e n c e we may c o n s i d e r t h i s f o r c e a l w a y s t o b e
e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same. Then, to o , t h e i n t e n s i t y o f a s ou nd
d e p e n d s upon t h e v e l o c i t y w i t h w h i c h t h e a i r p a r t i c l e s set
i n m o t i o n by t h e v i b r a t i n g s t r i n g s t r i k e t h e e a r , a n d t h i s
must be d e te r m in e d from t h e h i g h e s t v e l o c i t y of t h e string.
T his v e l o c i t y i s p r o p o r t i o n a l to th e sq u are r o o t o f the
w e i g h t s t r e t c h i n g t h e s t r i n g d i v i d e d by t h e l e n g t h of t h e
string. Thus, i f s ound s a r e t o be e q u a l i n i n t e n s i t y , it
i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e r a t i o o f the s t r e t c h i n g weight to
t h e l e n g t h i n e a c h c a s e r e m a i n t h e same.
47
19 . T h e r e f o r e , to r e t u r n to o u r q u a n t i t i e s a , ,
and t h e r a t i o _g/a s h o u l d a l w a y s be t h e same. I t has
a l r e a d y been a s c e r t a i n e d t h a t a n / a s h o u l d be a c o n s t a n t .
Hence i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e q u o t i e n t o f t h e s e f r a c t i o n s ,
ejs/R - t = 2/,
must a l s o be a c o n s t a n t , o r t h e r a t i o o f c /jl to a m us t be
t h e same i n a l l s t r i n g s . But cj/s. i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e
th ic k n e ss of the s t r i n g , and t h u s t h e t h i c k n e s s i s p r o p o r
t i o n a l to th e le n g th . S im ilarly, the s t r e t c h i n g weight
i t s e l f must be p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e l e n g t h . In any c a s e ,
t h e p i t c h i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o ^ p / a q T and i f we s u b s t i t u t e
the p r o p o r t i o n a l s a. a n d 2 f o r and _o, t h e p i t c h w ill
vary in v e rsely as the le n g th of the s t r i n g . Thus t h e
s t r e t c h i n g w e i g h t , l e n g t h , a n d w e i g h t o f t h e s t r i n g mus t
e a c h be i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e p i t c h o r t o th e
number o f v i b r a t i o n s p r o d u c e d i n a g i v e n t i m e . This ru le
w i l l be q u ite u s e f u l i n th e m anufacture of m u sic al
instrum ents.
20. As we h a v e s a i d , i f t h e s t r i n g d o e s n o t h a v e
su ffic ie n t tension, t h e s ound w i l l be l e s s p l e a s i n g b e c a u s e
t h e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s o f v i b r a t i o n s w i l l be t o o g r e a t a n d
w i l l simply s t i r the a i r r a t h e r th a n e f f e c t r e g u l a r
oscillatio n s. For u n le s s the a i r i s s e t in motion w ith
alm o st i n s t a n t a n e o u s h ig h v e l o c i t y , i t does n o t e a s i l y
a c q u ir e th e v i b r a t o r y motion re q u ire d f o r sound 5 b u t th e
48
more t e n s i o n a s t r i n g h a s , t h e g r e a t e r i t s r a t e of v i b r a
t i o n s im m ediately a f t e r i t h a s been s t r u c k . I n th e c a s e
o f too g r e a t i n i t i a l a m p l i t u d e , th e l a r g e r v i b r a t i o n s a re
n o t i s o c h r o n a l t o t h e s m a l l e r , whence t h e s o u n d g r a d u a l l y
be co m e s l o w e r and d o e s n o t r e m a i n t h e same. Then i t
e a s i l y h a p p e n s t h a t t h e w hole s t r i n g d o e s n o t c o m p l e t e a l l
v i b r a t i o n s a t t h e same t i m e , b u t one p a r t o f i t may r e a c h
i t s maximum s p e e d o r s t a t e o f r e s t more r a p i d l y o r more
slow ly th a n a n o th e r p a r t , so t h a t t h e s o u n d i s u n e v e n an d
harsh.
21. B e s id e s t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s o f sounds i n m u sic,
th e d u r a t i o n o f sounds sho u ld be c o n s i d e r e d . W it h many
i n s t r u m e n t s , as in th e case o f t h o s e in which a re s e t i n
m o t i o n by s t r i k i n g o r p l u c k i n g , t h e t o n e s c a n n o t b e
prolonged a t w i l l , f o r t h e i r t o n e s g r a d u a l l y become w e a k e r
and soon d i e out c o m p l e t e l y . For t h i s rea so n , not as
much c a n b e done a b o u t d u r a t i o n o f s o unds as i n t h e c a s e
of th o se in s tru m e n ts capable of s u s t a i n i n g to n e s w ith th e
same i n t e n s i t y a s l o n g a s d e s i r e d . To t h i s c a t e g o r y b e l o n g
t h o s e whose s t r i n g s a r e k e p t i n m o t i o n by a p l e c t r u m , t h e
f l u t e s , a n d o t h e r w in d i n s t r u m e n t s , s u c h a s t h e p i p e o r g a n ;
and, in c o n t r a s t to th e o t h e r s , t h e s e in s t r u m e n t s have
t h e p r e r o g a t i v e o f b e i n g a b l e t o p r o d u c e a nd e x p r e s s a l l
th e a g re e a b le n e s s which e x i s t s i n th e d u r a t i o n a l a s p e c ts
of sound. The d u r a t i o n o f a s o u n d i s m e a s u r e d by t h e t i m e
e l a p s i n g betw een i t s b e g in n in g and end.
49
22. Thus f a r we h a v e c o n s i d e r e d o n l y t h e t o n e s o f
s t r i n g s fr o m t h e f i r s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of sounds, i . e . ,
t h o s e w h ic h ha ve t h e i r o r i g i n i n a v i b r a t i n g b o d y ; a n d we
have a l s o s e t f o r t h t h e c h i e f d i f f e r e n c e s o f s o u n d s . Now,
t h e r e f o r e , b e fo re proceeding to the rem aining c l a s s i f i c a
t i o n s , we s h o u l d c o n s i d e r o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t s w h ic h p r o d u c e
sounds o f th e f i r s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Here b e l o n g s t h e
b e l l , w h i c h v i b r a t e s a s a w ho le t o p r o d u c e s o u n d . Even
when t h e s h a p e a n d w e i g h t o f a b e l l a r e known, i t is indeed
mo s t d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t k i n d o f so und i t w i l l
produce; y e t, i f b e l l s a r e s i m i l a r i n s h a p e a nd made o f
t h e same m a t e r i a l , i t i s s i m p l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h a t t h e
p i t c h e s v a ry i n v e r s e l y a s t h e cube r o o t s of t h e w e i g h t s ,
so t h a t a b e l l e i g h t t i m e s l i g h t e r t h a n a n o t h e r p r o d u c e s
a soun d w i t h t w i c e a s many v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e same t i m e , a n d
a b e l l tw e n ty -sev e n tim es l i g h t e r produces th r e e tim e s as
ma ny ,
23. There a r e a l s o m u s ic a l in s tr u m e n ts w ith e l a s t i c
r o d s made e i t h e r o f m e t a l , b y w h i c h t h e s o u n d s o f b e l l s a r e
i m i t a t e d , o r of hardwood. About t h e s e , i f t h e i r shape i s
e ith e r prism atic or c y lin d r ic a l, it i s e a s i e r t o come t o
d efin ite c o n c l u s i o n s , f o r th e p i t c h e s a r e see n to depend
g r e a t l y on t h e l e n g t h , s i n c e any e x t e n s i o n o f l e n g t h wo uld
be e x p e c t e d t o c h a n g e t h e number o f v i b r a t i o n s . The
p i t c h e ' s o r num be rs o f v i b r a t i o n s p r o d u c e d i n t h e same t i m e
50
w i l l be i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to th e s q u a r e s o f the
l e n g t h s o f r o d s made o f t h e same m a t e r i a l . Consider
p r i s m s o f s i m i l a r s i z e a nd s h a p e b u t made o f d i f f e r e n t
m aterials. I f one u n d e r t a k e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o r e t i c a l l y
t h e p i t c h o f e a c h p r i s m , he m u s t t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n
n o t o n l y t h e r a t i o s of t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t i e s b u t a l s o
th e r a t i o s o f th e c o h e s io n and e l a s t i c i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l s .
24. U nd er t h e s e c o n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s ou nds I
i n c l u d e d th o s e w hich a r i s e e i t h e r from t h e a b r u p t r e l e a s e
of a s tr e a m o f h i g h l y com pressed a i r o r from a s t r o n g
percussion of the a i r . To be s u r e , t h e s e m e t h o d s a r e
sim ilar. B ec au se o f t h e h i g h l y r a p i d v i b r a t i o n , t h e a i r
c a n n o t g i v e way, a n d t h u s i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e p o r t i o n o f
the a i r r e c e iv in g th e p e rc u ss io n i s compressed, b u t i t
e x p a n d s a g a i n when t h e d i s t u r b i n g f o r c e i s g o n e . But t h i s
compressed a i r , s u d d e n l y e x p a n d i n g , r e q u i r e s more t h a n i t s
n o r m a l s p a c e and t h e n lias t o r e c o m p r e s s i n t o l e s s t h a n i t s
normal s p a c e . T h e r e f o r e , by t h e s e a l t e r n a t i n g c o n t r a c t i o n s
and e x p a n s i o n s , p u l s e s a r e e f f e c t e d i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a i r ,
j u s t a s i n th e case o f a v i b r a t i n g body, and sound i s
produced i n the e a r . A lthough a i r i n o s c i l l a t i o n In t h i s
m an ner w i l l r e a c h I n a l l d i r e c t i o n s i n i t s natural s ta te ,
yet t h i s c o n d itio n w i l l p e r s i s t only u n t i l a l l v ib ra to ry
m otion i s l o s t . It i s w e l l known fr o m m e c h a n i c s t h a t a
51
r a p i d l y moving b o d y , a r r i v i n g a t i t s p o s i t i o n o f r e s t ,
c a n n o t r e m a i n t h e r e b u t m u s t go b e y o n d i t b e c a u s e o f t h e
momentum. I t i s j u s t a s d i f f i c u l t f o r a moving bod y t o
stop suddenly as i t i s f o r a body a t r e s t t o b e moved; an d
j u s t a s much e n e r g y i s r e q u i r e d f o r s t o p p i n g t h e m o t i o n o f
a body a s i s r e q u i r e d f o r p r o d u c i n g t h e m o t i o n . For t h i s
r e a s o n , we s e e t h a t when t h e o s c i l l a t i n g pendulum r e a c h e s
i t s v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n and t h e v i b r a t i n g s t r i n g a t t a i n s i t s
n a t u r a l p o s i t i o n , n e i t h e r c a n come t o r e s t . Sounds
produced i n th e manner d e s c r i b e d can l a s t o n ly f o r a s h o r t
t i m e , u n l e s s t h e r e e x i s t s ec ho o r some s i m i l a r r e s o n a t i n g
c o n d i t i o n w h ic h may r e p e a t o r p r o l o n g them; f o r , by
sp re a d in g the m otion i n t o such s c a t t e r e d p l a c e s , th e a i r
mus t f o r t h w i t h l o s e i t s s p e c ia l m otion.
26. T h e r e f o r e a l l c o n d i t i o n s whic h can make t h e
a i r e i t h e r l o s e o r g a i n c o m p r e s s i o n so t h a t i t can
suddenly expand o r c o n t r a c t , a r e s u i t a b l e f o r t h e produc
t i o n o f sound. H en ce, a l l b o d i e s moving r a p i d l y t h r o u g h
the a i r should produce sounds, f o r a i r , because of i t s
in ertia, i s n o t a b l e t o g i v e way f r e e l y t o t h e s e b o d i e s
an d t h u s i s c o m p r e s s e d by the m . The r a p i d e x p a n s i o n o f
the a i r cau ses a v i b r a t o r y m otion In i t s s m a l l e s t p a r t i c l e s .
Thus o r i g i n a t e t h e s o u n d s o f v i b r a t i n g r o d s and o f a l l
b o d i e s moving r a p i d l y t h r o u g h t h e a i r . hven t h e h i s s i n g
52
s o u n d s o f w i n d s a n d b l o w i n g h a v e t h e same c a u s e , f o r t h e
a n t e r i o r a i r i s f o r c e d and c o m p r e s s e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g
p o s t e r i o r a i r , which f i l l s the ro le of a s o l i d o b j e c t ,
27. Of s o und s w h ic h a r e p r o d u c e d by th e s u d d e n
r e l e a s e of h i g h l y compressed a i r , u n d o u b te d ly th e most
p o w e r f u l a t a d i s t a n c e a r e t h o s e made by e x p l o s i o n s o f
g u npo w de r and t h u n d e r . V a r i o u s e x p e r i m e n t s ha v e shown
t h a t a i r i n an e x p l o s i o n o f gunpo wder i s h i g h l y c o m o r e s s e d ,
a n d , a s i t e x p a n d s , i t f i n d s a n o u t l e t fr o m w h i c h p o w e r f u l
sounds emerge. I t seems h i g h l y p r o b a b l e t h a t a g r e a t many
n i t r o u s a n d s u l p h u r o u s p a r t i c l e s mix t o f o r m v a p o r c l o u d s
and t h a t t h e s e p a r t i c l e s , co m bin e d a n d e x p l o d e d , a r e
capable of producing a g r e a t n o i s e . 4 i f we c om pa r e s u c h
s o u n d s one a f t e r a n o t h e r , t h e t a s k o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e
d i f f e r e n c e s i n p i t c h i s an a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e o n e . Hence,
a l l sounds o f t h i s kind a r e n o t a d m i tt e d i n m u sic , and f o r
t h i s r e a s o n we w i l l go no f u r t h e r w i t h t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
in in v e s tig a tin g the v ib ra tio n s of the s m a lle st a i r
p articles.
28. The s o u n d s o f wind i n s t r u m e n t s b e l o n g t o t h e
t h i r d of the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s m entioned p r e v i o u s l y . In th is
^ T hi s e x D l a n a t i o n o f t h u n d e r p r e c e d e d t h e s t u d i e s
o f a t m o s p h e r i c e l e c t r i c p h e n o m e n a ' b y B e n j a m in F r a n k l i n ,
who f l e w h i s fa mous k i t e i n a t h u n d e r s t o r m i n 17 5 2 .
53
c a s e , more i s c o n c e a l e d , a nd t h e f a c t s b e h i n d t h i s
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n have always b e en i n v e s t i g a t e d w ith l e s s
assiduity. C o n s i d e r t h o s e p e o p l e who d e c i d e t o d e a l w i t h
t h e v i b r a t o r y m o t i o n o f t h e t u b e i t s e l f and i n t h i s way
to include i t i n t h a t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w h ic h I l i s t a s t h e
first. I f a i l t o s e e how t h e y c a n e x p l a i n t h e known
p ro p e rtie s of pipes. For i t has been observed t h a t
c y l i n d r i c a l p i p e s o f e q u a l l e n g t h p r o d u c e t h e same p i t c h ,
h o w e v e r much t h e s e p i p e s may d i f f e r among t h e m s e l v e s i n
w i d t h , t h i c k n e s s , o r m a t e r i a l s o f w h ic h t h e y a r e made.
How, t h e n , i s i t p o s s ib le f o r such d i v e r s e tu b e s to
vibrate sim ilarly ? The v e r y d i v e r s i t y o f m a t e r i a l s seems
s u f f i c i e n t to r e j e c t t h e j u d g m e n t o f t h o s e who t h i n k t h a t
only th e in n e r su rface v i b r a t e s . We c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e
p i t c h o f a s o u n d o f t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n d e p e n d s o n l y on
the pipe le n g th .
29, A l t h o u g h i t wo ul d s u f f i c e f o r o u r p u r p o s e s
s i m p l y t o ex am in e t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f p i p e s , y e t , since
d i s c o v e r y o f c a u s e alw ays l e a d s to t h e most p e r f e c t
know le dge o f a ny m a t t e r , I c a r e f u l l y and d i l i g e n t l y
in v e s t ig a te d the tru e cause of th e se sounds. Ha vi n g
co n sid ered the s tr u c tu r e of p ip e s, I b e g a n my r e a s o n i n g
in the fo llo w in g manner: E v e r y o n e knows t h a t a f l u e p i p e
i s a t u b e j o i n e d a t on e e n d by a f o o t , w h i c h r e c e i v e s a i r
fro m t h e m o u th o r wind c h e s t a n d c o n d u c t s i t i n t o the
54
end o f t h e p i p e th ro u g h a f l u e . I t i s n e c e s sa ry , m oreover,
t h a t th e a i r e x p e l l e d from th e f l u e n o t r u s h i n t o th e
h o llo w o f th e t u b e , b u t i t must g r a z e the i n t e r n a l
s u r f a c e w i t h n e a r l y i n s t a n t a n e o u s maximum v e l o c i t y . For
t h i s r e a s o n , c ra fts m e n c u t out a p a r t of th e tube n ex t to
the flu e so t h a t t h e r e i s a b r e a k b e t w e e n t h e t u b e and
t h e f o o t , a n d t h e y s h a r p e n t h e e dg e a b ove t h e f l u e so
t h a t t h e a i r r u s h i n g o n t o t h e s h a r p edg e i s d i v i d e d a nd a
t h i n n e r stream o f a i r goes in t o the tu b e .
30. W hile e x p e r i e n c e shows what s h a p e t h e f o o t
must t a k e , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e f o o t can be i m i t a t e d by
t h e human m o u th i t s e l f . F o r I f we b l o w w i t h t h e mouth
i n t o a tube w itn o u t a f o o t , so t h a t t h e a i r i s s t e a d i l y
i n t r o d u c e d o n t o t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e , t h e n s o un d i s p r o d u c e d
j u s t a s i f t h e t u b e were p r o v i d e d w i t h a f o o t . And t h u s
we h a v e a n e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t f l u t e s w i t h o u t
feet, such a s th e t r a n s v e r s e f l u t e s and o t h e r s s i m i l a r
w h ic h a r e blown i n t h e m a n n e r j u s t d e s c r i b e d . In o r d e r
t h a t t h e i n g r e s s o f a i r i n t o t h e t u b e may p r o d u c e s o u n d ,
it i s f i r s t r e q u i r e d t h a t the in n e r s u rfa c e of th e tube
be s m o o t h , so t h a t t h e m o t i o n o f t h e a i r w i l l n o t be
o b s tru c te d suddenly. Secondly, i t i s re q u ire d t h a t the
s i d e s o f t h e t u b e b e f i r m a nd u n y i e l d i n g t o t h e i n c o m i n g
stream of a i r . Thirdly, it f o l l o w s t h a t t h e t u b e mu st b e
airtig h t.
55
31. Th e s e a n d o t h e r m a t t e r s w h i c h m u s t be t a k e n
i n t o account i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of f l u e p ip e s w i l l be
u n d e r s t o o d b e t t e r i f we e x p l a i n j u s t how so un ds a r e f o r m e d
in the p ip e s. I t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n shown t h a t a v i b r a t o r y
m o t i o n i s p r o d u c e d n e i t h e r i n t h e w h o l e t u b e n o r on t h e
I n te r io r surface alone. For a i r e n te r in g a tube n e c e s s a r
i l y c o m p r e s s e s t h e l e n g t h o f t h a t column o f a i r a l r e a d y i n
t h e t u b e ; t h e n t h e column e x p a n d s a n d i s c o m p r e s s e d a g a i n ,
and i n t h i s manner, a s lo n g as the wind p r e s s u r e c o n t i n u e s ,
o s c i l l a t i o n s a re produced which, In t u r n , oroduce sound.
Now we may s e e t o w h a t d e g r e e t h i s s o u n d , f o l l o w i n g la w s
of m echanics, is p r o p o r t io n a l In p i t c h to th e le n g th of
t h e t u b e , a n d h e n c e we may o b s e r v e how w e l l t h i s e x p l a n a
t i o n a g r e e s w i t h t h e phenomena.
32. The a i r c o n t a i n e d i n a t u b e i s a body w hi c h
p r o d u c e s o s c i l l a t i o n s an d t r a n s f e r s them t o t h e s u r r o u n d
ing a i r , and i t s q u a n t i t y i s known f r o m t h e l e n g t h and
w idth ( r a d iu s ) of th e tu b e. As we ha ve s e e n , t h e power
oroducing th e o s c i l l a t o r y motion I s a i r in tr o d u c e d under
p re s su re along the in n e r s u r f a c e . But t h e a i r i n t h e
tube e x e r t s a c e r t a i n f o r c e t o r e s t o r e i t s e l f t o i t s
n atural s ta te . T h i s f o r c e , w h i c h c a u s e s a c e r t a i n number
of o s c i l l a t i o n s t o be oroduced in a g iv e n tim e , c o n s i s t s
of the w eight of th e atmosphere o r the e l a s t i c i t y o f the
a i r w h ic h i s e q u a l t o t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . This
56
power c a n b e e s t i m a t e d fr o m i t s e f f e c t , which i s clearly
shown by a T o r r i c e l l i t u b e ^ i n w h ic h t h e column o f
m e r c u r y i s h e l d s u s p e n d e d a t a h e i g h t o f fr om 22 t o 24
d i g i t s .6
33. The v i b r a t o r y p r o c e s s o f t h i s co lum n o f a i r
i n the tube i s quite s i m i l a r t o t h a t by w h ic h t h e s t r e t c h e d
s t r i n g produces v i b r a t i o n s . F o r t h e s t r i n g may be com
pared w ith th e a i r c o n ta in e d in the tube of a f l u e p ip e .
I n t h i s c a s e , t h e w e i g h t o f t h e a t m o s p h e r e t a k e s the
place of the weight s t r e t c h i n g the s t r i n g . On t h e one
h a n d , t h e s t r i n g i s s t r e t c h e d by a s u s p e n d e d w e i g h t ; on
the o t h e r hand, th e a i r i s compressed by a tm o s p h e ric
pressure. T h e s e w e i g h t s may seem t o be c o m p l e t e l y
d iff e r e n t, yet, i f we c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t i n e a c h c a s e ,
they are c l e a r l y e q u iv a le n t. For each h e lp s in the
p r o d u c t i o n o f o s c i l l a t i o n s by g i v i n g t o a n a d j a c e n t body
t h e power o f r e g a i n i n g i t s n a t u r a l p o s i t i o n . W h e th e r by
c o m o r e s s i o n o f t h e a i r o f a t u b e o r by s t r e t c h i n g o f a
strin g , t h e same e f f e c t i s p r o d u c e d .
34. Therefore, s in c e a i r in the tube of a pipe
v i b r a t e s l i k e a s t r e t c h e d s t r i n g , we w i l l a l s o be a b l e t o
^The b a r o m e t e r was i n v e n t e d by L v a n g e l i s t a
T o r r i c e l l i i n 1643 .
^The d i g i t i s t h e R h e n i s h i n c h a n d e q u a l s . 7 5
I n c h e s (U. 5 . ) .
57
d e t e r m i n e t h e number o f o s c i l l a t i o n s p r o d u c e d i n a g i v e n
t i m e and t h u s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p i t c h i t s e l f f r o m o u r
work w i t h v i b r a t i n g s t r i n g s . Let th e l e n g t h o f t h e pipe
be a , e x p r e s s e d i n t h o u s a n d t h s o f a R h e n i s h f o o t , a nd
t a k e b ^ a s t h e b a s e a r e a , m :n a s t h e r a t i o o f t h e s p e c i f i c
g r a v i t y o f a i r t o t h a t o f m e r c u r y , and k a s t h e h e i g h t o f
the m ercury in a b a ro m e te r. T h e r e f o r e , we w i l l have t h e
e q u i v a l e n t o f a s t r i n g o f l e n g t h a and w e i g h t mab^ , w h ic h
i s s t r e t c h e d by a weight e q u al to th e atm o sp h eric p r e s s u r e
and e q u i v a l e n t t o a c y l i n d e r o f m e r c u r y whose b a s e i s b ^ ,
i.e ., t h e b a s e a r e a o f t h e t u b e , a n d whose h e i g h t i s k .
Hence t h e s t r e t c h i n g w e i g h t c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s n k b ^ .
By m a k in g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s u b s t i t u t i o n s i n t h e f o r m u l a
for strin g s, we f i n d t h a t t h e numb er o f o s c i l l a t i o n s
prociuced i n a s e c o n d i s
555 113166nkb2 _ 355 , j 3166nk

113 V a*mab^ l'lSa V m
and t h i s q u a n t i t y m e a s u r e s t h e p i t c h .
3 5. B e c a u s e t h e r a t i o m:n a l m o s t a l w a y s r e m a i n s
t h e same a nd k i s a f f e c t e d v e r y l i t t l e by c h a n g e s i n t h e
w eather, the p itc h e s of p ip es having e i t h e r c y l i n d r i c a l
o r p r i s m a t i c tu b e s w i l l be i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to the
le n g th s of the tu b e s, so t h a t t h e s h o r t e r t h e t u b e s a r e ,
the h i g h e r th e soun ds t h e y p r o d u c e , a nd t h e l o n g e r t h e y
a r e , the lower th e sounds. This c l e a r l y a g re es w ith
58
e x p e r i e n c e , a n d a n y o n e who c o n s i d e r s t h e p r e v i o u s l y
m e n t i o n e d o r o p e r t i e s o f p i p e s may now e a s i l y u n d e r s t a n d
t h a t t h e p i t c h d e p e n d s n e i t h e r upon t h e w i d t h o f t h e p i p e
n o r on t h e m a t e r i a l fro m w h i c h t h e t u b e i s ma de, b u t on
the le n g th a lo n e . W h e r e f o r e , I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e c a n be
no o o s s l b l e d o u b t t h a t t h i s e x p la n a tio n of the sounds
p r o d u c e d by p i p e s i s a u t h e n t i c a nd b a s e d on t h e n a t u r a l
p ro p e rtie s of m atter.
36. T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n w i l l be e v e n more s t r o n g l y
c o n f i r m e d i f we n o t o n l y ex am in e t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e s e
s o u n d s b u t i f we a l s o w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e th e ir relatio n sh ip
to the p i t c h o f a g iv e n s t r i n g s t r e t c h e d by a g iv en
w eight. F o r i f e x p e r i m e n t shows t h a t a p i p e i s c o n s o n a n t
w ith a g iv en s t r i n g s o e c ifie d th e o r e tic a lly , then th is w ill
be a most po w e rfu l s u p p o r t o f o u r argum ent. In th e
w a r m e s t w e a t h e r t h e r a t i o n:m h a s a maximum v a l u e o f
a b o u t 1 2 ,0 0 0 b u t r u n s a b o u t 1 0 ,0 0 0 i n t h e c o l d e s t t i m e s .
S im ilarly, i f t h e mercury i n a b a ro m e te r clim bs t o the
maximum h e i g h t , then k c 2 4 6 0 ; a n d , s i m i l a r l y , k w i l l ha v e
a minimum v a l u e o f a b o u t 2 2 6 0 . Therefore, if the
t h e r m o m e t e r and t h e b a r o m e t e r g i v e t h e i r h i g h e s t r e a d i n g s ,
t h e p i t c h o f a f l u e p i p e may b e e x p r e s s e d a s 9 6 0 4 2 6 / a , a nd
i f the re a d in g s a re the lo w e st, the p i t c h w i l l be
o40348/a.
59
37. We may u s e t h e a v e r a g e o f t h e s e f i g u r e s ,
9 C 0 3 8 7 / a , a s t h e number o f v i b r a t i o n s p e r s e c o n d p r o d u c e d
by a pipe of le n g t h a in o rd in a ry w e ath e r. Therefore, .
t h a t p i p e wh ic h p r o d u c e s 100 v i b r a t i o n s p e r s e c o n d h a s a
l e n g t h o f about 9 R henish f e e t , and t h a t pipe which
p r o d u c e s 118 v i b r a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n p i t c h t o t h e
s t r i n g p r o d u c i n g C, s h o u l d ha ve a l e n g t h o f a l i t t l e more
7j* R h e n i s h f e e t . This co rresponds q u ite c lo s e ly to
e x p e rie n c e , f o r g e n e r a lly a pipe 8 f e e t in len g th is
a ss u m e d t o p r o d u c e C. The d i f f e r e n c e o f h a l f a f o o t s h o u l d
be com pletely d is r e g a r d e d , s i n c e t h e same p i p e , i n v a r y i n g
w e a t h e r , may v a r y i n D i t c h w i t h a r a t i o o f 8 4 0 3 4 8 : 9 6 0 4 2
o r 8 :9 betw een th e lo w e st and h i g h e s t p i t c h e s , and t h i s
v a r i a t i o n -would e x c e e d t h a t c a ii s e d by t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f
h a lf a foot.
38. T h i s v e r y d i v e r s i t y o f p i t c h e s f r o m t h e same
p in e i n v a r i o u s t e m p e r a t u r e s f u r t h e r s u b s t a n t i a t e s the
t r u t h o f our e x p la n a tio n . When m u s i c i a n s u s e s t r i n g e d
I n s t r u m e n t s a t t h e same ti m e a s wind i n s t r u m e n t s , t h e y
c o n s t a n t l y f i n d t h e l a t t e r t o be e x t r e m e l y c h a n g e a b l e ,
and th e s t r i n g s , i n o r d e r t h a t t h e y may be i n tu n e w i t h
t h e w i n d s , ha v e t o b e t i g h t e n e d , then lo o sen e d . I t was
a l s o n o te d t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e between th e h i g h e s t and
l o w e s t s o u n d s o f t h e same p i p e i s a b o u t a whole t o n e ,
which i s th e i n t e r v a l betw een sounds h a v in g a r a t i o of 8 : 9 .
60
M o r e o v e r , i t was o b s e r v e d t h a t p i p e s a r e p i t c h e d h i g h e r
when t h e w e a t h e r i s c l e a r e s t an d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i s
h ighest. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , when t h e w e a t h e r i s s t o r m i e s t
a nd c o l d e s t , t h e p i p e s a r e p i t c h e d l o w e r . From t h e s e
facts, i t i s c l e a r why a wind i n s t r u m e n t h a s a l o w e r p i t c h
I n i t i a l l y a n d a h i g h e r p i t c h a f t e r i t h a s b e e n blo wn
v i g o r o u s l y , f o r t h e b r e a t h i n g and m o t i o n make t h e a i r i n
t h e t u b e w a rm e r, a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , a h i g h e r s o u n d i s
produced.
39. The i n t e n s i t y o f s o u n d s p r o d u c e d b y a p i p e
d e p e n d s n o t o n l y on t h e w in d p r e s s u r e b u t a l s o on t h e
r a t i o of i t s w idth to i t s length. I f we c o n s i d e r t h i c k n e s s
in s te a d of w id th , such a r a t i o has i t s c o u n t e r p a r t i n the
case of a s t r i n g . T herefore, ju s t as every s t r i n g i s not
s u i t a b l e f o r p ro ducing a l l sounds, b u t a p a r t i c u l a r t h i c k
ness is req u ired f o r a given p itc h , it is also tru e th a t a
pipe o f a g i v e n l e n g t h c a n n o t b e made wide o r n a r r o w a t
w i l l ; b u t t h e r e a r e l i m i t s b e y o n d w h i c h t h e p i p e may
p r o d u c e no s o u n d a t a l l . I n o r d e r t h a t s e v e r a l p i o e s may
pr o d u c e s i m i l a r sounds of eq u al i n t e n s i t y , i t is necessary
that th e w idth of each p ip e or the base of the tu b e , ju st
a s t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s t r i n g , be p r o o o r t i o n a l t o t h e
length. T h u s , fr om t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a s t r i n g , i t
fo ll o w s t h a t a tm o s p h e r ic p r e s s u r e , which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l to
t h e w i d t h o f t h e t u b e , e v i d e n t l y h a s t h e same r a t i o t o t h e
len gth of the pipe.
61
40. I n d e e d , t h e w in d p r e s s u r e c a n n o t be i n c r e a s e d
or decreased a t w ill. For i f the p re s su re i s i n s u f f i c i e n t ,
no sound a t a l l i s p r o d u c e d , b u t t h e p r e s s u r e c a n be so
g r e a t t h a t a p i p e w i l l p r o d u c e a sound an o c t a v e h i g h e r
t h a n i t s n o rm a l s o u n d . A fu rth e r increase in pressure
w i l l produce th e t w e l f t h , th e n the f i f t e e n t h , etc. In
o r d e r t h a t we may d i s c o v e r t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s r i s e in
p i t c h , I t w i l l be b e n e f i c i a l t o c o n s i d e r t h e i n t e n s i t y of
t h e s o u n d a s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e w ln d p r e s s u r e ; a n d , t h e r e
f o r e , a s l o n g a s t h e p i t c h r e m a i n s t h e same, i t I s u n d e r
stood t h a t the g r e a t e r the p re s s u re , th e w iderbut not
more f r e q u e n t - - m u s t b e t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e a i r i n t h e
tube. But t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s i s so l i m i t e d
by the d ia m e te r o r w id th of th e t u b e , t h a t I t cannot
exceed a f ix e d l i m i t ; th erefo re, i f t h e wind p r e s s u r e i s
so g r e a t t h a t - t h e a m p l i t u d e w o u ld e x c e e d t h i s l i m i t , t h e
p ip e w i l l n o t p roduce i t s normal o i t c h . ^
41. Moreover, in th e c a s e of a s t r i n g , to w hich a
pipe i s to be c o n sid e re d s i m i l a r , it i s in agreement w ith
th eo ry as w ell as ex perien ce t h a t each h a l f of a s tr e tc h e d
s t r i n g c a n p r o d u c e i t s o s c i l l a t i o n s s e p a r a t e l y so t h a t t h e
^ A c t u a l l y , t h e column o f a i r t e n d s t o v i b r a t e a t t h e
frequency of i t s p a r t i a l n e a re s t the e x c i t a t i o n freq u en cy ,
w h i c h I s t h a t o f t h e ed ge t o n e f o r f l u e o i p e s a n d o f the
reed fo r re e d -p ip e s. In th e case o f the b r a s s -w in d I n
stru m e n ts, the p l a y e r s l i o s a re analogous to the re e d s.
62
s t r i n g p r o d u c e s , n o t i t s u s u a l s o u n d , b u t an o c t a v e
h i g h e r ; b u t i t c a n n o t do t h i s i f t h e p a r t s a r e u n e q u a l .
S im ila rly , a s tr in g a iv id e d - - in im agination, at l e a s t
i n t o th r e e e q u al p a r t s can o s c i l l a t e j u s t as i f the p a r t s
wer e s e p a r a t e d by b r i d g e s , so t h a t e a c h n a r t v i b r a t e s
s e p a r a t e l y and p ro d u c e s a h i g h e r sound, namely, th e
tw elfth . I n l i k e m a n n e r , h i g h e r so un ds a r e p r o d u c e d by
f o u r o r more e q u a l p a r t s o f t h e string. ( I n Memoires de
1 ' a c a d e m i e r o y a l e d e s s c i e n c e s , 17 0 1 , J . S a u v e u r showed
how t h e s e t h i n g s c a n b e wo rk e d o u t and c o n f i r m e d by
ex p erim en ts.)
42. A p p l y i n g t h e s e i d e a s t o t h e p i p e , we u n d e r
s t a n d t h a t e a c h h a l f o f t h e p i p e can v i b r a t e s e p a r a t e l y
an d t h u s p r o d u c e a s ound an o c t a v e h i g h e r . In t h i s c a se ,
sin c e th e v i b r a t i o n s a re doubled in freq u en cy , the
g r e a t e r w i l l b e t h e w in d p r e s s u r e . If t h is pressure is
i n c r e a s e d beyond the f i x e d l i m i t , i t fo'. lows t h a t t h e
o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l conform to t h e c o n d i t i o n s and a sound
a n o c t a v e h i g h e r t h a n n o r m a l w i l l be p r o d u c e d . Here, to o ,
e x i s t s a l i m i t w h ic h t h e p r e s s u r e must n o t e x c e e d ; b u t ,
i f i t d o e s , t h e n t h e co lu mn o f a i r i n t h e t u b e b e g i n s t o
o scillate i n t h r e e s e p a r a t e p a r t s a t t h e same t i m e , a n d
a h i g h e r sound, the t w e l f t h , I s produced. I f the p r e s s u r e
i s i n c r e a s e d s t i l l f u r t h e r , t h e n t h e column o s c i l l a t e s i n
f o u r p a r t s , p r o d u c i n g a s o u n d two o c t a v e s h i g h e r , and s o .
on.
63
43. A l s o d e p e n d i n g on t h e s e p h e n o m e n a , but d iffe r
i n g i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s fro m t h e f l u e p i p e s , a r e the
t r u m p e t s and t r o m b o n e s , w hi c h h a v e t h e a b i l i t y t o c h a n g e
t h e i r p i t c h b y wind p r e s s u r e a l o n e . These in s t r u m e n t s
c a n n o t p r o d u c e a l l p i t c h e s , b u t o n l y t h o s e w h ic h c a n be
e x p r e s s e d b y t h e i n t e g e r s 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 5 , 5 , e t c . Thus
t h e y can p r o d u c e no s oun d i n t h e i r l o w e s t o c t a v e b e t w e e n 1
an d 2; o n l y one s o u n d , 3 , w h i c h i s t h e f i f t h t o 2 , i n t h e
n e x t o c t a v e b e t w e e n 2 an d 4; t h r e e s o u n d s , 5, 6 , and 7, i n
t h e t h i r d o c t a v e b e t w e e n 4 an d 8 ; and s e v e n s o u n d s i n t h e
fo u rth octave. I t i s evident t h a t the s tr u c t u r e o f such
i n s t r u m e n t s i s s u c h t h a t an y s o u n d h a s e x c e e d i n g l y n a r r o w
o r e s s u r e l i m i t s , and, t h e r e f o r e , by v e r y l i t t l e in ten sifi
c a t i o n o r r e l a x a t i o n o f w in d p r e s s u r e , t h e s oun d i s made
h ig h e r o r low er.
44. The s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h ha ve b e e n made t h u s f a r
about p i p e s p e r t a i n m o s t l y t o t h o s e whose t u b e s a r e eith er
prism atic or c y lin d ric a l. However, i f t h e p i p e s a r e
c o n i c a l o r o f some o t h e r s h a o e , I t i s more d i f f i c u l t t o
d e t e r m i n e what k i n d s o f s o u n d s t h e y w i l l p r o d u c e . Y et,
when s u ch q u e s t i o n s a r i s e , one c a n a l w a y s l o o k t o t h e
s t r i n g s f o r a n s w e r s ; f o r , i n t h e c a s e o f any p r o p o s e d
s h a p e o f a p i o e , one o u g h t t o c o n s i d e r a s t r i n g c o u n t e r p a r t
and to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s o un d w h i c h i s p r o d u c e d . From t h i s ,
I f we c o n s i d e r t h e s t r i n g i t s e l f a s t h e a i r a n d t h e
64
s t r e t c h i n g w e i g h t a s t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , we w i l l
ha v e t h e p i t c h p r o d u c e d by t h e g i v e n p i p e , and i f t h i s
p r o b l e m i s s o l v e d g e n e r a l l y f o r any s h a p e o f a p i p e , t h e
w e l l known p r o p e r t y o f p r i s m a t i c p i p e s t o p r o d u c e a so un d
a n o c t a v e l o w e r when c l o s e d a t t h e t o p w i l l a l s o b e c l e a r .
45. The t r u m p e t s a n d tr o m b o n e s , whic h e v i d e n t l y
h a v e a n a f f i n i t y w i t h t h e p i p e s , do n o t p r o d u c e sound by
wind p r e s s u r e a l o n e b u t r e q u i r e , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b l o w i n g ,
some s o u n d fro m t h e p l a y e r ' s m out h; a n d t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s
c o n s i d e r a b l y s t r e n g t h e n t h i s s o un d i n t h e same ma nn er i n
w h ic h t h e s p e a k i n g t r u m p e t so g r e a t l y m a g n i f i e s t h e human
voice. Such i n s t r u m e n t s a r e u n d e r s t o o d b e t t e r i f we
c o n s id e r th e i m i t a t i v e p ip e s of t h e pneumatic org a n .
T h e s e r e q u i r e wind p r e s s u r e o n l y , b u t i n s e r t e d i n t h e f o o t
a r e f l e x i b l e p l a t e s w h ic h a r e made to v i b r a t e by t h e
i n c o m i n g a i r a n d w hic h a l s o p r o d u c e a 'weak s o u n d . But a s
t h i s s oun d p r o c e e d s t h r o u g h t h e a d j o i n i n g t u b e , i t a c q u i r e s
so much power fr om t h e t u b e t h a t i t im itates b r i l l i a n t l y
t h e s o unds of t r u m p e t s and t r o m b o n e s .
The b a s i c p r i n c i o l e o f t o n e p r o d u c t i o n i s t h e
same i n e a c h c a s e .
CHAPTER I I
ON AGREEAB.LENESS AND THE PRINCIPLES OF EahMONY
1. Since I have d e c id e d to i n v e s t i g a t e i n t h i s
c h a p t e r how i t h a p p e n s t h a t some t h i n g s a f f e c t i n g o u r
s e n s e s p l e a s e u s a nd o t h e r s d i s p l e a s e , I do n o t b e l i e v e i t
a t a l l n e c e s s a r y to p o in t out t h a t t h e r e i s system o r o r d e r
h e r e a n d t h a t o u r m in d s a r e n o t p l e a s e d p u r e l y by c h a n c e .
Today i t i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d a s a n axiom t h a t n o t h i n g
h a p p e n s i n t h e w o r l d w i t h o u t a r a t i o n a l b a s i s , a nd i t
s h o u l a n o t b e d o u b t e d t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s some e x p l a n a t i o n o f
t h o s e t h i n g s w hi c h p l e a s e . I f t h i s i s c o n c e d e d , we m u s t
r e j e c t t h e o p i n i o n o f t h o s e who s u p p o s e t h a t m u s i c d e p e n d s
s o l e l y upon t h e ju d g m e n t o f men, t h a t o u r m u s i c p l e a s e s u s
b y c u s to m a l o n e , a nd t h a t b a r b a r i a n m u s i c d i s p l e a s e s b e
c a u s e we a r e u n a c c u s t o m e d t o i t .
2. I do n o t d e n y - - a n d i n d e e d I s h a l l p r o v e t h a t by
e x e r c i s e and r e p e a t e d h e a r i n g i t c a n h a p p e n t h a t some h a r
mony, i n i t i a l l y d i s p l e a s i n g , b e g i n s t o p l e a s e u s , and c o n
versely. Yet t h i s p r i n c i p l e o f a r a t i o n a l b a s i s i s n o t
su b v e rte d , f o r the e x p la n a tio n of p le a s u re o r d is p le a s u r e
should be sought not o n ly i n th e o b j e c t i t s e l f b u t i n th e
s e n s e s by w h ic h t h e Image o f t h e o b j e c t i s r e p r e s e n t e d t o
t h e m i n d ; a n d a l s o a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n t o t h e oo w e r-
f u l ju dgm e nt w h ic h t h e mina i t s e l f f o r m s c o n c e r n i n g t h e
66
o bject under co n sid e ra tio n . S i n c e t h e s e t h i n g s c an
h a p p e n i n v a r i o u s ways w i t h d i f f e r e n t men an d e v e n w i t h t h e
same man a t v a r i o u s t i m e s , i t i s no wonder t h a t t h e same
o b j e c t c a n p l e a s e some a n d d i s p l e a s e o t h e r s .
3. But now I s e e wh at k i n d of a n a r g u m e n t a l l this
may b r i n g a g a i n s t u s and o u r p u r p o s e . No d o u b t someone
w i l l s a y t h a t t h e p r i n c i p l e s and r u l e s o f harmon y c a n n o t
be s y s t e m a t i z e d and t h a t , f o r t h i s reason, our la b o r , as
w e l l a s t h a t o f a l l who h a v e t r i e d t o c o d i f y m u s i c a l l a w s ,
i s w o r t h l e s s and f u t i l e . I f some t h i n g s p l e a s e some p e o p l e
a n d o t h e r t h i n g s p l e a s e o t h e r s , a n d t h e s e t h i n g s whic h
p l e a s e a r e d i v e r s e a n d a n t i p o d a l , how c a n r u l e s o f c o n
j o i n i n g s o u n d s b e t a u g h t so t h a t t h e y w i l l r e p r e s e n t a g r e e
a b l e harmony t o t h e h e a r i n g ? R u le s, i f fo u n d , w i l l be too
u n i v e r s a l t o ha v e a n y r e a l u s e o r w i l l b e n e i t h e r s t a b l e
n o r u n i f o r m , b u t w i l l ha v e t o b e acco mmo da te d t o t h e
hearers. T h i s n o t o n l y wo uld r e q u i r e u n l i m i t e d d i l i g e n c e
b u t a l s o would t a k e away a l l c e r t i t u d e fr o m m u s i c .
4. The c o m p o s e r s h o u l d c o n d u c t h i m s e l f l i k e the
a r c h i t e c t , who d i s r e g a r d s t h e b a d ju d g m e n t o f many c o n c e r n
in g b u i l d i n g s and c o n s t r u c t s e d i f i c e s a c c o r d i n g to d e f i n i t e
l a w s b a s e d on n a t u r e i t s e l f . Even i f t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s do
n o t p l e a s e t h o s e who a r e i g n o r a n t o f t h e s e m a t t e r s , h e i s
content i f t h e y a r e a p p r o v e d by t h e i n f o r m e d . For in
music as i n a r c h i t e c t u r e th e t a s t e s of d i f f e r e n t people a re
67
so d i v e r s e t h a t t h a t w h i c h p l e a s e s some i s r e j e c t e d by
others. For th is reason, i n music a s w e ll a s in a l l o t h e r
m atters, i t i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t t o f o l l o w t h o s e wnose t a s t 6
i s p e r f e c t and whose j u d g m e n t o f t h i n g s p e r c e i v e d b y t h e
senses is f a u l t l e s s . I n t h i s c a t e g o r y a r e t h o s e t o whom
n a t u r e h a s g i v e n a n a c u t e and r e f i n e d s e n s e of h e a r i n g ,
and th e se i n d i v i d u a l s , p r e c i s e l y comprehending th o s e t h i n g s
represented a u ra lly , p r o d u c e a c o n s e n s u s o f so u n d
judgment.
5. S i n c e e v e r y s o u n d , a s shown i n t h e preceding
c h a p t e r , i s n o th in g b u t a s e r i e s of o u ls e s produced i n
the a i r , we w i l l p e r c e i v e so u n d d i s t i n c t l y i f we s e n s e a l l
t h e p u l s e s i n t h e e a r , c o m p re h e n d t h e i r o r d e r , and p e r
ceiv e the r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h o f e a c h when t h e p u l s e s a r e
n o t e q u a l i n p o w e r. T h u s , f o r t h e ju d g m e n t o f m a t t e r s
m u s i c a l , t h e r e q u i r e d a u d i t o r s a r e t h o s e endowed w i t h b o t h
a n a c u t e s e n s e o f h e a r i n g a n d p r e c i s e c o m p r e h e n s i o n , and
they a l s o p o s s e s s such a deg ree o f i n t e l l e c t as to e n ab le
them t o p e r c e i v e t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h t h e p u l s e s o f t h e a i r
p articles strik e t h e e a r a nd fr o m t h i s t o o a s s j u d g m e n t .
As we w i l l show l a t e r , t h i s is necessary fo r recognizing
whether a g re e a b le n e s s a c t u a l l y e x i s t s in a given piece of
m u s i c a nd what d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s i t h a s .
6. T h e r e f o r e , b e f o r e e v e r y t h i n g e l s e , we w i l l
apply o u r s e lv e s , in w hatever i s under d is c u s s io n , to the
t a s k o f d e f i n i n g what i t i s , why i t p l e a s e s o r d i s p l e a s e s
u s , and w h a t i t mu st p o s s e s s i n o r d e r f o r i t t o p l e a s e u s .
From t h i s , a s may ha ve b e e n e v i d e n t , t h e t r u e p r i n c i p l e s
a nd r u l e s f o r co mposing h a r m o n i o u s m us ic c a n b e d e r i v e d ,
s i n c e t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h a t w h ic h p l e a s e s o r d i s p l e a s e s
w i l l hav e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d . From t h i s s o u r c e s h o u l d be
d e r i v e d n o t o n l y t h o s e t h i n g s p e r t a i n i n g t o m u s ic b u t a l s o
a l l o t h e r m a t t e r s wh ic h h a v e t h e same p u r p o s e : to p le a s e .
T h i s e x t e n d s so w i d e l y t h a t , by t h e p r i n c i p l e s w h ic h we
a r e c o n s i d e r i n g , a l m o s t a n y t h i n g c a n be a s s i g n e d some
degree of a g r e e a b le n e s s .
7. C onsulting m etaphysicians, t o whom t h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o u l d be o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t , we f i n d
t h a t e v e r y t h i n g p l e a s e s u s i n w h ic h we p e r c e i v e p e r f e c t i o n
to e x i s t , a nd so we a r e p l e a s e d more when we o b s e r v e more
perfection. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , we a r e d i s p l e a s e d b y t h o s e
t h i n g s i n w h i c h we p e r c e i v e a l a c k o f p e r f e c t i o n o r much
im perfection. I t i s t r u e t h a t p l e a s u r e i s g i v e n by t h e
p e r c e p t i o n o f p e r f e c t i o n , a n d a l l m i n d s , i n o r d e r to e n j o y
d i s c o v e r i n g p e r f e c t i o n , t e n d t o r e j e c t t h o s e t h i n g s i n which
t h e y f i n d a l a c k o f p e r f e c t i o n o r t h e p r e s e n c e of i m p e r f e c
tio n . T h i s w i l l b e c l e a r t o a ny on e who c o n s i d e r s c a r e
f u l l y t h o s e t h i n g s w h ic h o l e a s e h i m , f o r he w i l l p e r c e i v e
t h a t t h a t w hic h p l e a s e s i s a k i n d o f p e r f e c t i o n and t h a t
t h a t which d i s p l e a s e s l a c k s p e r f e c t i o n .
69
8. We u n d e r s t a n d t h a t p e r f e c t i o n e x i s t s i n some
thing i f we o b s e r v e t h a t i t i s so c o n s t i t u t e d t h a t a l l o f
its e l e m e n t s combine f o r f u l f i l l i n g the i n te n d e d p u rp o s e ,
but, i f th e r e a re elem ents not p e r t a i n i n g to the purpose
or standing in i t s way, we s e n s e a l a c k of p e r f e c t i o n . In
th e f i r s t c a s e , the t h i n g p le a s e s us; in th e o th e r c a s e , i t
d ispleases us. F o r e x a m p l e , c o n s i d e r a c l o c k , whose
p u r p o s e i s t o show t h e p a r t s a n d d i v i s i o n s o f t i m e : it
p l e a s e s u s m os t i f we know t h a t a l l o f i t s p a r t s a r e made
and p u t t o g e t h e r so t h a t a l l u n i t e t o i n d i c a t e t h e e x a c t
tim e.
9. From t h i s i t follo w s th a t in w hatever th in g
p e r f e c t i o n e x i s t s t h e r e sh o u ld a l s o be o r d e r . Since o rd e r
i s an a r r a n g e m e n t o f p a r t s made a c c o r d i n g t o a d e f i n i t e
ru le, it i s o o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e why s o m e t h i n g i s l o c a t e d
i n one p l a c e r a t h e r t h a n a n o t h e r , a n d , i n a t h i n g h a v i n g
p e r f e c t i o n , a l l p a r t s s h o u l d be so o r d e r e d t h a t t h e y a r e
s u ita b le fo r f u l f i l l i n g a purpose. This purpose i s a r u le
a c c o r d in g to which th e p a r t s a re a rra n g e d and g iv e n t h e i r
p a rtic u la r position. In t u r n , th erefo re, i t is understood
t h a t w her e t h e r e i s o r d e r , t h e r e i s a l s o p e r f e c t i o n , a nd a
r u l e o r la w o f o r d e r c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e p u r p o s e o f o b t a i n
ing p e r f e c t i o n . T h u s , i f we p e r c e i v e o r d e r , we a r e
pleased, b ut a lack of order d iso le ases us.
10. We c a n p e r c e i v e o r d e r i n two w a y s . In the
70
first case, t h e law o r r u l e i s known t o u s , and we a p p l y
i t to the g iv e n t h i n g . I n t h e s e c o n d c a s e , we do n o t
know i n a d v a n c e t h e la w w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h e s t r u c t u r e , an d
we s e e k t h i s law f r o m t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e e l e m e n t s .
The ex am ple o f t h e c l o c k g i v e n a b o v e b e l o n g s t o t h e f i r s t
case, f o r t h e p u r p o s e o r t h e la w o f a r r a n g e m e n t o f i t s
p a r t s i s known t o b e t h e i n d i c a t i o n o f t i m e , vve s h o u l d
examin e t n e c l o c k t o s e e i f i t s construction is such t h a t
i t can f u l f i l l t h i s p u r p o s e . B u t , i f I e x am i n e some
s e r i e s s u c h a s 1 , 2 , 5 , 5, 8 , 1 3 , 2 1 , .... w i t h o u t knowing
t h e law by w n ic h t h e p r o g r e s s i o n I s f o r m e d , I d i s c o v e r , by
c o m p a r i n g t h e n u m b e r s a few a t a t i m e , t h a t a n y one o f them
i s t h e sum o f t h e two i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g i t , and I
c o n f i r m t h a t t h i s I s t h e i r law o f o r d e r , 1
11. The s e c o n d way o f p e r c e i v i n g o r d e r i s
particu larly p e r t i n e n t t o m u s i c , f o r when we h e a r m u s i c
we p e r c e i v e t h e o r c t e r whic h i s p o s s e s s e d b y b o t h t h e
sim u lta n e o u s and t h e s u c c e s s i v e s o u n d s. Hence, m u s ic a l
harmony w i l l p l e a s e i f we p e r c e i v e t h e o r d e r o f i t s con
s t i t u e n t s o u n d s , a n d i t w i l l d i s p l e a s e w h e n e v e r we do n o t
^This s e r i e s i s c a l l e d a F i b o n a c c i s e q u e n c e , named
f o r L e o n a rd o F i b o n a c c i , t h e g r e a t e s t m a t h e m a t i c i a n o f t h e
th ir te e n th century. Joseph B c h i l l i n g e r , the tw e n tie th
c e n t u r y composer and t h e o r i s t , h a s g iv e n c o n s i d e r a b l e
a t t e n t i o n to t n i s s e r i e s . He c a l l s i t a " s u m m a ti o n
s e r i e s , " ma ki ng i t a b a s i s f o r v a r i a t i o n and c o m p o s i t i o n .
Bee S c h i l l i n g e r , J o s e o h , The M a t h e m a t i c a l B a s i s o f t h e
A r t s , pp. 3 2 - 5 3 , 8 9 , 68 5 .
71
p e r c e i v e t n a t e a c h s oun d i s p r o p e r l y o r d e r e d i n i t s place.
The more o f t e n we a r e a w ar e t h a t s o u n d s ha v e d e p a r t e d f r o m
t h e o r d e r w h ic h we d e c i d e s h o u l d c o n t r o l th e m , t h e more we
are d is p le a s e d . H e nc e , i t c a n h a p p e n t h a t some n o t i c e
o r d e r n o t s e n s e d b y o t h e r s , a n d t h u s t h e same t h i n g c an
p l e a s e some, d i s p l e a s e o t h e r s . Both g ro u p s can be d e ce iv e d ,
f o r t h e r e c a n b e o r d e r w h i c h many do n o t r e c o g n i z e . Then,
t o o , some p e o p l e seem t o p e r c e i v e o r d e r where t h e r e i s
n o n e , and h e n c e a r i s e such d i v e r s e judgments about
m usical m a tte r s ,
12. Thus t h o s e t h i n g s p l e a s e i n w h i c h we p e r c e i v e
the e x i s t i n g o rd e r. We w i l l b e more p l e a s e d i f o f f e r e d
s e v e r a l s u c h t h i n g s whose o r d e r we c o m p r e h e n d , a n d we w i l l
. s e n s e t h e g r e a t e s t d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s i f we a r e
a w a re o f t h e o r d e r e x i s t i n g i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among
those th in g s . I t f o l l o w s t h a t i f we do n o t p e r c e i v e
o r d e r i n some o f t h o s e t h i n g s , o u r p l e a s u r e i s l e s s ; an d
i f we n o t e no o r d e r a t a l l , th e n the p a r t i c u l a r o b je c t
f a i l s to please us. I f we n o t o n l y o b s e r v e no o r d e r i n an
o b j e c t b u t a l s o p e r c e i v e some t h i n g s , b e y o n d a l l r e a s o n ,
w h i c h d i s t u r b t h e o r d e r o f w h ic h t h e o b j e c t i s p e r h a p s
capable, t h e n we w i l l be d i s o l e a s e d and t h e e x p e r i e n c e
w i l l be a l m o s t p a i n f u l .
13. The more e a s i l y we o b s e r v e t h e o r d e r i n a
given th in g , t h e s i m p l e r a n d more p e r f e c t we c o n s i d e r i t ,
72
an d t h e r e f o r e we r e c e i v e p l e a s u r e a n d d e l i g h t fro m i t .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e o r d e r i s d i s c e r n e d w i t h d i f f i
c u l t y an d seems l e s s s i m p l e and d i s t i n c t , we p e r c e i v e
something l i k e s a d n e s s . I n e i t h e r c a s e , a s l o n g a s we
s e n s e o r d e r , t h e g i v e n o b j e c t p l e a s e s , and we c o n c l u d e
th a t the o b ject has agreeableness. This i s seemingly
inco nsistent, s i n c e t h e same t h i n g w h i c h moves t h e s p i r i t
t o s a d n e s s c a n p l e a s e and h a v e a g r e e a b l e n e s s . I f we c o n
s i d e r t h e m u s i c a l h a r m o n i e s and m e l o d i e s t h e m s e l v e s we
co n c e d e t h a t a l l s h o u l d b e a g r e e a b l e and s h o u l d p l e a s e ;
y e t we o b s e r v e t h a t some t h i n g s a r e s u i t a b l e f o r e v o k i n g
j o y and o t h e r s a r e s u i t a b l e f o r e v o k i n g s a d n e s s . He nce ,
t h e r e a r e two k i n d s o f t n i n g s w hi ch p l e a s e : one w h ic h
makes s p i r i t s h a p p y an d a n o t h e r w h i c h makes s p i r i t s s a d .
14. Obviously, th e se are l ik e c o m e d i e s and
t r a g e d i e s , a l l o f whic h s h o u l d be f i l l e d w i t h a g r e e a b l e
ness. The comedy s h o u l d f i l l t h e s p i r i t w i t h j o y a nd t h e
t r a g e d y s h o u l d co nvey s a d n e s s . Thus i t i s c l e a r t h a t
s o m e t h i n g c a n p l e a s e and evoke j o y , and s o m e t h i n g e l s e
c a n p l e a s e a nc b r i n g s a d n e s s . fie h a v e a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d
t h a t a l l t h i n g s p l e a s e i n w n i c h we p e r c e i v e o r d e r t o be
present. However, joy i s c o n v ey e d by t h o s e t h i n g s w h ic h
ha ve a s i m p l e r , more e a s i l y p e r c e p t i b l e o r d e r , and s a d n e s s
i s c o n v e y e d by t-i os e t h i n g s whose o r d e r i s more comnlex
and more d i f f i c u l t t o p e r c e i v e .
73
15. T h e s e m a t t e r s do n o t d i f f e r g r e a t l y fr om
t h o s e w h ic h a r e u s u a l l y t r e a t e d by p h i l o s o p h e r s u n d e r t h e
h e a d in g s o f joy and s a d n e s s . They d e s c r i b e j o y a s an
e x tra o rd in a ry degree of p le a s u re . Thus more p e r f e c t i o n i s
r e q u i r e d f o r e v o k i n g j o y t h a n f o r mere p l e a s u r e . Their
d e f i n i t i o n o f s a d n e s s seems t o d i f f e r g r e a t l y fr o m o u r s ,
b u t n o t e t h a t h e r e we do n o t s p e a k o f t h a t s a d n e s s w h ic h
i s g e n e r a l l y c l a s s i f i e d among t h e e m o t i o n s a r i s i n g fr o m
contem plation of the im p e rfe c t. For m usic, since i t t r i e s
to p le a s e , n e i t h e r in te n d s nor i s capable of such
sadness. Thus s a d n e s s s i m p l y i n v o l v e s more d i f f i c u l t
p e r c e p t i o n o f p e r f e c t i o n o r o r d e r and d i f f e r s fr o m j o y
only in d e g re e.
16. Tones nave two m a in e l e m e n t s w h i c h c a n c o n
tain order: p i t c h and d u r a t i o n . T herefore, m usical
harmony p l e a s e s i f we p e r c e i v e t h e o r d e r e x i s t i n g among
t h e s o u n d s by v i r t u e o f t h e i r p i t c h a nd i f we co m pre hen d
the o rd e r e x i s t i n g in the d u ra tio n s of the sounds. To
p i t c h and d u r a t i o n we m i g h t a dd i n t e n s i t y a s a n e l e m e n t
having o r d e r . Although m u sic ian s use t h i s elem ent in
t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n s , m a ki ng some s o u n d s s t r o n g a nd some
weak, still t h e y do n o t s e e k a g r e e a b l e n e s s i n t h e p e r c e p
t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o r o r d e r which the d e g re e s o f
i n t e n s i t y h a v e among t h e m s e l v e s . H e n c e , t h e y do n o t
usually try to d e f i n e tn e q u a n t i t y o f i n t e n s i t y , f o r i t
i s alm ost im p o s sib le .
74
17. Since o rd e r i s th e d i s p o s i t i o n o f elem ents
a c c o r d i n g t o some f i x e d l a w , h e who r e c o g n i z . e s t h i s law
fr o m I n s p e c t i o n a l s o p e r c e i v e s t h e o r d e r , and t h e p e r c e p
t i o n i t s e l f w i l l p l e a s e him. In music q u a n t i t i e s d e t e r
mine o r d e r . W h e t h e r we c o n s i d e r p i t c h o r d u r a t i o n , e i t h e r
i s d e te rm in e d by q u a n t i t y . P i t c h i s d e t e r m i n e d by the
freq u en cy of th e p u ls e s produced i n th e a i r ; d u r a t i o n , by
the l e n g t h of time e ac h to n e i s h e l d . He who p e r c e i v e s
the r e l a t i o n of the freq u en cy of th e p u ls e s i n tones
u n d e r s t a n d s t h e o r d e r o f t h e t o n e s and i s p l e a s e d .
S im ilarly he who d i s t i n g u i s h e s a n d c o m p a r e s t h e d u r a
t i o n s o f t o n e s among t h e m s e l v e s a l s o p e r c e i v e s o r d e r a nd
receives pleasure. How we p e r c e i v e o r d e r i n e a c h c a t e
go ry i s t o be e x p l a i n e d c l e a r l y .
18. We o e r c e i v e t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n two g i v e n
t o n e s i f we c o m pr e hen d t h e r a t i o w h i c h e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e
nu m be rs o f p u l s e s p r o d u c e d i n t h e same s p a n o f t i m e .
T h u s , i f one t o n e h a s t h r e e p u l s e s a n d a n o t h e r h a s two
i n a g i v e n o e r i o d , we r e c o g n i z e t h e r e l a t i o n and o r d e r
when we o b s e r v e t h e s e s q u i a l t e r a l r a t i o . S i m i l a r l y , we
co m p re h en d t h e m u t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f s e v e r a l t o n e s i f
we r e c o g n i z e a l l t h e r a t i o s wh ich e x i s t b e t w e e n t h e
numb ers o f v i b r a t i o n s p r o d u c e d i n t h e same p e r i o d . We
a l s o d e r i v e p l e a s u r e from t o n e s o f v a r i o u s d u r a t i o n s i f
we o e r c e i v e t h e r a t i o s among t h e l e n g t h s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
75
durations. H e nc e , i t i s c l e a r t h a t a l l p l e a s u r e i n m u s i c
a r i s e s f r o m p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e r a t i o s among s e v e r a l
numbers, s in c e d u r a t i o n s can a l s o be e x p r e s s e d i n
num bers,^
19. The p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e r a t i o s o f t o n e s i s
g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t we p e r c e i v e t h e many
v i b r a t i o n s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o n e s a n d a r e a b l e t o co mpare
tnem w i t h e a c h o t h e r s e v e r a l t i m e s . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s much
e a s i e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r a t i o o f two t o n e s b y h e a r i n g t h a n
it i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r a t i o o f two l i n e s by o b s e r v a t i o n ,
e v e n i f t h e r a t i o i s t h e same. The r a t i o o f s o u n d s an d
l i n e s would b e a l i k e i f we s h o u l d r e c e i v e o n l y two p u l s e s
o f e a c h and s h o u l d be f o r c e d t o make a ju d g m e n t a b o u t t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e i r i n t e r v a l s . But s i n c e a g r e a t number
o f v i b r a t i o n s a r e p r o d u c e d by t o n e s w i t h r e a s o n a b l e d u r a
t i o n s , a s we d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r , i t c a n be
s e e n now much e a s i e r t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e r a t i o o f t o n e s
becomes. H e n c e , v e r y c o m p o s i t e r a t i o s c a n be u s e d i n
m u s i c , b u t i f t h e s e same r a t i o s e x i s t e d i n l i n e s , t h e y
would b e d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e v i s u a l l y .
20. S inc e lo w er to n e s produce fe w er p u l s e s in the
same t i m e t h a n h i g h e r t o n e s , i t Is c l e a r th a t the r a t i o of
h i g h e r t o n e s c a n b e p e r c e i v e d more e a s i l y t h a n t h a t o f
^The p l e a s u r e c o n t r i b u t e d u n d e r t h e g e n e r a l h e a d i n g
o f e x p r e s s i o n , n o t l e n d i n g i t s e l f so r e a d i l y t o o . u a n t i f i c a -
ti o n , i s excluded, dee S e c t i o n 35 o f t h i s c h a p t e r .
76
l o w e r t o n e s , i f e a c h t o n e h a s t h e same d u r a t i o n . There
f o r e , o th e r th in g s being e q u a l, i t i s n e ce ssa ry t h a t lower
t o n e s l a s t l o n g e r and f o l l o w e a c h o t h e r more s l o w l y t h a n
i n t h e c a s e o f t h e h i g h e r t o n e s , w h ic h c a n p r o c e e d more
rao id ly . Thus we h a v e t h e g e n e r a l r u l e t h a t a g r e a t e r
d u r a t i o n be a s s i g n e d t o t h e l o w e r t o n e s a n d a l e s s e r
d u r a tio n to the h ig h e r to n e s . I t is understood th a t th e
more c o m p o s i t e a nd d i f f i c u l t o f p e r c e p t i o n a r e t h e r a t i o s
among t h e m , t h e more t h e one o r t h e o t h e r m u s t be
prolonged. Hence, i f the low er to n e s a re to have simple
r a t i o s a n d t h e h i g h e r t o n e s a r e t o hav e c o m p o s i t e r a t i o s ,
t h e f o r m e r s h o u l d p r o c e e d more r a p i d l y a nd t h e l a t t e r ,
more s l o w l y .
21. I n o r d e r t h a t t h e m e th od o f p e r c e i v i n g t h e
o r d e r o r r a t i o o f two o r more t o n e s may b e more e a s i l y
u n d e r s t o o d , we h a v e t r i e d t o v i s u a l i z e i t i n a f i g u r e , a s
f a r as i t is p ossible. We r e p r e s e n t t h e p u l s e s i n t h e a i r
as do ts p laced in a s t r a i g h t l i n e . The d i s t a n c e s b e t w e e n
th e d o ts co rresp o n d to the i n t e r v a l s o f the p u l s e s .
S ev eral examples a p p e a r i n Table I . By t h i s process a
so un d o f c o n s t a n t p i t c h i s d e s c r i b e d b y a s e r i e s o f
e q u i d i s t a n t d o ts as i n F ig u re 1, i n which, s in c e a r a t i o
o f e q u a l i t y e x i s t s t h r o u g h o u t , t h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t t h e
o r d e r i s most e a s i l y u n d e rs to o d . Hen ce, one s o u n d o r
u n iso n , as i t is called , c o n s t i t u t e s f o r u s the f i r s t and
77
sim p le st degree o f p e rc eiv in g o rd e r. Vue w i l l c a l l i t t h e
f i r s t d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s , and i t h a s t h e n u m e r i c a l
r a t i o of 1 : 1 .
TABLE I '
1 .
F ig . 1.
2
1
Fig. 2
1 .
Fig. 3
4 .
1 .
Fig. 4
3
2
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
78
5
3
Fig. 8 .
6 .
5 .
4 .
F ig . 9.
22. S u ppos e o u r h e a r i n g i s p r e s e n t e d w i t h two t o n e s
having a duple r a t i o . T h e s e may be r e p r e s e n t e d by two
s e r i e s o f d o t s , a n d t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n d o t s i n one
s e r i e s w oul d b e t w i c e t h a t i n t h e o t h e r s e r i e s , a s i n
F i g u r e 2 , w h e re t h e h i g h e r and l o w e r t o n e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d
by t h e u p p e r a n d l o w e r s e r i e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The o r d e r o f
these, c o n s i d e r e d a t t h e same t i m e , i s a l s o e a s i l y p e r
c e i v e d , a s i s e v i d e n t fr om i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e f i g u r e . Since
it i s t h e s i m p l e s t a f t e r t h e u n i s o n , we d e s i g n a t e t h i s a s
t h e s e c o n d d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s , a nd i t i s e x p r e s s e d by
the r a t i o 1 :2 . S i m i l a r l y , F i g u r e 3 shows t h e r a t i o 1:3,
a nd F i g u r e 4 shows 1 : 4 . Which o f t h e s e l a s t two i s t h e
more e a s i l y p e r c e i v e d i s d i s p u t a b l e . The 3 : 1 r a t i o i s
e x p r e s s e d i n s m a l l e r n u m b e r s , b u t t h e 4 :1 r a t i o is e asily
perceived since i t is t h e d o u b l e o f a a u o l e r a t i o and
h e n c e i t s d i s c e r n m e n t i s n o t much more d i f f i c u l t t h a n t h e
duple i t s e l f . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , we p l a c e b o t h i n t h e t h i r d
degree.
79
. . 23. Since th e r a t i o s 1 :1 , 1 :2 , and 1:4 b elo n g to
the f i r s t , s e c o n d and t n i r d d e g r e e s o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s ,
respectively, i t i s l o g i c a l t h a t we a s s i g n 1 : 8 t o t h e
fo u rth degree, 1:16 to th e f i f t h , a nd so o n , a c c o r d i n g t o
a duple geom etric p ro g re ssio n . Thus, the r a t i o l : 2 n
b e lo n g s to the d e g re e (n+1). I chose t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
d i s t r i b u t i o n because the degrees p ro g ress eq u ally in ease
of p e rc e p tio n . Thus, the f i f t h degree is p e rc eiv e d w ith
more d i f f i c u l t y t h a n t h e f o u r t h , w h i c h i s p e r c e i v e d w i t h
more d i f f i c u l t y t h a n t h e t h i r d , a nd so o n . I designate
no i n t e r m e d i a t e d e g r e e s w i t h n a s a f r a c t i o n , since in
t h i s c a s e t h e r a t i o w o uld b e i r r a t i o n a l and i m p o s s i b l e t o
recognize.
24. I f t h e number a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u n i t y i n one o f
th ese r a t i o s is com posite, i . e . , has d i v i s o r s , then the
d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s be com es s m a l l e r . We hav e o b s e r v e d
t h a t 1 : 4 s h o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d more c o m p o s i t e t h a n 1 : 3 ,
even i f 4 i s l a r g e r t h a n 3. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t is
c l e a r t h a t t h e d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s s h o u l d be a s s i g n e d
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e nu m be rs t h e m s e l v e s , if
they a re prim e. Thus t h e r a t i o 1 : 5 i s s i m p l e r t h a n 1 : 7 ,
a lth o u g h perhaps I t i s not sim pler than 1 :8 . By i n d u c t i o n
we c a n make a c o n c l u s i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r i m e number.
S in c e 1 :1 g i v e s the f i r s t d e g r e e , 1 :2 th e sec o n d , and 1 :3
the t h i r d , we c o n c l u d e t h a t 1 : 5 b e l o n g s t o t h e f i f t h , 1 : 7
80
to the sev en th , and, in g e n e r a l, l i , i f o i s prim e, to
t h e d e g r e e w h i c h i s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e number .
25. I f the r a t i o l : n i s a ssig n e d to th e degree
i n d i c a t e d by m, we c a n c o n c l u d e f r o m S e c t i o n 23 t h a t l: 2 j c
b e l o n g s to t h e d e g r e e m+1, 1 : 4 t o t h e d e g r e e m+2, and
l : 2 n t o t h e d e g r e e m+n. T h u s , by t h e s i m p l e o p e r a t i o n o f
h alving or doubling, the degree of a g re e a b le n e s s is
c h a n g e d by u n i t y . S i m i l a r l y we c an d e t e r m i n e t h e d e g r e e
of the r a t i o l : p q , w her e a nd a r e pr im e n u m b e r s . has
t h e same r a t i o to as does to one. T h e re fo re , the
d e g r e e o f 1 : s n o u l d e x c e e d ( o r ) by t h e same number
a s ( o r ) e x ce e d s 1. H e n c e , i t w i l l be + - 1 .
26. T h i s same r e a s o n i n g a l s o h o l d s i n g e n e r a l , f o r
i f the r a t i o 1 : P b e l o n g s t o d e g r e e and 1:Q b e l o n g s t o
degree , the r a t i o 1 :PQ w i l l b e l o n g t o t h e d e g r e e + 1 *
T h u s , t h e d e g r e e s o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t r a t i o s m u s t be a d d e d
a n d u n i t y s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e sum. The r a t i o 1 : p q r , whe re
, , a nd r a r e p r im e n u m b e r s , i s composed o f 1 : and l s r
w ith d e g re es of + 1 and r , respectively. The d e g r e e o f
1 ;por w i l l be + + -2 . S im ilarly, the degree of 1 : pqrs
w i l l be f + r + s - 3 . The d e g r e e o f 1 : PQBS w i l l be _P+Qi"R+S-3,
if t h e d e g r e e s o f 1:J?, 1 : , 1 : R , and I s S a r e p , q, r ,
a n d _s, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
2 7. I f i s a p r i m e numb er, i t fo ll o w s from th e
p r e c e d i n g t h a t t h e d e g r e e o f 1 : 2 i s 2 - l a n d t h e d e g r e e
81
o f 1 : ^ i s 3 - 2 . In g e n e r a l , l : n b e lo n g s to th e degree
np-n-V-1. Therefore, s i n c e 1 :m b e l o n g s t o t h e d e g r e e
mq-m-fl, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e o f t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n ,
1 : nm s h o u l d b e a s s i g n e d t o t h e d e g r e e np+mq-n-m+1. If P
i s any n um be r, t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h I : P b e l o n g s c a n be
f o u n d by f i n d i n g t h e sum o f t h e prim e f a c t o r s o f ancl
s u b t r a c t i n g one l e s s t h a n t n e number o f f a c t o r s fr o m t h e
sum. T h u s , t o f i n d t h e d e g r e e 1 : 7 2 , we f i r s t f i n d t h a t
7 2 -2 , 2 , 2 , 3*3. The sum o f t h e s e f a c t o r s I s 12 and t h e
number o f f a c t o r s i s 5 . By s u b t r a c t i n g 4 fr o m 1 2 , we f i n d
t h a t t h e d e g r e e o f 1 : 7 2 i s Q.
28. I f we a r e g i v e n a r a t i o involving th ree
n u m b e r s , s u c h a s l ^ q ^ 3 where and a r e p r i m e n u m b e r s ,
b o t h l ; o and l : a mu st be p e r c e i v e d i n i t . But t h e s e two
r a t i o s t o g e t h e r a r e p e r c e i v e d w i t h t h e same e a s e a s t h e i r
com posite, !: T h e r e f o r e , t h e d e g r e e o f 1 : ! s h o u l d be
d e t e r m i n e d fr o m t h e number joa by t h e g i v e n r u l e . Sim ilarly,
t h e d e g r e e o f l : : : r , where o , _q, and r a r e a g a i n p r i m e
n u m b e r s , c a n be f o u n d fr o m t h e number p a r . Thus, i f fo u r
g i v e n t o n e s a r e e x p r e s s e d by t h e nu m be rs 1 : 2 : 3 : 5 , the
d e g r e e i s f o u n d fr om t h e number 3 0 , w h i c h g i v e s t h e e i g h t h
degree.
^ I n m ode rn t e r m i n o l o g y a r a t i o o f t h r e e o r more
term s i s a c o n tin u e d r a t i o .
82
29. T he se p ri m e nu m be rs s h o u l d a l l be u n e q u a l ,
o th e rw is e the c om putation i s no t v a l i d . The r a t i o l : o : ,
f o r e x a m p l e , i s p e r c e i v e d a s e a s i l y a s 1 : p , f o r t h e two
jo's can be c o n s i d e r e d a s o n e , b u t 1 : o : d s h o u ld n o t be
c o n s i d e r e d e q u i v a l e n t t o 1 : jd^ . S i m i l a r l y , i f t h e nu m b e rs
p , q, r , e tc., a re not prim e, th e com putation i s n ot v a l i d .
I f jo, , , and s a r e p ri m e n u m b e r s , t h e r a t i o 1 : p r : q r : p s
i s p e r c e iv e d by r e c o g n i t i o n o f l : o , 1:, l : r , and 1 : .
A l t h o u g h t h e y o c c u r t w i c e , l : p a nd l ? .r a r e u s e d o n c e .
H en ce, t h e d e g r e e s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d fr o m t h e c o m p o s i t e
r a t i o 1 ; p a r s o r fr o m t h e numb er p q r s .
30. I f we c o n s i d e r n o t o n l y t h e number o q r s
I t s e l f b u t a l s o t h e m e th o d o f o b t a i n i n g i t , we d i s c o v e r
t h a t t h i s number i s t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e
numbers 1 , or, q r , and o s , o r t h e s m a l l e s t number w h i c h
c a n b e d i v i d e d b y e a c h o f t h e num be rs c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e
given r a t i o . From t h i s we draw a u n i v e r s a l r u l e f o r
i d e n t i f y i n g the degree o f a g re e a b le n e s s in p e rc e iv in g the
r a t i o o f s e v e r a l numb ers t a k e n t o g e t h e r . The l e a s t common
m ultiple 3 h o u ld be f o u n d , a n d from t h i s number t h e d e g r e e
o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s I s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e r u l e g i v e n i n
S e ctio n 27. The d e g r e e o f t h e r e s u l t i n g l e a s t common
m u l t i p l e i s shown i n t h e t a b l e g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 3 1 . I
have n o t c o n tin u e d th e t a b l e beyond t n e s i x t e e n t h d e g r e e ,
s i n c e numbe rs b e l o n g i n g t o h i g h e r d e g r e e s r a r e l y o c c u r .
85
31. I n t h i s t a b l e Roman n u m b e r a l s d e n o t e t h e
d e g re e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s and tn e u s u a l f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t
a l l l e a s t common m u l t i p l e s b e l o n g i n g t o i t :
i. i;
II. 2;
III. 3 , 4;
IV. 6 , 8;
V. 5, 9, 12, 16;
VI. 1 0 , 18, 2 4 , 32 ;
V II. 7 , 15, 2 0 , 2 7 , 3 5 , 4 8 , 6 4 ;
V III. 14, 30, 40, 54, 7 2 , 9 6 , 1 28;
IX. 2 1 , 2 5, 2 8 , 4 5 , 60, 8 0,81, 108, 144,

1 9 2 , 256;
X. 4 2 , 5 0 , 5 6 , 9 0 , 1 2 0 , 1 6 0 , 16 2, 2 1 6 , 28 8,
3 8 4 , 512;
XI. 11, 35, 63, 75, 84, 100, 11 2, 1 3 5 , 180,

2 4 0 , 24 3 , 3 2 0 , 3 2 4 , 4 3 2 , 576, 768, 10 24;
X II. 2 2 , 7 0 , 1 2 6 , 1 5 0 , 1 6 8 , 20 0 , 22 4, 2 7 0 ,
3 6 0 , 48 0 , 4 8 6 , 6 4 0 , 6 4 8 , 86 4 , 1 1 5 2 ,
1536, 2048.
X III. 1 3 , 3 3 , 4 4 , 4 9 , 1 0 5 , 12 5 , 1 4 0 , 1 8 9 , 2 2 5 ,
25 2 , 3 0 0 , 3 3 6 , 4 0 0 , 4 0 5 , 4 4 8 , 5 4 0 , 7 2 0 , 7 2 9
960, 9 7 2 , 1 2 8 0 , 1 2 9 6 , 1 7 2 8 , 2 30 4, 3 0 7 2 ,
409 6;
XIV. 26, 56, 88, 98, 210, 250, 280, 378, 450, .
50 4 , 6 0 0 , 6 7 2 , 8 0 0 , 8 1 0 , 8 9 6 , 1 0 8 0 , 1 4 4 0 ,
1 458, 1 9 2 0 , 1 9 4 4 , 2 5 6 0 , 2 5 9 2 , 3 4 5 6 , 4 6 0 8 ,
6144, 8192;
84
XV. 5 9 , 5 2 , 55, 9 9 , 1 5 2 , 1 4 7 , 17 5, 17 6 ,
1 9 6 , 3 1 5 , 5 7 5 , 4 2 0 , 5 0 0 , 56 0, 5 6 7 ,
675, 756, 900, 1008, 1200, 1215,
1344, 1600, 1620, 1792, 2 16 0, 2 1 8 7 ,
2 8 8 0 , 2 9 1 6 , 3 8 4 0 , 3 8 8 8 , 5 12 0, 5 1 8 4 ,
6 9 1 2 , 921 6, 12288 , 1 6 3 8 4 ;
XVI. 7 8 , 1 0 4 , 11 0 , 19 8 , 2 6 4 , 2 9 4 , 3 5 0 ,
3 5 2 , 3 9 2 , 6 3 0 , 75 0 , 8 4 0 , 1 0 0 0 , 1 12 0,
1134, 1350, 1512, 1800, 2016 , 24 00 ,
2 4 3 0 , 2 688 , 3 2 0 0 , 3 2 4 0 , 3 5 8 4 , 4 3 2 0 ,
4374, 5760, 5832, 7680, 7776, 10240,
1 0 3 6 8 , 13 3 2 4 , 1 8 4 3 2 , 2 4 5 7 6 , 3 2 7 6 8 .
32. Of t h e s e y e r a l ways t o f i n d t h e l e a s t
common m u l t i o l e , t h e r e i s one wh ich w i l l be t h e most
u s e f u l io r o u r p u r p o s e . The g i v e n num be rs a r e r e s o l v e d
i n t o t h e i r p ri m e f a c t o r s , and t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e
i s t h e o r o d u c t f o r m e d by t a k i n g e a c h f a c t o r t o t h e
h i g h e s t power t o w hic h i t i s f o u n d i n any o f t h e g i v e n
numbers. F o r e x a m p l e , i f t h e g i v e n numb ers a r e 7 2 , 8 0 ,
1 0 0 , a n d 11 2 , t h e y c a n be r e s o l v e d i n t o t h e f a c t o r s
2 ^ * 3 ^ , 2 ^ * 5 , 22 *52 , a n d 2 4 *7. The d i s t i n c t p ri m e f a c t o r s
a r e 2 , 3 , 5, a nd 7 , whose h i g h e s t p o w e rs a r e 4 , 2, 2 ,
and 1, r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e l e a s t common
m u l t i p l e i s 2 ^ * 3 2 *52 *7 o r 2 5 , 2 0 0 w h i c h b e l o n g s t o t h e
tw e n ty -th ird degree.
33. H e n c e , a p n l y i n g t h e a b ov e r u l e s t o any
nu m be rs w h a t e v e r , we c an d e t e r m i n e t h e d e g r e e o f
d i f f i c u l t y o r e a s e i n p e r c e i v i n g t h e i r m u t u a l r a t i o and
order. We can a l s o compare s e v e r a l c a s e s a n d j u d g e wh ich
85
o f them i s m o s t e a s i l y p e r c e i v e d . The g i v e n r a t i o should
c o n s is t of the sm allest p o s s ib le I n te g e r s . O b v i o u s l y , no
such o r d e r e x i s t s i n i r r a t i o n a l numbers. The f i n d i n g o f
t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e d o e s n o t p e r t a i n t o f r a c t i o n s .
I f t h e nu mb er s were f r a c t i o n s , t h e y c o u l d be c ha ng e d i n t o
i n t e g e r s w ith o u t changing t h e i r m utual r e l a t i o n s h i p . The
ratio s s h o u l d be e x p r e s s e d i n t h e s m a l l e s t p o s s i b l e
n u m b e r s , so t h a t u n i t y i s t h e o n l y number w h i c h i s a f a c t o r
of a l l . I f they are not th e s m a lle s t, t h e y mu st b e d i v i d e d
by t h e i r h i g h e s t common f a c t o r .
34. I n t h i s way, a l s o , we c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e d e g r e e
o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s o f r a t i o s w h i c h a r e n o t m u l t i p l e and
w h ic h we f i r s t c o n s i d e r e d . Thus, since i t s l e a s t common
m ultiple Is six , the r a t i o 2 :3 b e lo n g s to the f o u r t h
d e g r e e a nd i s p e r c e i v e d w i t h t h e 3ame e a s e a s 1 : 6 o r 1 : 8
(Figure 5 ). This p e rc e p tio n co rresponds to th e in s p e c tio n
o f t h e p o i n t s o f t h i s f i g u r e , i n whic h t h e o r d e r i s e a s i l y
perceived.. O bviously, r a t i o s b elo n g in g to h ig h e r d eg rees
w i l l be p e r c e i v e d w i t h much more d i f f i c u l t y i n s u c h a
figure. F o r e x a m p l e , i f t h e r a t i o 5 : 7 were e x p r e s s e d i n
such a f i g u r e , i t s o r d e r would be q u i t e d i f f i c u l t t o
perceive. The l a r g e r t h e numb er by w h ic h t h e d e g r e e i s
e x p r e s s e d , t h e more d i f f i c u l t t h e o r d e r i s to o e r c e i v e
fr o m t h i s k i n d o f f i g u r e .
15- 86
35. F i n a l l y , t h i s m e th o d o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
p e r c e p t i o n o f o r d e r h a s an e ven w i d e r a p p l i c a t i o n . We
h a ve a p p l i e d i t to to n e s of d i f f e r e n t p i t c h , b u t i t can
be a p p l i e d t o t o n e s o f v a r i o u s d u r a t i o n s b y e x p r e s s i n g t h e
t o n e s i n num be rs p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d u r a t i o n s . But, in
t h e c a s e o f d u r a t i o n s , we can n o t u s e s u c h a d v a n c e d d e g r e e s
a s we u s e d i n o u r e x a m i n a t i o n o f p i t c h , sin ce in the l a t t e r
t h e p u l s e s o c c u r more f r e q u e n t l y a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s
h e n c e more e a s i l y p e r c e i v e d . P e r c e p tio n of r a t i o i n the
case o f sev e ra l tones d i f f e r i n g in d u ra tio n is s i m i la r to
t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f l i n e s whose m u t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p m u s t be
co m p re h e n d e d v i s u a l l y . I f those t h i n g s which c o n s t i t u t e
o r d e r c a n be q u a n t i f i e d a n d e x p r e s s e d i n n u m b e r s , the
t r e a t m e n t d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n w i l l hav e g r e a t u s e f u l n e s s i n
a l l o t h e r m a t t e r s i n w h i c h b e a u t y and o r d e r a r e p r e s e n t ,
a s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n a r c h i t e c t u r e , where b e a u t y o f fo r m
n e c e s s i t a t e s t h a t a l l p a r t s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e be a r r a n g e d
i n a n o r d e r w h i c h c a n be p e r c e i v e d .
CHAPTER I I I
ON MUSIC IN GENERAL
1. A d e f i n i t i o n o f m u s i c may seem u n n e c e s s a r y a t
th is point, s i n c e e v e r y o n e knows w ha t f i e l d i s designated
by t h a t name. Yet I b e l i e v e t h a t a d e f i n i t i o n a p p r o p r i
a t e t o my p u r p o s e w i l l be o f g r e a t u t i l i t y f o r t n e d i v i s i o n
o f t h e work and f o r t n e m e th o d o f t r e a t i n g e a c h p a r t of
th e work. Therefore, I d e fin e music as th e s c i e n t i f i c
p r o c e s s o f j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r v a r i o u s t o n e s so a s t o
p r o d u c e ha rm on y p l e a s i n g t o t h e e a r . For t h i s r e a s o n , I
d e c i d e d t h a t t h e s c i e n c e o f s o u n a s and o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s
o f harmony s h o u l d be s e t f o r t h i n some d e t a i l i n t h e
p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s so a s t o g i v e a sound b a s i s f o r u n d e r
s t a n d i n g t h e d e f i n i t i o n i t s e l f and t h e m e t h o d o f t r e a t m e n t .
2. Music i s m o s t o f t e n d i v i d e d i n t o two p a r t s , one
th eo retical, the o th e r p r a c t i c a l . The t h e o r e t i c a l p a r t
d e a l s w i t h m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and i s d e s i g n a t e d by t h e
s p e c i a l name h a r m o n y . The p r a c t i c a l p a r t d e a l s w i t h t n e
v o c al o r i n s t r u m e n ta l p ro d u c tio n o f the p r e s c r i b e d to n e s,
an d t o t h i s p a r t t h e name m u s i c i s commonly a p p l i e d . It
f o l l o w s t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p a r t i s t h e p r i n c i p a l one
s i n c e t h e o t h e r p a r t c a n do n o t h i n g yd t h o u t i t . On t h e
o th e r hand, the t h e o r e t i c a l cannot a t t a i n i t s end,
p le a s u r e , w ith ou t tne p r a c t i c a l . How eve r, s i n c e t h e
88
p r a c t i c a l p a rt i s n o th in g bu t the tre a tm e n t of m usical
i n s t r u m e n t s , we w i l l n o t c o n c e r n u u r s e l v e s w i t h i t h e r e .
3. We h a v e m e n t i o n e d two e l e m e n t s o f t o n e w h ic h
can convey a g r e e a b l e n e s s : p i t c h and d u r a t i o n . I f one
c a r e f u l l y e x a m i n e s t h e m u s i c o f t o d a y , he w i l l o b s e r v e
t h a t a l l i t s a g r e e a b l e n e s s comes f r o m th e v a r i e t y of
p i t c h e s and t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e t o n e s . I t c a n n o t be d e n i e d
t h a t t h e i n t e n s i t y r a n g e o f t o n e s c o n t r i b u t e s much a g r e e
ableness. The m e a s u r e o f t h i s i n t e n s i t y i s not u su ally
p r e s c r i b e d and t h e l i s t e n e r c a n n o t e s t i m a t e I t v e r y
exactly. I t i s u s u a l l y l e f t t o t h e ju d gm e nt o f t h e p e r
form er. T h u s , we c a n n o t r e c k o n w i t h i n t e n s i t y a s we c a n
w i t h p i t c h and d u r a t i o n . In g e n e r a l , however, i t can be
o b s e r v e d t h a t th o s e to n e s which have g r e a t e r emphasis
s h o u l d a l s o be g i v e n g r e a t e r i n t e n s i t y .
4. The d i v e r s i t y o f m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s c a n a l s o
b r i n g much a g r e e a b l e n e s s , and t h e k i n d o f i n s t r u m e n t u s e d
f o r a g i v e n m e lo d y i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t . One m e lo d y r e q u i r e s
a harp, another, the v i o l i n , another, the f l u t e , still
a n o t h e r may be more s u i t a b l e f o r t h e h o r n o r t h e t r u m o e t .
Not o n l y do t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s d i f f e r i n t o n e q u a l i t y , b u t
some o f them c a n e x e c u t e a g i v e n s e r i e s o f t o n e s more
e a s i l y and g r a c e f u l l y . For t h i s reason, composers should
be c a r e f u l a b o u t t h e i r c h o i c e s o f i n s t r u m e n t s , so t h a t
t h e y w r i t e n o t h i n g t h a t c a n n o t be e x e c u t e d p r o o e r l y and
89
g racefully. Hen ce, f o r t h e m os t p a r t , c o m p o s e r s d e s i g n a t e
instrum ents b e s t f i t t e d fo r p la cin g t h e i r m elodies.
5. H a vi ng a d m i t t e d p i t c h a n d d u r a t i o n a s two
c o n v e y o r s o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s , we c an add t h e i r c o m b i n a t i o n
as a t h i r d . F irstly , a l l a g r e e a b l e n e s s c o u l d come from
t h e d i v e r s i t y o f h i g h an d low t o n e s , w i t h a l l d u r a t i o n s
equal o r ignored. S e c o n d l y , e v e n i f we make a l l p i t c h e s
t h e same, t h e t o n e s c a n s t i l l c o n v ey a g r e e a b l e n e s s b e c a u s e
of the order e x is tin g in t h e i r d u ra tio n s . T h i r d ly , the
most p e r f e c t d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s comes fro m t h e v a r i e t y
o f p i t c h e s a n d d u r a t i o n s u s e d t o g e t h e r , and i t f o l l o w s t h a t
e x c e l l e n t m u s ic i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a h i g h d e g r e e o f s u c h
variety.
6. In t h i s t h i r d c a te g o r y b e lo n g s most of p r e s e n t -
day m u s i c . Modern c o m p o s e r s n o t o n l y u s e v a r i e t y o f
p i t c h e s to produce a g r e e a b l e n e s s , b u t they in c r e a s e i t
c o n s i d e r a b l y by u s e o f v a r i e t y of d u r a t i o n , fr om w hi ch t h e
measure has i t s o r i g i n . L e t u s exami ne e x a m p l e s o f t h e
f i r s t two k i n d s o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s . A ll the a g re e a b le n e s s
f o u n d i n e c c l e s i a s t i c a l p l a i n c h a n t comes fro m t h e v a r i e t y
o f p i t c h e s a n d from t h e o r o o e r s u c c e s s i o n o f c o n s o n a n c e s .
Drums g i v e u s a n examole o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s o f d u r a t i o n .
Since t h e i r sounds d i f f e r l i t t l e In n itc h , a l l a g reeab le
n e s s u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n d s on t h e v a r i e t y o f d u r a t i o n .
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7. In a l l t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s the composer should
c o n sid e r not only the g e n e ra l r u le s o f a g re e a b le n e s s but
a l s o w h e t h e r he d e s i r e s t o move h i s h e a r e r s t o j o y o r
sadness. I n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r i t was p o i n t e d o u t how
e a c h may b e e f f e c t e d . I n c o m p o si n g m e l o d i e s t o g i v e n
hymns t h e c o m p o s e r mus t g i v e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e m a t t e r s .
I f words o r s e n t e n c e s o f s a d n e s s o c c u r , a melo dy i s
u s u a l l y p r o v i d e d so t h a t t h e o r d e r I s p e r c e i v e d w i t h more
d ifficu lty . H e nc e , c o m o o s e r s u s e l e s s s i m p l e c o n s o n a n c e s
o r s u c c e s s i o n s o f them w h i c h a r e more d i f f i c u l t o f p e r
c e p t i o n , o r t h e y p r e p a r e t h e d u r a t i o n s so t h a t p e r c e p t i o n
o f t h e i r r a t i o s I s made more d i f f i c u l t . When t h e t e x t
tends to g a i e t y , they re v e r s e th e se p ro c e d u re s .
8. A m u s ic a l c o m p o sitio n i s l i k e an o r a t i o n o r a
poem. In th ese I t i s not s u f f i c i e n t j u s t to jo in to g e th e r
e l e g a n t w or ds a n d p h r a s e s , b u t t h e y s h o u l d h a v e a w e l l -
o r d e r e d a r r a n g e m e n t a n d an a p p r o p r i a t e t h e m e . Su c h a
p u r p o s e s h o u l d a l s o be e v i d e n t i n m u s i c . S e v e r a l con
sonances co n n ected i n a s e r i e s w i l l not o f t e n p l e a s e , even
i f the i n d i v i d u a l consonances a re q u ite a g r e e a b l e , b u t
o r d e r m u s t be e v i d e n t , j u s t a s i f t h e c o n s o n a n c e s were t o
c o n s ti tu te a speech. I t i s e s p e c i a l l y n e c e s s a r y to
o b serv e t h e d e g r e e o f e ase o r d i f f i c u l t y w ith which the
order is perceived. As t h e p u r p o s e r e q u i r e s , t h e g a i e t y
o r s a d n e s s w i l l h a v e t o b e I n t e r c h a n g e d , o r now o n e , t h e n
t h e o t h e r w i l l ha v e t o be i n t e n s i f i e d o r r e l a x e d .
91
9. Nov/, l e t us c o n s i d e r how b e s t t o t r e a t t h e s e
th re e k inds of m usic. A ll of the f i r s t kind c o n s i s t s of
the s u c c e s s io n of th e v a rio u s p i t c h e s , s i n c e , a s we ha ve
s a id , any o r d e r o f d u r a t i o n i s e i t h e r a b s e n t o r i s not
considered. O f t e n i n t h i s c a t e g o r y s e v e r a l t o n e s sound
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , and t h e r e s u l t i n g sound i s c a l l e d a c o n
sonance. I do n o t mean c o n s o n a n c e i n t h e u s u a l s e n s e a s
t h e o p p o s i t e o f d i s s o n a n c e , b u t I u s e t h i s word t o d e s i g
n a t e t h a t s ou nd p r o d u c e d b y s e v e r a l s i m u l t a n e o u s t o n e s .
With t h i s d e f i n i t i o n a s i m p l e t o n e c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a s
th e lo w e st and s i m p l e s t d e g re e o f consonance, j u s t as
u n i t y i s s i t u a t e d among t h e integers. The f i r s t k i n a o f
m usic, t h e n , c o n s i s t s o f a s e r i e s of s e v e r a l c o n s e c u tiv e
c o n s o n a n c e s w h ic h c o n s t i t u t e a g r e e a b l e h a r m o n y .
10 . T h e r e f o r e , t h e f i r s t o b j e c t o f d i s c u s s i o n and
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o u l d be t h e k i n d s o f s ou nd r e o u i r e d f o r
ma kin g a n a g r e e a b l e c o n s o n a n c e . Then we s h o u l d a s c e r t a i n
th e degree of a g re e a b le n e s s in each c a s e . Many k i n d s o f
c o n s o n a n c e s w i l l be s t u d i e d , a nd l a t e r we w i l l i n d i c a t e
th o s e most s u i t a b l e f o r u s e . We w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e the
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n two c h o r d s whose s u c c e s s i o n i s
p leasing. F i n a l l y , we w i l l f i n d o u t a b o u t t h e r e l a t i v e
n a tu re of s e v e ra l co n secutiv e consonances. vVitn t h e s e
s t u d i e s c o m p l e t e d , we w i l l b e a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e how much
a g r e e a b l e n e s s i s c o n ta i n e d i n sny g iv e n s e r i e s o f
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c o n s o n a n c e s , f o r we w i l l h a v e c o n s i d e r e d i n d i v i d u a l
consonances, t h e i r s u c c e s s io n s , and the r e l a t i o n s between
the su cc e ssio n s,
11. N e x t , we w i l l h a v e m e t h o d s o f c o m posi ng many
s e r ie s of consonances. Tho se m e th o d s i n u s e by c o m p o s e r s
a re only s p e c ia l c a s e s . Since e ach of th e se r e q u i r e s
c e r t a i n t o n e s , we m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e i n s t r u m e n t s c a p a b l e
of producing th e s e to n e s . Next, th e r e i s a f u l l e r t r e a t
me nt o f m u s i c a l m o d e s , t h e i r s u c c e s s i o n s , a n d o t h e r
m a t t e r s by w h ic h a m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d a nd
encompassed. F i n a l l y , we w i l l r e - e x a m i n e t h e s i m p l e
components o f c o n so n a n c es and w i l l d i l i g e n t l y i n v e s t i g a t e
t h e k i n d s w h i c h s h o u l d be u s e d a t a p a r t i c u l a r t i m e , th eir
i n t e r c h a n g e and a p p r o p r i a t e s u b s t i t u t i o n s . A com position
w hi c h i s l i m i t e d o n l y b y t h e s e r u l e s and w h i c h n e g l e c t s
the d u r a t i o n of t o n e s , i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d sim ple or f r e e ,
s in c e in a measure i t i s s i m i l a r t o f r e e v e r s e l a c k i n g any
m eter.
12. A nother kind o f music d i s r e g a r d s the d i f f e r
e n ce s i n p i t c h and i s wholly co n cerned w ith p ro d u c in g
a g re e a b le n e s s thro u g h the o u r a tio n s of to n e s . This
a g r e e a b l e n e s s , a s was p o i n t e d o u t i n C h a p t e r I I , w i l l b e
o b t a i n e d i f we c a n p e r c e i v e t h e r a t i o and o r d e r w h ic h t h e
d u r a t i o n s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o n e s hav e among t h e m s e l v e s .
T h e r e f o r e , a l l t o n e s must have m e as u re d , f i x e d d u r a t i o n s
93
w hi c h s h o u l d b e so r e l a t e d t h a t t h e i r r a t i o s a r e p e r c e p
tib le, S t a r t i n g w i t h two t o n e s , we s h o u l d f i r s t f i n d o u t
wha t d u r a t i o n t h e y s h o u l d ha ve i n o r d e r t h a t t h e l i s t e n e r s
can p e r c e iv e t h e i r r a t i o . H e r e , t o o , i t w i l l be v e r y
h e l p f u l t o n o t e by what d e g r e e o f e a s e s u c h r a t i o s c a n b e
perceived. S i m i l a r l y , we w i l l c o n s i d e r more t h a n two
tones.
13, J u s t a s the d i v i s i o n of tim e i n t o e q u a l p a r t s
i s u s e d e v e r y w h e r e an d seems q u i t e n a t u r a l t o man, a l l
t o n e s i n m u s i c e r e b a s e d on e q u a l d i v i s i o n s o f t i m e , e v e n
if t h e t o n e s t h e m s e l v e s ha v e u n e q u a l d u r a t i o n s . W it h tim e
divided in to equal p a r ts , t h e t o n e s a r e so d i s t r i b u t e d
t h a t p a r t i a l sums o f t h e i r d u r a t i o n s a r e e q u a l t o t h e
equal p a r t s . T h u s , i n t h e same p e r i o d o f t i m e , t h e r e may
be many o r few t o n e s , d e p e n d i n g on t h e i r d u r a t i o n s . Such
a p o r t i o n o f time i s c a l l e d a m easure. A ccordingly, a
s e r i e s o f to n e s i n th e k in d of music un d er c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s
d i s t r i b u t e d i n s u c h m e a s u r e s , w h i c h a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d fro m
e a c h o t h e r a s a r e f e e t a n d v e r s e s i n a poem.
14. A m e a s u re i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d e i t h e r by i t s d u r a
t i o n o r by i t s subdivisions. In th e f i r s t case,' the measure
p a s s e s s l o w l y o r r a o i d l y , d e f e n d i n g on i t s l e n g t h . In the
c a s e o f s u b d i v i s i o n s , w h ic h c an be made i n many w a y s , t h e
v a r i e t y of p o s s i b i l i t i e s i s m a n ifo ld . T h i s v a r i e t y can
r e s u l t fr o m d i v i s i o n o f t h e m e a s u r e i n t o 2 , 3, o r 4 p a r t s ,
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
94
and t h e r e w i l l a l s o b e d i v e r s i t y a r i s i n g f r o m t h e e q u a l o r
unequal d iv is io n s of each p a r t . Also, t h e s e p a r t s th e m
s e l v e s a r e o f t e n f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d i n v a r i o u s wa ys. From
t h i s t h e r e a r i s e s i n t h i s kind of m u s ic , a t l e a s t such
great d iv ersity t h a t no l i s t o f t h e v a r i e t i e s can b e made.
15. Then, t o o , su c c e ssiv e m easures o f te n vary
e ith e r in d u ra tio n or s u b d iv isio n s, so t h a t s o m e t im e s we
ha v e a sl ow one a f t e r a f a s t one and s om e t im e s a f a s t one
a f t e r a slow o n e . In th e case o f s u b d i v i s i o n s , the
b ip artite, trip artite, and o t h e r m e a s u r e s c a n be a l t e r e d
and i n t e r m i x e d i n many w a y s . T h i s v a r i e t y , m o r e o v e r , may
b e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d s i n c e f o r t h e same d i v i s i o n a m e a s u r e
may be o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s a n d t h e s e k i n d s c a n ha v e a
v a rie ty of subdivisions. M o r e o v e r , by t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s
v a r i a t i o n o f b o t h d i v i s i o n s and d u r a t i o n s , t h e number o f
c h a n g e s w i l l be I n c r e a s e d e n o r m o u s l y . The r u l e s g o v e r n i n g
a l l t h e s e m a t t e r s a r e t o b e d e r i v e d from C h a p t e r I I .
16. As we ha v e s a i d , m e a s u r e s and t h e i r p a r t s a r e
p e r c e i v e d by t h e h e a r e r s i n t h e same ma nne r a s t h e v e r s e s ,
f e e t , an d s y l l a b l e s o f a poem. Ju st as in these th e re is
s c a r c e l y a n y p e r c e p t i b l e c e s s a t i o n o f t h e wo rds when t h e y
a r e r e a d , e v e n i f some ga p i s a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t , thus
m e a s u r e s a n d t h e i r p a r t s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d fr om e a c h
other, so t h a t a v e r y s h o r t an d a l m o s t i m p e r c e p t i b l e s p a c e
may b e i n t e r p o s e d b e t w e e n m e a s u r e s and b e t w e e n p a r t s .
95
F re q u e n tly the d i f f e r e n c e of i n t e n s i t y of to n es a c c e n tu a te s
th is d istin c tio n , f o r the f i r s t tones o f a m easure, or
t h o s e w h ic h b e g i n t h e m e a s u r e o r i t s p a r t 3 , a r e made
stronger. H e nc e , t h e f i r s t t o n e s i n a n y m e a s u r e a n d i t s
p a r t s s h o u l d be t h e mos t p r o m i n e n t , and t h e o t h e r t o n e s
sh o u ld be l e s s p ro m in e n t.
17 . J u s t a s t h e p a r t s o f a m e a s u r e c a n b e co mpared
w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l s y l l a b l e s o f a poem a n d t h e m e a s u r e
i t s e l f w i t h t h e f e e t o r v e r s e s , so a l s o s e v e r a l m e a s u r e s
c o n s t i t u t e a w ho le s e n t e n c e a n d s e v e r a l s u c h s e n t e n c e s
make up p a r t o f a poem. Therefore, sim ilar ru les should be
o b s e rv e d i n music and r h e t o r i c , so t h a t a ny m e a s u r e may
r e p r e s e n t a c e r t a i n d i v i s i o n of t h e m e l o d y ; a n d s e v e r a l
m e a s u re s , which c o r r e s p o n d to t h e s e n te n c e o r v e r s e of a
poem, s h o u l d c o m p r i s e a c o m p l e t e m e l o d i c t h o u g h t . This
th o u g h t sh o u ld have an a p p r o p r i a t e c l o s e . T h e r e s h o u l d be
a d i v e r s i t y o f s u c h c l o s e s , d e f e n d i n g on w h e t h e r t h e y e nd
a p a r t o f a s e n t e n c e , a w h o le s e n t e n c e , o r a w ho le work.
18 . The l a s t t o n e o f e a c h s e n t e n c e s h o u l d be
p r o m i n e n t , and h e n c e i t s h o u l d b e th e f i r s t tone of
e i t h e r a measure o r of a b e a t . Therefore, n e ith e r a
m u s i c a l s e n t e n c e n o r a poem C8n f i n i s h a t t h e v e r y e nd o f
the measure i t s e l f , b u t eac h should co nclude a t t h e b e g i n
n i n g o f e i t h e r a m e a s u r e o r one o f i t s p a r t s . The o r o -
g r e s s i o n t o w a r d , and p r e p a r a t i o n f o r , t h e c l o s e o c c u r s i n
t h e v e r y e nd o f t h e m e a s u r e o r i t s p a r t so t h a t t h e
96
f o l l o w i n g p ro m in en t tone c o n clu d e s th e s e n t e n c e . Secondary
to n e s a r e used to j o i n t o g e t h e r the prom inent t o n e s . They
s h o u l d be p l a c e d among t h e p r o m i n e n t t o n e s , and t h e y c a n
n e i t h e r b e g i n n o r end a m e l o d y . A ll of these m a tte rs w ill
r e c e iv e f u l l e r tre a tm e n t i n the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the t h i r d
kind o f m usic.
19. The t h i r d k i n d o f m u s i c , a s we ha ve s a i d ,
j o i n s t h e o t h e r two k i n d s . T h i s t h i r d k i n d w i l l h a v e much
a g r e e a b l e n e s s when t h e t o n e s hav e p e r c e p t i b l e o r d e r i n t h e
m a t t e r o f p i t c h , as in th e f i r s t k i n d , and i n the m a t t e r
of d u r a t i o n , a s i n the second k in d . Therefore, the
g r e a t e r the o r d e r e x i s t i n g in e a c h , t h e more t h i s m u s i c
w ill please. C learly, i t i s much more d i f f i c u l t in th is
t h i r d k i n d t o work o u t s o m e t h i n g o f p e r f e c t i o n b e c a u s e
t h i s kind has to in c lu d e each p e r f e c t i o n j o i n t l y . Hence,
t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f t h e m a t t e r r e q u i r e s t h a t w or k a na s t u d y
b e g i v e n t o t h e f i r s t two k i n d s b e f o r e t h e t h i r d i s c o n
s i d e r e d , f o r u n l e s s a g r e e a b l e n e s s c a n be o b t a i n e d i n e a c h
o f t h e f i r s t two k i n d s s e p a r a t e l y , n o t h i n g a g r e e a b l e w i l l
be f o u n d i n t h e t h i r d , w hi c h i s composed o f t h e f i r s t two,
I f t h e f i r s t two a r e u n d e r s t o o d , t h e t h i r d s h o u l d o r e s e n t
little d ifficu lty .
20. In t h i s t h i r d kind l i e s the g r e a t e s t v a r i e t y
of c o m p o s itio n , f o r i t h a s a v a i l a b l e n o t o n ly the v a r i e t i e s
o f e a c h o f t h e o t h e r tw o, b u t a n a l m o s t i n f i n i t e number
97
r e s u l t i n g fro m c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e two. I f t h e t o t a l number
o f a r r a n g e m e n t s i n t h e f i r s t k i n d i s m and t h e number o f
d i f f e r e n t forms o f th e m easure i n th e second k in d i s n ,
th e number o f v a r i e t i e s o f t h e t h i r d k i n d w i l l be mn.
As we ha ve shown, i f m and n a p p r o a c h i n f i n i t y , t h e number
mn w i l l be o f s t u p e n d o u s m a g n i t u d e . C l e a r l y , a l l the
p o s s i b l e v a r i e t i e s o f modern m u s i c , whic h i s p r i n c i p a l l y
o f t h e t n i r d k i n d , c o u l d n o t be e n u m e r a t e d . Th u s , t h a t
a r t can n o t be e x h a u s t e d , and, a s long a s the world
e n d u r e s , t h e r e w i l l a l w a y s be new i n v e n t i o n s i n t h e
g r e a t e s t a b u n d a n c e , fro m w hi ch t h e r e w i l l be a c o n s t a n t
f l o w o f new k i n d s o f melody a n d h a r m o n y , 1
2 1. In t r e a t i n g the t h i r d kin d of m usic, i t i s
c o n v e n i e n t t o f o l l o w t h e d i v i s i o n made i n t h e s e c o n d k i n d
and t o a p p l y t o e a c h v a r i e t y o f m e a s u r e a l l t h e m e th o d s
o f composin g' t h e f i r s t k i n d . F i r s t o f a l l , h o w e v e r , we
sh o u ld c o n s i d e r tn e g e n e r a l r u l e s f o r combining the f i r s t
two k i n d s o f m u s i c . These r u l e s s h o u l d show what k i n d s o f
'John S t u a r t M i l l ( 1 6 0 d - l b 7 3 ) , E n g l i s h p h i l o s o p h e r
and e c o n o m i s t , w r o t e : " I was s e r i o u s l y t o r m e n t e d by t h e
thdught of the e x h a u s t i b i l i t y of m usical com binations.
The o c t a v e c o n s i s t s o n l y o f f i v e t o n e s and two s e m i t o n e s ,
w hic h c a n b e p u t t o g e t h e r i n o n l y a l i m i t e d number o f ways
o f whic h b u t a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n a r e b e a u t i f u l : mos t o f
t h e s e , i t seemed t o me, must h a v e b e e n a l r e a d y d i s c o v e r e d ,
and t h e r e c o u l d n o t be room f o r a l o n g s u c c e s s i o n o f
M o z a r t s a n d Webers t o s t r i k e o u t , a s t h e s e h av e d o n e ,
e n t i r e l y new s u r p a s s i n g r i c h v e i n s o f m u s i c a l b e a u t y .
T h i s s o r t o f a n x i e t y may, p e r h a p s , be t h o u g h t t o r e s e m b l e
t h a t o f t h e p h i l o s o o h e r s o f L a p u t a , who f e a r e d l e s t t h e
su n be b u r n t o u t . " Se e S l o n i m s k y , N i c o l a s , T h e s a u r u s o f
S c a l e s and M e l o d i c P a t t e r n s , p . v i .
98
consonances a re m ost s u i t a b l e in any p a r t o f a m easu re.
S ince some p a r t s o f a m e a s u r e a r e m o r e p r o m i n e n t a n d some
are less orom inent, it is necessary th at such a d is c r im i
n a t i o n b e m a d e among t h o s e c o n so n a n c es w hich a r e u s e d .
S ince a group o f m easures i s com parable to th e sentence
and o t h e r p a r t s o f a p o e m , we s h o u l d a l s o show t h e k i n d s
o f c o n s o n a n c e s b y w h i c h a n y d i v i s i o n may b e m o s t s u i t a b l y
expressed. H e r e we s h o u l d a l s o d e a l w i t h e n d i n g s a n d
th e ir d ifferen ces w hich a r i s e from th e d i v i s i o n s .
22. N ext, by e n u m e ra tin g th e v a r i o u s k in d s of
m e asu re s from th e second k in d of m usic, we w i l l in d icate
how a m u s i c a l s e n t e n c e c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d how a w h o l e
poe m, a s i t w ere, c a n be com posed o f th e m . T his d i s
c u ssio n w i l l be q u ite extended because th e kinds of
m easu res and th e m eth o d s o f com posing a r e innum erable.
In a d d i t i o n , th ere is a g reat d iv ersity of s ty le , w hich i s
an elem ent f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n in m usic a s w e ll a s r h e t o r i c
a n d w hich i s nothing b u t a c e r ta in system of form ing
sen te n c es and jo in in g them t o g e t h e r . H ere, to o , belong
m usical f i g u r e s , s im ila r to fig u res in rh e to ric , by w hich
th ese m usical d is c o u rse s a re h ig h ly e m b e llis h e d and
brought to the toom ost d e g re e o f p erfectio n .
23. From t h e c o n s o n a n c e s w h ic h t h u s compose
m u s ic a l harm ony, there a r is e d iffe re n t v o ices, as tney are
called . If the tones are p r o d u c e d e i t h e r b y t h e huma n
99
v o i c e o r b y a n i n s t r u m e n t w h ic h c a n p r o d u c e o n l y one t o n e
a t a t i m e , t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f any c o n s o n a n c e r e q u i r e s
s e v e ra l v o ic e s o r such in s tr u m e n ts . This g iv es r i s e to a
new t r e a t m e n t o f t h e c o m b i n i n g o f s e v e r a l v o i c e s so a s t o
p r o d u c e a s e r i e s o f a p p r o p r i a t e and p l e a s i n g c o n s o n a n c e s .
We s h o u l d f i r s t c o n s i d e r one v o i c e , t h e n t w o , t h r e e , f o u r ,
o r more. By t h i s p r o c e s s , a l l r u l e s w h i c h w i l l b e b r o u g h t
o u t w i l l be m os t h i g h l y accommo da ted t o t h e u s u a l m e th o d
o f composing. A lm o s t a l l works o f m u s i c c o n s i s t o f a
c e r t a i n number o f v o i c e s , e a c h o f w h ic h c o n s t i t u t e s a
c e r t a i n in c o m p le te melody. Sounded t o g e t h e r , h o w e v e r ,
t h e y p r o d u c e a n a g r e e a b l e ha rm ony.
24. Thus, th e f u l l t r e a t m e n t of m usic w i l l be
completed i n t h r e e p a r t s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e k in d s of
music. I t i s c l e a r how a ny o f t h e s e may be r e f e r r e d t o
t h e r u l e s o f ha rm ony e s t a b l i s h e d i n C h a p t e r I I . Since
e v e r y t h i n g p e r t a i n i n g t o m u s i c can oe d e r i v e d fro m c e r t a i n
p r i n c i p l e s whose t r u t h h a s b e e n a d e q u a t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d ,
t h e m e t h o d w h ic h we s h a l l u s e i s c l e a r l y p h i l o s o p h i c o r
ratio n al. No o n e , a s f a r a s I know, h a s u s e d s u c h a
m e th o d i n d i s c u s s i n g m u s i c . A l l who h a v e w r i t t e n a b o u t
m u s ic h a v e s l i g h t e d e i t h e r t h e o r y o r p r a c t i c e . Some ha ve
drawn u o r u l e s f o r c o m p o si n g w i t n o u t d e m o n s t r a t i o n s .
O t h e r s h a v e b u s i e d t h e m s e l v e s e x p l a i n i n g c o n s o n a n c e s an d
d i s s o n a n c e s , f o l l o w i n g w h i c h t h e y have i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e
100
t u n i n g o f m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s ; b u t t h e y have u s e d
inadequate o r u n c e r ta in p r i n c i p l e s , ana, accordingly,
t h e i r p ro g re s s has been l i m i t e d .
CHAPTER IV
ON CONSONANCES
1. S e v e r a l t o n e s o c c u r r i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y co n
s t i t u t e a c o m p o s i t e so und w h i c h we c a l l a c o n s o n a n c e .
O t h e r s d e f i n e t h i s te r m i n a s t r i c t e r s e n s e a n d say t h a t a
c o n s o n a n c e d e n o t e s a c o m p o s i t e s ou nd w h i c h i s p l e a s i n g t o
t h e H e a r i n g a n d h a s much a g r e e a b l e n e s s i n I t s e l f , and t h e y
d i s t i n g u i s h such a consonance from a d i s s o n a n c e , which f o r
them i s a c o m p o s i t e s o u n d h a v i n g l i t t l e o r no a g r e e a b l e n e s s .
But s i n c e i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e f i n e t h e l i m i t s o f c o n
s o n a n c e a n d d i s s o n a n c e an d s i n c e t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s l e s s
i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h o u r m e th o d o f t r e a t m e n t by w h i c h we j u d g e
com posite sounds a c c o rd in g to th e d e grees of a g r e e a b le n e s s
as set f o r t h in Chapter I I , we a p p l y t h e t e r m c o n s o n a n c e
to a l l sounds which c o n s i s t o f s e v e r a l sim u lta n e o u s t o n e s .
2. T h e r e f o r e , wnenever such a consonance i s p l e a s
i n g , t h e r a t i o s among i t s component s o u n d s m u s t b e p e r
ceived. S i n c e we a r e n o t c o n c e r n e d h e r e w i t h th e d u r a t i o n
o f s o u n d s , t h e a g r e e a b l e n e s s w i l l be d e r i v e d o n l y fr om t h e
p e r c e p t i o n o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n the h ig n n e s s o r low nesr of
the sounds. Therefore, s in c e th e h ig h n e s s and lowness of
s o u n d s a r e m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e number o f p u l s e s p r o d u c e d i n
t h e S8me o e r i o d o f t i m e , i t i s c l e a r t h a t an yo ne who
c o m o r e h e n d s t h e m u t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i o o f t h e s e numb ers s h o u l d
a l s o sense the a g re e a b le n e s s of the consonance.
102
3. We d e c i d e d e a r l i e r t o e x p r e s s t h e p i t c h e s
t h e m s e l v e s by t h e number o f v i b r a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
e a c h p i t c h , u s i n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of h i g h n e s s o r l o w n e s s
t o measure th e sound a s a q u a n t i t y o r t o d e te r m in e i t s
p osition. A c c o rd in g ly , whenever a g iv e n consonance
pleases, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t th e r a t i o betw een th e sounds
a s i n d i v i d u a l q u a n t i t i e s b e p e r c e i v e d by t h e h e a r e r . In
t h i s way, t h e r e f o r e , we r e f e r t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f c o n s o n a n c e s
t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f numbers, e m a t t e r t r e a t e d i n
Chapter I I , from w hi ch one c a n u n d e r s t a n d how t h e a g r e e
a b l e n e s s of any c o n s o n a n c e i s t o be j u d g e d .
4. I t w i l l be s im p le , t h e r e f o r e , to reduce the
p e r c e p t i o n of any consonance to a c e r t a i n de g re e of
agreeableness. T h i s w i l l make c l e a r t h e d e g r e e o f
d i f f i c u l t y o r ease w i t h which a g iv e n consonance i s
comprehended. In a d d i t i o n , s e v e r a l c o n s o n a n c e s c a n be
com par ed w i t h e a c h o t h e r , and i t w i l l b e p o s s i b l e to
d e c i d e w h ic h a r e c o m p re h e n d e d more e a s i l y an d t o what
degree. T h e r e f o r e , g i v e n any c o n s o n a n c e , one m u s t f i n d a
number w h ic h i s t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e numbers
r e p r e s e n t i n g th e i n d i v i d u a l sounds and must a s c e r t a i n to
w h ic h d e g r e e t h i s m u l t i p l e b e l o n g s . From t h i s i t w i l l be
c l e a r how much p e r c e o t i v e a b i l i t y i 3 r e q u i r e d .
5. Therefore, s i n c e we want t h e l e a s t common
m u l t i p l e o f t h e s i m p l e s o u n d s , we w i l l a l w a y s h a v e t o
103
e x p r e s s t h e s e p i t c h e s i n i n t e g e r s w h ic h m u s t b e t h e
s m a l l e s t h a v i n g t h e same r a t i o ; a n d t h i s w i l l be t h e c a s e
i f t h e i n t e g e r s h a v e no common d i v i s o r e x c e p t u n i t y .
We s h o u l d n e x t s e e k t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e i n a c c o r d
ance w ith th e p r i n c i p l e s s e t f o r t h in C h ap ter I I . F in ally ,
u s i n g t h e s e same p r i n c i p l e s , we f i n d t h e d e g r e e o f a g r e e
a b l e n e s s t o w h ic h t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e b e l o n g s . The
p e r c e p tio n of the consonance i t s e l f s h o u l d be r a t e d a s
b e l o n g i n g t o t h e same d e g r e e . Our t a b l e i n C h a p t e r I I
g i v e s t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e f i r s t
16 d e g r e e s .
6, H e n c e fo rth th e term exponent w i l l be used to
d e s i g n a t e t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e s i m p l e sou nd s
compo si ng a c o n s o n a n c e . W ith t h i s d e s i g n a t i o n t h e n a t u r e
o f th e consonance i t s e l f i s a s c e r ta in e d a t once. In
s e c tio n 27, C hapter I I , a m e th od was d e s c r i b e d f o r f i n d i n g
t h e d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s fro m t h e g i v e n e x p o n e n t . The
f o r m u l a may b e e x p r e s s e d by .s -n +1 , whe re s_ i s t h e sum o f
t h e pr im e f a c t o r s o f t h e e x o o n e n t and n i s t h e number o f
these f a c to r s . The s m a l l e r t h e number y i e l d e d by t h i s
f o r m u l a , t n e more a g r e e a b l e o r more e a s i l y perceived is
the consonance u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
7. A ppropriately, the consonances a r e c l a s s i f i e d
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e number o f s i m p l e s o u n d s of w h i c h t h e y a r e
com pos ed . Thus t h e r e o r e b i s o n a n t , t r i s o n a n t , an d
104
m u ltis o n a n t co n so n a n c es, a c c o rd in g to w hether they c o n s i s t
o f tw o , t h r e e , o r more s o u n d s . Hen ce, b i s o n a n t c o n s o n a n c e s
c o n s i s t o f two t o n e s , a a n d b , numb ers b y w h ic h may be
ex p re ssed the r a t i o of the sounds. T h e s e nu mb er s mus t be
i n t e g e r s w i t h no common f a c t o r s . T h e refo re , the l e a s t
common m u l t i p l e w i l l b e t h e num be r a b , w h i c h w i l l b e t h e
e x p o n e n t o f t h e g i v e n c o n s o n a n c e and w i l l s i g n i f y t h e
deg re e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s to which t h i s consonance b e l o n g s .
Let us l i s t such consonances a c c o rd in g t o th e degree of
a g r e e a b l e n e s s so t h a t t h e d e g r e e s o f e a s e o r d i f f i c u l t y o f
p e r c e p t i o n may b e c l e a r f r o m t h e o r d e r i t s e l f .
8. To make s u c h an e n u m e r a t i o n , l e t u s r e s o l v e e a c h
number o f e a c h d e g r e e i n t h e t a b l e o f C h a p t e r I I I n t o two
num be rs w i t h no common f a c t o r s . I n many I n s t a n c e s t h e r e
a r e s e v e r a l s u c h p a i r s , e a c h o f w hic h r e p r e s e n t s t h e
s o u n d s o f a b i s o n a n t c o n s o n a n c e whose e x p o n e n t i s t h e
number f r o m w h i c h t h e s e p a i r s o f f a c t o r s a r e d e r i v e d .
F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e f i f t h d e g r e e we h a v e t h e number 12
w hi c h c a n b e r e s o l v e d i n two ways i n t o r e l a t i v e l y pri m e
facto rs: 1 , 12 a n d 3 , 4 . Su ch s o u n d s , t h e r e f o r e , c o n
stitu te c o n s o n a n c e s w h ic h b e l o n g t o t h e f i f t h d e g r e e and
ha v e a n e / p o n e n t o f 12.
9. I t w i l l be n o t e d t h a t no b i s o n a n t o r m u l t i s o n a n t
c o n s o n a n c e i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f i r s t d e g r e e , t o w hic h
u n ity b e lo n g s , f o r since the sounds c o n s t i t u t i n g a
105
c o n s o n a n c e m us t be d i f f e r e n t , a u n i t y o f s o u n d s c a n
n e v e r b e a l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o r e x p o n e n t * For t h i s
r e a s o n th e s i m p l e s t consonance b e lo n g s t o th e second
degree and c o n s i s t s of to n e s having a 1:2 r a t i o . The
e x p o n e n t i s 2 , w h ic h i s t h e o n l y number b e l o n g i n g t o t h e
second d e g re e . M usicians c a l l t h i s consonance the
d i a p a s o n o r o c t a v e and c o n s i a e r i t t h e s i m p l e s t and mos t
p e r f e c t , f o r i t i s the most e a s i l y p e r c e iv e d and d i s t i n
g u i s h e d f r o m t h e o t h e r c o n s o n a n c e s by t h e h e a r i n g .
10. The t h i r d d e g r e e h a s t h e numbers 3 and 4 , e a c h
o f w h ic h i s r e s o l v e d i n t o two r e l a t i v e l y p r im e f a c t o r s ,
i.e ., 1 , 3 a nd 1 , 4 . These p a i r s produce b i s o n a n t con
s o n a n c e s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e t h i r d d e g r e e a nd c o n s i s t i n g of
to n e s w i th r a t i o s of 1 :3 and 1 : 4 , u s u a l l y c a l l e d the
o c t a v e p l u s f i f t h an d t h e d o u b l e o c t a v e , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
T h e r e c a n b e no d o u b t t h a t t h e s e c o n s o n a n c e s a r e more
e a s i l y p e rc e iv e d than th o se t h a t fo llo w .
11. P r o c e e d i n g i n t h i s m a n n e r , I made th e f o l l o w i n g
t a b l e of b is o n a n t consonances a rra n g e d acc o rd in g to degree
o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s and c a r r i e d t h r o u g h t h e t e n t h d e g r e e :
D e g re e II: 1:2.
Ill: 1:3, 1:4.
IV: 1:6, 2 :3, 1 :8.
V: 1 :5 , 1 :9 , 1:12, 3 :4 , 1:16.
VI: 1:10, 2 :5 , 1:18, 2 :9 , 1:24, 3 : 8 ,
1:52
V II: 1:7 , 1:15, 3 :5 , 1:20, 4 :5 , 1:27,
1:36, 4 :9 , 1:48, 3 :1 6 , 1:64,
106
V III: 1:14, 2 :7 , 1:3 0 , 2:15, 3:1 0 , 5 :3 ,

1:40, 5 :8 , 1:54, 2:27, 1:72, 8 :9 ,
1:96, 3:32, 1:128.
IX. 1:21, 3 :7 , 1:25, 1:28, 4 :7 , 1:45,

5:9, 1:60, 3 :2 0 , 4:15, 5:12, 1:80,
5:16, 1 :8 1 , 1 :108, 4 :2 7 , 1:144,
9:16, 1:192, 3 :6 4 , 1:256.
X. 1:42, 3:14, 6 :7 , 1:5 0 , 2 :2 5 , 1:56,

7 :8 , 1:9 0 , 2 :4 5 , 5:1 8 , 9 :1 0 , 1:120,
3:40, 5:24, 8 :1 5 , 1:160, 5:32,
1:162, 2:81, 1:216, 8:2 7 , 1:288,
9:3 2 , 1:384, 3:128, 1:512.
12. S i n c e we know fr o m S e c t i o n 11 , C h a p t e r I , how
t o s t r e t c h two s t r i n g s so t h a t t h e y p r o d u c e t o n e s h a v i n g a
given r a t i o , i t w i l l be a s i m p l e m a t t e r t o p r o d u c e t h e s e
c o n s o n a n c e s w i t h s t r i n g s and t o t e s t e a c h o f them a s t o
d i f f i c u l t y or ease of p e rc e p tio n . Such e x p e r i m e n t s w i l l
be found to o f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l agreement w ith o u r t h e o r y , ,
and I b e l i e v e that t h e y a r e v e r y u s e f u l and h i g h l y
necessary f o r e x e r c i s i n g the h e a r i n g o f the music s t u d e n t ;
f o r , by s u c h a p r o c e s s , he w i l l be a b l e t o compare f o r
h i m s e l f t h e d i s t i n c t i m o r e s s i c n s o f t h e s e sim ple con
s o n a n c e s and w i l l emerge b e t t e r f i t t e d f o r t h e a c t u a l
p r a c t i s e of music.
13. let, i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y f o r one to ha ve
d i s t i n c t im p re s sio n s of a l l the enumerated c o n so n a n c es,
but i t i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r him t o h a v e i n mind w e l l - d e f i n e d
c o n c e p tio n s of th e sim ple c o n so n a n c e s , which a r e 1 : 2 , 1:3
or 2 :3 , 1:5 or 2:5 or 4 :5 . F o r i f one knows n o t o n l y how
107
to d is tin g u is h th e se co n so n a n c es from th e o t h e r s b u t also
how t o p r o d u c e t h e m , w ith the h e lp of th e h e a rin g , e i t h e r
by th e v o ic e o r by s t r i n g s , he can a l s o produce by e a r a l l
the r e m a i n i n g c o n s o n a n c e s w h o s e e x p o n e n t s h a v e no d i v i s o r s
except 2, 3, and 5. T his w i l l be q u ite adequate f o r the
m usic o f our day and f o r tuning in stru m en ts. I w i l l go
i n t o more d e t a i l la te r.
14. I have a lr e a d y m entioned t h a t I include the
so -called c o n s o n a n c e s and d i s s o n a n c e s u n d e r th e te rm
consonance. By t h e u s e o f t h e tab le and o u r system i t is
po ssib le to a c ertain ex ten t to d e l i m i t th e s e two c a t e
g o ries, f o r d isso n a n c e s b elong to the h ig h e r d e g re e s and
consonances b elo n g to the low er d e g r e e s . Thus, a b is o n a n t
sound h a v in g an 8 :9 r a t i o and b e lo n g in g to the eig h th
degree is in c lu d e d w ith the d isso n a n c e s; a d ito n e o r m ajor
th ird w ith a 4 :5 r a t i o b elo n g s to the s e v e n th deg ree and
is in c lu d e d w ith the consonances. B u t we c a n n o t c o n c l u d e
from th is th at the e ig h th degree is th e b e g in n in g o f the
dissonances, for in th is sam e d e g r e e a r e in c lu d e d the
ratio s 5:6 and 5 :8 , w hich a r e not con sidered as d isso n a n c e s.
15. If th is m atter is c o n s i d e r e d more c a r e f u l l y , it
w i l l be c l e a r t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b etw een c o n s o n a n c e s and
d issonances s h o u l d be b a s e d n o t o n l y on t h e e a s e of percep
tio n but also on t h e whole p r o c e s s of co m position. For
those c o n so n a n c es w hich can be u s e d l e s s fittin g ly in
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com positions a re called d isso n an ces even i f t h e y a r e more
easily p e r c e iv e d th a n o t h e r s w hich are c a lle d consonances.
T h i s e x p l a i n s why t h e m a j o r s e c o n d , 8 ;9, is in clu d ed w ith
the d is s o n a n c e s w h ile o t h e r much more c o m p o s i te consonances
are classifie d as consonances. In l i k e m anner, th e fo u rth
or d iatessaro n , 3 :4 , is in c l u d e d by m u s ic ia n s in the
d issonances r a th e r than in the consonances, n o tw ith stan d in g
th e f a c t th at it can be p e rc e iv e d q uite easily .
16. As t h e i r w r i t i n g s make c l e a r , the m usician s
o f o ld c o n sid ered the f o u r th a very p le a s a n t consonance,
but th eir c rite ria fo r sep aratin g c o n so n an ces from d is
sonances c ertain ly w ere n o t so f i r m l y b a s e d on th e n a t u r e
of the m a tte r i t s e l f b u t w ere d e d u c e d fro m d u b io u s p r i n c i
p les. For the P y th ag o rean s a consonance c o n s i s t e d o f tw o
to n e s having a r a t i o e ith e r m u ltip le or su p erp articu lar or
m u ltip le su p em articu larj and a d isso n a n c e c o n s i s t e d of
two s o u n d s h a v i n g a r a t i o eith er su p e rp a rtie n t or m ultip le
su o erp artien t.
17. In h is L ibrl H arm onicorum P to lem y r e f u t e s th is
opinion of the P y th a g o re a n s by ad d u cin g e x p e r ie n c e a s
evidence th at the diapason d ia te s s a r o n , 3 :8 , is a con
sonance, even though i t is duplex su p erp artien t. Then he
observes that the P ythagoreans them selves d id n o t dare to
use the ru le p u n ctilio u sly . For producing consonances t. n e y
used noth in g but d u p le , trip le, q u aaruole, sesq u ialteral,
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and s e s q u i t e r t i a l ratio s when t h e y c o u l d h a v e u s e d
innum erable o th ers, eq u ally ju stifia b le according to th eir
ru le. I f i n d no f a u l t w ith P to le m y 's r e f u t a t i o n , for it
has re g a rd , not f o r the k in d s of r a t i o s , but f o r the
s im p lic ity and ease of percep tio n .
18. And y e t , P t o l e m y ' s own p r i n c i p l e in th is
m atter is no m o re v e r i t a b l e , for, a fte r th e d ia p a s o n and
d isdiapason, he a d m its o n ly two c o n s o n a n c e s : 2:3 o r
diapente and 3 :4 or d i a t e s s a r o n . I f th ese are com bined,
a 2:1 r a t i o resu lts. He a d d s a n o t h e r l a w : Any c o n s o n a n c e
in c re a s e d by an o ctav e rem ains a consonance and lo s e s
noth in g of i t s ag reeab len ess. Thus he a d m its t h e s e as
consonances: 1 :2 , 1 :4 , 2 :3 , 1:3 , 3 :4 , and 3 :8 .
19. N onetheless, Ptolem y g iv e s con sid erab le
p rero g ativ e to th e su p erp articu lar ra tio s over the super-
p artien ts, for sounds h a v in g su p erp articu lar ratio s o th er
th a n 2:3 and 3 :4 are not c l a s s i f i e d by him a s d i s s o n a n t ,
b u t c o n c in n o u s , m eaning somewhere b e t w e e n c o n s o n a n t and
d isso n an t. He b o l d l y d e c i d e d t o classify the su p erp artien t
ra tio s--e x c ep t 3 :0 --as d issonances. H is m ethod o f m e a su r
in g th e a g r e e a b le n e s s of sounds is very doubtful and i s
b a s e d o n no sound p r i n c i p l e s . S ince the tru th of our
p r in c ip le s has been s u f f i c i e n t l y estab lish ed , I do n o t
believ e it necessary to r e f u t e P to le m y 's m ethod. F in ally ,
I should s e t f o r t h the view s i n t h i s m a t t e r o f th e o t h e r
110
s c h o o l o f a n c i e n t m u s i c i a n s , l e d by A r i s t o x e n u s . J u s t as
t h e y su m m a ri ly r e j e c t e d t h e r a t i o s o f n u m b e r s , t h e y a l s o
l e f t t h e jud gm e nt o f d i s s o n a n c e s t o t h e s e n s e s a l o n e ; an d
i n t h i s t h e y d i f f e r e d g r e a t l y fr om t h e P y t h a g o r e a n s .
20. S i n c e we c a n make a t a b l e o f t h e t r i s o n a n t a n d
m u ltis o n a n t consonances a rra n g e d acc o rd in g to the degree
o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s j u s t a s we d i d i n t h e c a s e o f t h e
b i s o n a n t c o n s o n a n c e s , any l e n g t h y e x p l a n a t i o n a b o u t them
seems u n n e c e s s a r y . I t may b e o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e s i m p l e s t
t r i s o n a n t consonance b e lo n g s t o the t h i r d degree o f a g r e e
a b l e n e s s and c o n s i s t s o f t h e t o n e s 1 : 2 : 4 w i t h a n e x p o n e n t
of 4. From t h i s i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e more t o n e s a
consonance c o n s i s t s o f , th e h i g h e r t h e degree of a g r e e
a b l e n e s s t o w hic h i t b e l o n g s , e v e n i f i t i s t h e s i m p l e s t
of i t s kind.
21 . H en ce, I w ill not d isc u ss f u r t h e r t h i s d iv is io n
of co n so n an ces, e s p e c i a l l y s in c e I can proceed w i t h the
much more s u i t a b l e and u s e f u l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n c o n s i s t i n g
of complete and in c o m p le te co n so n a n c es. I c a l l a con
s o n a n c e c o m p l e t e i f no t o n e c a n be s u p e r i m p o s e d w i t h o u t
changing the consonance i t s e l f to a h i g h e r deg ree o r
w i t h o u t mak ing t h e e x p o n e n t more c o m p o s i t e . An e x am p l e i s
t h e c o n s o n a n c e c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e s o u n d s 1 : 2 : 3 : 6 , whose
exponent i s 6. Note t h a t any s u p e r i m p o s e d sound makes
the exponent l a r g e r . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , I c o n s i d e r a
I ll
c o n s o n a n c e I n c o m p l e t e i f one o r more t o n e s c a n be a d d e d
w ithout i n c r e a s i n g the e x p o n en t. An examp le i s the con
sonance 1 : 2 : 3 , which i s in c o m p le te s i n c e i t s exponent does
n o t become l a r g e r e v e n i f t h e sound 6 i s a d d e d .
22. From t h e f o r e g o i n g , i t i s c l e a r t h a t any
number r e p r e s e n t i n g a s i m p l e t o n e i s a d i v i s o r o f t h e
exponent o f th e consonance o f which th e tone i s a p a r t .
T h e r e f o r e , i f we e x p r e s s a l l t h e s i m p l e t o n e s r e p r e s e n t e d
b y a l l d i v i s o r s o f an e x p o n e n t , we w i l l h a v e t h e c o m p l e t e
c o n s o n a n c e o f t h a t e x p o n e n t ; f o r t h e r e w i l l b e no o t h e r
number whic h d i v i d e s t h i s e x p o n e n t . Thus, a consonance
c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e t o n e s 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5 : 1 2 w i l l be c o m p l e t e
s i n c e o n l y t h e s e numbe rs a r e d i v i s o r s o f 1 2 , t h e e x p o n e n t
of t h i s consonance.
23. T h e r e f o r e , whenever th e e x p o nent o f a con
s o n a n c e i s a p ri m e nu m be r, t h e c o m p l e t e c o n s o n a n c e w i l l be
b i s o n a n t a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y l : a , w h e re a d e n o t e s t h e p r i m e
num be r. I f t h e e x p o n e n t i s a_m, t h e c o m p l e t e c o n s o n a n c e
w i l l c o n s i s t o f m+1 t o n e s , n a m e l y :
1 :a * a ^ : a ^ :* ** * *
I f t h e e x p o n e n t h a s t h e form a b , where a an d b a r e p r i m e
numbers, t h e c o m p l e t e c o n s o n a n c e w i l l be q u a d r i s o n a n t :
1 :a :b :ab
I f t h e fo r m of t h e e x p o n e n t i s amb n , t h e c o m p l e t e c o n
s o n a n c e w i l l ha v e mn+m+n+1 t o n e s . More g e n e r a l l y , i f the
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exponent i s a ^ b ^ P , t h e c o m p l e t e c o n s o n a n c e w i l l have
(m+1) ( n + 1 ) (o-HL) t o n e s , a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o trie r u l e g i v e n
in S e c tio n 6 , i t w i l l belong to the degree
ma+ n b f pc+m- n-jo+1;
f o r t h e sum o f a l l t h e p r i m e f a c t o r s o f t h e e x p o n e n t i s
ma-fnbfoc an d t h e number o f f a c t o r s i s m f n f .
24. From t h e ab ove me th od o f f o r m i n g a c o m p l e t e
consonance, i t i s c l e a r t h a t i f one o r more t o n e s a r e
o m i t t e d from s u c h a c o m b i n a t i o n , a n i n c o m p l e t e c o n s o n a n c e
i s form ed. He re we n o t e t h a t t h e o m i t t e d t o n e s s h o u l d n o t
be s u c h t h a t t h e e x p o n e n t be com es s i m p l e r . F o r example,
i f we o m it 1 o r 4 f r o m t h e c o n s o n a n c e 1 : 2 : 4 , o f whic h t h e
e x p o n e n t i s 4 , t h e n t h e c o n s o n a n c e w o u ld be 1 : 2 o r 2 : 4 , a n d
t h e e x p o n e n t i n e a c h c a s e w ould be 2 , n o t 4 . However, we
may o m i t t h e m i d d l e t o n e , 2 , f o r t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e
consonance 1:4 i s s t i l l 4, j u s t as in th e case of the
complete consonance 1 : 2 : 4 ,
25. I f t h e e x p o n e n t i s a p r i m e n u m b e r, i t is c le a r
t h a t a c o n s o n a n c e c a n n o t be made i n c o m p l e t e s i n c e i t c o n
sists o f o n l y two t o n e s . But a l l o f t h e r e m a i n i n g c o n
s o n a n c e s c a n b e made i n c o m p l e t e a n d b i s o n a n t b y o m i t t i n g
a l l t o n e s e x c e p t t h e h i g h e s t a nd t h e l o w e s t ; f o r s i n c e t h e
h i g h e s t i s e x o r e s s e d by the e x p o nen t i t s e l f and th e lo w e st
by u n i t y , the exponent o f t h i s b is o n a n t consonance w i l l not
be s i m p l e r th a n t h a t o f the com plete c o n so na n c e. For
113
exam ple, if we o m i t t o n e s 2 a n d 3 f r o m t h e consonance
1 :2 :3 :6 , the exponent of the consonance 1:6 rem ains the
same: 6 . In the c a s e o f a c o n s o n a n c e whose e x p o n e n t i s of
t h e f o r m jam, n e i t h e r t h e lo w est tone 1 nor the h ig h e s t
t o n e _am c a n h e o m i t t e d ; but in a l l o f th e rem aining
consonances, e ith e r tne lo w e st o r th e h ig h e s t o r b o th can
be o m itte d and t h e e x p o n e n t w i l l re m a in the same.
26. If a consonance i s so c o n s t i t u t e d t h a t none of
its to n e s c an be o m i t t e d w ith o u t m aking th e consonance
s im p le r and re d u c in g i t t o a l o w e r d e g r e e , we s h a l l c all
it a pure c o n so n a n c e . Any b i s o n a n t consonance f a l l s in
th is category since it ceases t o be a c o n so n an ce i f
e ith e r of i t s to n es is o m itted . Exam ples o f p u re con
sonances are 3 :4 :5 , 4 :5 :5 , 1 :6 :9 , 2 :3 :1 2 , fr o m w h i c h no
tones can be o m i t t e d w i t h o u t m aking t h e consonances
sim p ler. T herefore, s u c h a co n so n a n c e can be fo u n d by
reducing th e number o f sounds a s f a r a s possible w ithout
m aking t h e e x p o n e n t s m a l l e r .
27. There are two m e th o d s b y w h ic h a ny c o n s o n a n c e
c a n b e made s i m p l e r b y o m i t t i n g o n e o r m o r e t o n e s . One
m ethod i s t o ma ke t h e o m issions so t h a t t h e least common
m u ltip le of th e rem aining to n e s - -o r of the num bers ex
p ressin g th e ir relat!o n sh io --is less than th a t o f a l l the
num bers. F or exam ple, in the case of th e consonance
2 :3 :5 :6 , if sound 5 i s o m itted , the least common m u l t i o l e
114
of the rem aining 2 :3 :6 is 6, w hereas i t was o r i g i n a l l y 30.
The o t h e r m e t h o d i s t o make t h e o m i s s i o n s so t h a t the
r e m a i n i n g t o n e s h a v e a common d i v i s o r b y w h i c h t h e y m u s t
be d iv id e d b e f o re the least common m u l t i p l e o r exponent is
determ ined. F or exam ple, in the case of th e consonance
2 : 3 : 4 :6, by o m ittin g t o n e 3 a n d d i v i d i n g b y 2 , we h a v e t h e
consonance 1 :2 :3 , whose e x p o n e n t i s 6 , c o m p a r e d w i t h 12
f o r the o r ig i n a l com bination.
2d. By u s i n g b o t h m e t h o d s a t o n c e i n o m i t t i n g one
o r more t o n e s , it is also p o ssib le t o make a c o n s o n a n c e
sim nler, since then, of course, t h e numbers of t h e rem ain
ing sounds have b o th a s im p le r l e a s t common m u l t i p l e and a
common f a c t o r . For exam ole, c o n sid e r th e consonance
3 :o :b :9 :1 2 , o f w hich th e ex p o n en t is 72. If 3 is om itted,
the le ast common m u l t i p l e of the rem aining 3 :6 :9 :1 2 is 36,
but since e a c h o f t h e s e num bers i s d iv isib le by 3 , the
resu ltin g c o n s o n a n c e may b e c o n s i d e r e d t o c o n s i s t o f t h e
tones 1 :2 :3 :4 w ith an e x o o n en t o f 12. Thus th e g iv e n
c o n s o n a n c e b e co m e s much s l m o l e r by t h e o m i s s i o n o f t h e
s i n g l e number 8 .
29. In o rd e r t h a t i t may b e m o r e c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d
j u s t how a g i v e n c o n s o n a n c e c a n b e made s i m p l e r , l e t us
c o n s id e r a com plete consonance w ith an e x p o n en t of a^P ,
where P i s a q u an tity c o n s is tin g of the p ro d u c t o f any
prim e num bers e x c e o t a . In t h i s case, i f we o m i t a l l
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
115
t o n e s e x p r e s s e d b y iam a n d i t s m u ltip les, th ere w ill rem ain
a s i m p l e r c o n s o n a n c e w i t h a n e x p o n e n t o f a m \ p , w hich i s a
r e d u c t i o n made b y t h e f i r s t m ethod g iv e n a b o v e . By t h e
second m ethod, the consonance becomes s im p le r i f a ll tones
w h ich a r e e x p r e s s e d by numbers n o t h a v in g a a s a f a c t o r
are o m itted , f o r th en a l l of th e rem aining to n es c a n be
d i v i d e d by a a n d t h e i r e x p o n e n t w i l l b e a ra ^ . Fr om t h i s
it is c l e a r how a c o n s o n a n c e c a n b e made s i m p l e r b y u s i n g
b o t h m ethods a t o n c e .
30. It is easily understoo d th a t th e d iff e r e n c e we
h e a r betw een th e com plete and in co m p lete consonances lies
in the f a c t t h a t we c o m p r e h e n d t h e c o m p l e t e consonances
much m ore d i s t i n c t l y than th e Incom plete ones. The
r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een the i n d i v i d u a l to n e s o f a com plete
consonance are c l e a r e r th a n th o se betw een th e tones of an
incom plete consonance w ith the same e x p o n e n t . Thus the
exponent 6 o f th e consonance 1 :2 :3 :6 i s much more
d istin ctly p erceiv ed than t h e s am e e x p o n e n t f r o m 1 : 6 o n l y .
T his is t r u e , how ever, o n ly when th e t o n e s c o r r e s o o n d
ex actly to the num bers by w hich th e y a r e exoressed.
31. It seems a p p r o p r i a t e to add th e follow ing
tab le of a l l the com plete consonances c o n tain ed in the
first 12 d e g r e e s . Homan n u m e r a l s d e s i g n a t e the degree;
A rabic n u m e ra ls, the consonances belo n g in g to each
degree.
116
I. 1.
II. 1 :2 .
III. 1:3 ,
1:2 :4 .
IV. 1 :2 :3 :6 ,
1 : 2 : 4 :8.
V. 1 :5 ,
1 :3 :9 ,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :1 2 ,
1 : 2 : 4 :8:16.
V I. 1 :2 :5 :1 0 ,
1 :2 :3 :6 :9 :1 8 ,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :8 :1 2 :2 4 ,
1 :2 :4 :8 :1 6 :3 2 .
V II. 1:7 ,
1 :3 :5 :1 5 ,
1 :2 :4 :5 :1 0 :2 0 ,
1 :3 :9 :2 7 ,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :9 :1 2 :1 8 :3 6 ,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :8 :1 2 :1 6 :2 4 :4 8 ,
1 :2 :4 :8 :1 6 :32:64.
V III. 1 :2 :7 :1 4 ,
1 :2 :3 :5 :6 :1 0 :1 5 :3 0 ,
1 :2 :4 :5 :8 :1 0 :2 0 :4 0 ,
1 :2 :3 :6 :9 :1 8 :2 7 :5 4 ,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :8 :9 :1 2 :1 8 :2 4 :3 6 :7 2 ,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :8 :1 2 :1 6 :2 4 :3 2 :4 8 :9 6 ,
1 :2 :4 :8 :1 6 :3 2 :6 4 :1 2 8 .
IX. 1 :3 :7 :2 1 ,
1 :5 :2 5 ,
1 :2 :4 :7 :1 4 :2 8 ,
1 :3 :5 :9 :1 5 :4 5 ,
1 :2 :3 :4 :5 :6 :1 0 :1 2 :1 5 :2 0 :3 0 :6 0 ,
1 :2 :4 :5 :8 :1 0 :1 6 :2 0:40:80,
1 :3 :9 :2 7 :8 1 ,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :9 :1 2 :1 8 :2 7 :3 6 :5 4 :1 0 8 ,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :8 :9 :1 2 :1 6 :1 8 :2 4 :3 6 :4 8 :7 2 :1 4 4 ,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :8 :1 2 :1 6 :2 4 :3 2 :4 8 :6 4 :9 6 :1 9 2 ,
1 :2 :4 :8 :1 6 :3 2 :6 4 :1 2 8 :2 5 6 .
11V
X. 3 :6 :7 :1 4 :2 1 :4 2 ,
5 :1 0 :2 5 :5 0 ,
4 :7 :8 :1 4 :2 8 :5 6 ,
3 :5 :6 :9 :1 0 :1 5 :1 8 :3 0 :4 5 :9 0 ,
3 :4 :5 :6 :8 :1 0 :1 2 :1 5 :2 0 :2 4 :3 0 :4 0 :6 0 :1 2 0 ,
4 : 5 : 8 :1 0 :1 6 :2 0 :3 2 :4 0 :8 0 :160,
3 :6 :9 :1 8 :2 7 :5 4 :8 1 :1 6 2 ,
3 :4 :6 :8 :9 :1 2 :1 8 :2 4 :2 7 :3 6 :5 4 :7 2 :1 0 8 :2 1 6 ,
3 :4 :6 :8 :9 :1 2 :1 6 :1 8 :2 4 :3 2 :3 6 :4 8 :7 2 :9 6
144:288,
3 :4 :6 :8 :1 2 :1 6 :2 4 :3 2 :4 8 :6 4 :9 6 :1 2 8 :1 9 2 :3 8 4 ,
4 :8 :1 6 :3 2 :6 4 :1 2 8 :2 5 6 :5 1 2 .
XI. 11 ,
5 :7 :3 5 ,
3 :7 :9 :2 1 :6 3 ,
3 :5 :1 5 :2 5 :7 5 ,
2 : 3 : 4 : 6 :7 :1 2 :1 4 :2 1 :2 8 :42:84,
2 :4 :5 :1 0 :2 0 :2 5 :5 0 :1 0 0 ,
2 :4 :7 :8 :1 4 :1 6 :2 8 :5 6 :1 1 2 ,
3 :5 :9 :1 5 :2 7 :4 5 :1 3 5 ,
2 :3 :4 :5 :6 :9 :1 0 :1 2 :1 5 :1 8 :2 0 :3 0 :3 6 :4 5 :6 0
:90:180,
1 :2 :3 :4 :5 :6 :8 :1 0 :1 2 :1 5 :1 6 :2 0 :2 4 :3 0 :4 0 :4 8 :6 0
:8 0 :1 2 0 :2 4 0 ,
1 :3 :9 :2 7 :8 1 :2 4 3 ,
1 :2 :4 :5 :8 :1 0 :1 6 :2 0 :3 2 :4 0 :6 4 :8 0 :1 6 0 :3 2 0 ,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :9 :1 2 :1 8 :2 7 :3 6 :5 4 :8 1 :1 0 8 :1 6 2 :3 2 4 ,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :8 :9 :1 2 :1 6 :1 8 :2 4 :2 7 :3 6 :4 8 :5 4 :7 2
:1 0 8 :1 4 4 :2 1 6 :432,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :8 :9 :1 2 :1 6 :1 8 :2 4 :3 2 :3 6 :4 8 :6 4 :7 2
:9 6 :1 4 4 :192:288:576,
1 :2 :3 :4 :6 :8 :1 2 :1 6 :2 4 :3 2 :4 8 :6 4 :9 6 :1 2 8 :1 9 2
:256:384:768,
4 :8 :1 6 :32:64:128:256:512:1024.
X II. : ,
11 22
5 7 10
3 6 7: 9 :1 4 :1 8 :2 1 :4 2 :6 3 :1 2 6 ,
3 5 6: 1 0 :1 5 :2 5 :3 0 :5 0 :7 5 :1 5 0 ,
3 4 6: 7 :8 :1 2 :1 4 :2 1 :2 4 :2 8 :4 2 :5 6 :8 4 :1 6 8 ,
4 5 8: 1 0 :2 0 :2 5 :4 0 :5 0 :1 0 0 :2 0 0 ,
4 7 8: 1 4 :1 6 :28:32:56:112:224,
3 5 6: 9 :1 0 :1 5 :1 8 :2 7 :3 0 :4 5 :5 4 :9 1 :1 3 5 :2 7 0 ,
3 4 5: 6 :8 :9 :1 0 :1 2 :1 5 :1 8 :2 0 :2 4 :3 0 :3 6 :4 0
45:60 7 2 :9 0 :1 2 0 :1 8 0 :3 6 0 ,
1:2 3 : 4 : 5 6 : 8 : 1 0 : 1 2 : 1 5 : 1 6 : 2 0 : 2 4 : 3 0 : 3 2 : 4 0 : 4 8
60:80 9 6 :1 2 0 :1 6 0 :2 4 0 :4 8 0 ,
118
1:2:3:6:9:18:27:54:81:162:243:486,
1:2:4:5:8 :1 0 :1 6 :2 0:3 2 :4 0 :64 :8 0 :1 2 8 :1 6 0 :3 2 0
:640,
1:2:3:4:6:8:9:12:18:24:27:36:54:72:81:108
: 162:216:324:648,
1 :2:3:4:6:8:9:12:16:18:24:27:32:36:48:54
:7 2 :9 6 :108:144:216:288:432:864,
1 :2:3:4:6:8 :9 :1 2 :1 6 :1 8 :2 4 :3 2 :3 6 :4 8 :6 4 :7 2
: 9 6 :1 2 8 :1 4 4 :1 9 2 :2 8 8 :384:575:1152,
1:2:3:4:6:8:12:16:24:32:48:64:96:128:192
:256:384:512:768:1536,
1:2:4:8:16:32:64:128:256:512:1024:2048.
32. A l t h o u g h we com pre hen d t h e c o m p l e t e c o n s o n a n c e
more d i s t i n c t l y t h a n t h e I n c o m p l e t e , y e t , u n l e s s t h e y a r e
q u i t e s i m p l e , th e com plete consonances a re n o t employed.
In the f i r s t o l a c e , i f m u s ic a l Instrum ents a re no t tu n e d
w i t h a b s o l u t e a c c u r a c y - - a n d t h i s I s no w is e o b t a i n a b l e - -
s u c h a l a r g e number o f s o u n d s s t r i k e s t h e e a r s more a s a
c o n f u s e d n o i s e t h a n a s d i s t i n c t h a rm on y. Then, to o , there
i s t h a t g r e a t number o f s o u n d s w h i c h c a n n o t be h e a r d
b e c a u s e t h e y a r e e i t h e r t o o h i g h o r t o o low; f o r i n
Chapter I I t i s shown t h a t no s ou nd w hic h h a s f e w e r t h a n
30 o r more t h a n 7500 v i b r a t i o n s p e r s e c o n d c a n be h e a r d .
From t h i s i t I s c l e a r t h a t whenever t h e extrem e sounds of
a c o n s o n a n c e ha ve a r a t i o e x c e e d i n g 2 5 0 : 1 , n o t a l l o f i t s
so unds w i l l b e h e a r d .
33. I t is a p p ro p ria te a t t h i s point to r e la t e to
t h e p r i n c l o l e o f c o n s o n a n c e s t h o s e t h i n g s w hi ch m u s i c i a n s
Include under i n t e r v a l s . We c a l l a n i n t e r v a l t h a t
d i s t a n c e w h ic h i s c o n s i d e r e d t o e x i s t b e t w e e n two t o n e s ,
119
one o f whic h i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r . The l a r g e r t h i s
in terv al is , t h e more t h e t o n e s d i f f e r fro m h i g h t o low
o r the g r e a t e r i s the r a t i o of the h ig h e r tone to the
low er. Thus, th e i n t e r v a l of the to n e s 1 :3 i s l a r g e r
t h a n t h a t o f 1 : 2 ; a n d no i n t e r v a l e x i s t s b e t w e e n e q u a l
t o n e s 1 : 1 , s i n c e t h e r e i s no i n t e r v e n i n g d i s t a n c e . Prom
t h i s i t i s c l e a r t h a t an i n t e r v a l m u s t have some d e g r e e o f
d i f f e r e n c e between i t s h i g h e r and low er t o n e s .
34. C o n s i d e r t h e t o n e s a : b ; _ c , where c i s t h e
h i g h e s t , a th e l o w e s t , and b any in t e r m e d i a t e to n e . It
w i l l b e c l e a r fr o m t h e p r e c e d i n g d e f i n i t i o n t h a t t h e
i n t e r v a l o f t h e t o n e s a and c i s t h e sum o f t h e i n t e r v a l s
b e t w e e n b and . Therefore, i f t h e s e two i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n
a and b an d b e t w e e n b and a r e e c u a l a nd t h e y a r e e q u a l
when t u b s b : - - t h e i n t e r v a l a : w i l l be t w i c e a s l a r g e a s
the in te r v a l a:b or b : c . From t h i s i t is c le a r t h a t the
i n t e r v a l 1 :4 i s tw ic e as l a r g e as the i n t e r v a l 1 :2 . Since
1 : 2 i s c o n s i d e r e d a n o c t a v e , t h e r a t i o 1 : 4 c o m p r i s e s two
o ctaves.
35. Anyone who c o n s i d e r s t h e s e m a t t e r s more c a r e
f u l l y w i l l have no d i f f i c u l t y i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t
i n t e r v a l s s h o u l d be e x p r e s s e d b y t h e m e a s u r e s of t h e
r a t i o s w hic h e x i s t b e t w e e n t h e t o n e s . R a t io s a re measured
by l o g a r i t h m s o f f r a c t i o n s whose n u m e r a t o r s d e n o t e t h e
h i g h e r t o n e s and whose d e n o m i n a t o r s d e n o t e t h e l o w e r t o n e s .
120
Therefore, t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t h e s o u n d s a_:b i s e x p r e s s e d
by t h e l o g a r i t h m o f t h e f r a c t i o n b / a . This i s u s u a ll y
w r i t t e n log b / a . An e q u i v a l e n t e x p r e s s i o n i s l o g b - l o g a .
T h e r e f o r e , a s we h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , t h e r e i s no
i n t e r v a l betw een th e e q u a l sounds a : a , inasmuch a s i t i s
e x p r e s s e d by l o g a - l o g a s o ,
36. Thus t h e i n t e r v a l w hi c h i s c a l l e d t h e o c t a v e ,
s i n c e i t comes fr om s o u n d s h a v i n g a d u o l e r a t i o , is
e x o r e s s e d by l o g 2; a n d t h e i n t e r v a l o f t h e s o u n d s 2 : 3 ,
w h ic h i s c a l l e d t h e f i f t h o r d i a p e n t e , w i l l be l o g 3 / 2 o r
log 3 -lo g 2. From t h i s i t i s c l e a r th a t these i n t e r v a l s
a r e i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e , f o r t h e r e i s no way t o a s s i g n t h e
r a t i o o f l o g 2 t o l o g 3 / 2 ; a n d f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e r e i s no
i n t e r v a l , h o w e v e r s m a l l , w h i c h d i v i d e s a n o c t a v e and a
f i f t h in to equal p a r ts . I t i s t h e same w i t h t h e r a t i o s of
a l l o t h e r i n t e r v a l s w h ic h a r e e x p r e s s e d by i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e
logarithm s, such as lo g 3 /2 and log 5 / 4 . On t h e o t h e r
h a n d , we c a n co mpare t h o s e i n t e r v a l s e x p r e s s i b l e by t h e
l o g a r i t h m s o f numbers w h i c h a r e p o w e r s o f t h e same
quantity. T h u s , i f we c cc m a re t h e i n t e r v a l 2 7 : 8 t o t h a t
o f 9 : 4 , we f i n d a 3 : 2 r a t i o , f o r l o g 2 7 / 8 = 3 l o g 3 / 2 and
lo g 9/4 = 2 log 3 /2 .
37. By u s i n g t h i s same l o g a r i t h m i c m e a s u r e m e n t , we
c a n e a s i l y d e t e r m i n e w h i c h i n t e r v a l s a r i s e fr o m t h e
a d d itio n or su b tra ctio n of various in te r v a ls , f o r the
121
r e s u l t i n g lo g a r ith m i n d i c a t e s th e i n t e r v a l which i s produced.
F o r e x a m p l e , i f we w a n t t h e i n t e r v a l w h i c h i s l e f t a f t e r
s u b t r a c t i n g t h e f i f t h fr o m t h e o c t a v e , we m u s t s u b t r a c t
l o g 3 / 2 ( o r l o g 3 - l o g 2) fr o m l o g 2 . The r e m a i n d e r i s
log 2 - l o g 3 + l o g 2, i..e ,. 2 log 2 - lo g 3. But 2 l o g 2 l o g 4 ,
and t h e r e m a i n i n g i n t e r v a l w i l l b e l o g 4 - l o g 3 , o r l o g 4 / 3 ,
which i s c a l l e d th e d i a t e s s a r o n o r f o u r t h . If it I s added
to the f i f t h , a whole o c t a v e i s t h e r e s u l t .
38. A l t h o u g h t h e l o g a r i t h m s o f v a r i o u s numb er s
c a n n o t be co m p ar ed w i t h e a c h o t h e r u n l e s s t h e y a r e p o w e r s
o f t h e same q u a n t i t y , it i s p o s sib le to a r r i v e a t a p p ro x i
ma te r a t i o s w i t h t h e h e l p o f a t a b l e o f l o g a r i t h m s ; a n d
th u s I n t e r v a l s can be compared w i t h e ac h o t h e r t o th e
l i m i t s of th ese approxim ations. T h erefo re, since the
measure of th e o c ta v e i s lo g 2 , which i s .3010300 a c c o r d in g
to the t a b l e , and s i n c e t h e f i f t h i s l o g 3 - l o g 2 , o r . 1 7 6 0 9 1 3 ,
th e r a t i o o f t h e o c ta v e to t h e f i f t h w i l l be a p p r o x i m a t e l y
.3010300/.1760913. In o r d e r to reduce t h i s t o s m a l l e r
numbers, t h i s r a t i o i s changed In to the f o ll o w i n g f r a c t i o n a l
I+
continued f r a c t i o n . E u l e r s De f r a c t l o n l b u s
c o n t l n u l s ( 1 7 3 7 ) was t h e f i r s t g r e a t memoir on t h i s s u b j e c t .
See S m i t h , D. E . , H i s t o r y o f M a t h e m a t i c s , V o l . I I , p . 4 2 1 .
E u l e r s accom plishm ent i n t h i s t r e a t i s e p re c e d e s by o v e r a
c e n t u r y t h a t o f M. W. D r o b i s c h ( 1 8 0 2 - 1 8 9 6 ) , who u s e d
122
From t h i s we c a n d e r i v e t h e s i m p l e r a t i o s
2 :1 , 3 :2 , 5 :3 , 7 :4 , 1 2 :7 , 17:10, 29:17, 4 1:24, 53:31,
o f w h ic h t h e l a s t i s t h e c l o s e s t t o t h e t r u e r a t i o .
39. In a s i m i l a r manner, i n t e r v a l s can be d iv id e d
i n t o any d e s i r e d num be r o f e q u a l p a r t s a nd we c a n d e s i g n a t e
a lm o st th e e x a c t p i t c h e s which a r e s e p a r a t e d from each
o t h e r by s u c h e q u a l d i v i s i o n s . We m us t d i v i d e t h e l o g a r i t h m
o f t h e g i v e n i n t e r v a l i n t o t h e g i v e n number o f p a r t s an d
t a k e fro m t h e t a b l e s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g number w h i c h
r e p r e s e n t s one p a r t a nd w h i c h w i l l h a v e t h e d e s i r e d r a t i o t o
u n ity . F o r e x a m p l e , s u p p o s e we want a n i n t e r v a l w h ic h i s
1 / 3 o f an o c t a v e . Its l o g a r i t h m w i l l be . 1 0 0 3 4 3 3 , o r 1 / 3 o f
t h e l o g 2 , t o w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d s t h e r a t i o 1 2 6 : 1 0 0 o r 6 3 : 5 0 ,
which i s a p p r o x im a te ly 29:23 o r 5 : 4 . This l a s t r a t i o , 5 :4 ,
d e s i g n a t e s th e m a jo r t h i r d , which I s c o n s id e r e d as th e t h i r d
p a r t o f one o c t a v e b y t h o s e w i t h l e s s t e c h n i c a l knowledge
o f m usic.
46797/80000 a s th e r a t i o o f t h e f i f t h to t h e o ctav e and

o b t a i n e d a c o n t i n u e d f r a c t i o n e x p a n s i o n c r e d i t e d by B a r b o u r
a s " t h e f i r s t r e a l l y s c i e n t i f i c m e th od of d i v i d i n g t h e
octave w ith re g a rd to th e p r i n c i p a l consonances, the t h i r d s
and the f i f t h s . " ( B a r b o u r , J . M., "Music a n d T e r n a r y
C o n t i n u e d F r a c t i o n s , " A m e r i c a n M a t h e m a t i c a l M o n t h l y , LV
( 1 9 4 8 ) , 5 48 . See a l s o t h e same a u t h o r s T u n i n g and
Temperament, p . 1 3 0 .) See A pp e n d ix C f o r a n a n a l y s i s o f
E u l e r s f r a c t i o n .
CHAPTER V
OH SUCCESSION OF CONSONANCES
1. I n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r we ha v e d e m o n s t r a t e d
s u f f i c i e n t l y how s e v e r a l t o n e s s h o u l d b e c om bin ed t o
p r o d u c e p l e a s i n g harmon y when s o u n d e d t o g e t h e r . Our
purpose in t h i s c h a p te r i s to i n v e s t i g a t e the n a tu r e of
two t o n e s o r c o n s o n a n c e s i n a g r e e a b l e s u c c e s s i o n . To
o b ta in an a g re ea b le s u c c e ss io n , I t i s not s u f f i c i e n t f o r
e ach of t h e conso n an ces t o o l e a s e s e p a r a t e l y , b u t they
s h o u l d h a v e a c e r t a i n m u t u a l a f f e c t i o n so t h a t t h e
s u c c e s s i o n i t s e l f char ms and d e l i g h t s t h e h e a r i n g .
2. By t h e g e n e r a l r u l e s , t r e a t e d in Chapter I I ,
f o r e f f e c t i n g any a g r e e a b l e n e s s , i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t a
s u c c e s s i o n o f two c o n s o n a n c e s p l e a s e s i f t h e r e i s
p e r c e p t i b l e o r d e r among t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o n e s o f e a c h
consonance. To f i n d o u t how e a s i l y t h e mind c o m p r e h e n d s
s u c h a s u c c e s s i o n , one m us t e x p r e s s t h e I n d i v i d u a l t o n e s
o f e a c h c o n s o n a n c e by t h e n u m b e rs w h ic h r e p r e s e n t them
and c o n s i d e r t h e i r l e a s t common m u l t i p l e . A ta b le of
d e g r e e s o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s w i l l show how much d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
is re q u ire d fo r o e rc e iv in g the given su cc e ssio n .
3. The s u c c e s s i v e c o n s o n a n c e s s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d
a s s o u n d i n g t o g e t h e r , and t h e e x o o n e n t o f t h i s c o m p o s i t e
c o n s o n a n c e w i l l I n d i c a t e t h e a g r e e a b l e n e s s and e a s e o f
o e rc e o tio n of th e su cc e ssio n i t s e l f . The e x p o n e n t i s t h e
124
l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f a l l t h e t o n e s w h i c h a r e c o n t a i n e d
i n b o t h c o n so n a n c e s , and th e a g r e e a b l e n e s s o f t h e
s u c c e s s i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h i s l e a s t common m u l t i p l e .
Thus t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n i s t h e l e a s t common
m u ltip l e of a l l th e tones in b o th consonances.
4. Thus, i f t h e t o n e s which p l e a s e as a s i m u l t a
neous group a re produced s u c c e s s i v e l y , th e y should a l s o
please. There i s a d i f f e r e n c e , how ever, i n t h e a g r e e a b l e -
n e s s by w h ic h two c o n s o n a n c e s , s o u n d i n g e i t h e r s i m u l t a n e
ously o r s u c c e s s iv e ly , are p erceiv e d . Two c o n s o n a n c e s ,
w h ic h a r e v e r y p l e a s i n g t o t h e e a r s when f o l l o w i n g one
a n o t h e r , a r e somewhat h a r s h e r when p r o d u c e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .
T h u s , two t o n e s h a v i n g t h e r a t i o 8 : 9 a r e h e a r d w i t h l e s s
p l e a s u r e when s o u n d e d t o g e t h e r t h a n when s o u n d e d s u c c e s
sively.
5. J u s t as the s im p le s t t r i s o n a n t consonance is
more c o m p o s i t e t h a n t h e s i m p l e s t b i s o n a n t c o n s o n a n c e , t h e
more t o n e s i n a c o n s o n a n c e , t h e more c o m p o s i t e i t w ill be,
even i f i t is the s im p le s t of i t s k in d . N onetheless,
g r e a t e r a g r e e a b l e n e s s w i l l b e o b t a i n e d from m u l t i s o n a n t
c o n s o n a n c e s t h a n fr om a s i m p l e t o n e o r from b i s o n a n t
consonances. The more t o n e s p r e s e n t , t h e more r e l a t i o n
s h i p s t h e r e a r e t o o b s e r v e , an d t h e a g r e e a b l e n e s s i s
increased . H owever, i f t h e component t o n e s o f c o n s o n a n c e s
a r e i n c r e a s e d t o o much, t h e many v a r i o u s s t i m u l i a f f e c t i n g
the h e a r in g sim u lta n e o u s ly confuse r a t h e r th a n p l e a s e .
125
6. I n s u c c e s s i o n s o f two c o n s o n a n c e s , t h e v e r y
nature of th in g s re q u ire s th a t t h e e x p o n e n t s b e more
com posite th a n th o se of s in g le consonances. Hence, i t does
n o t harm t h e a g r e e a b l e n e s s t o p l a c e c o n s e c u t i v e l y t h o s e
c o n s o n a n c e s w h i c h would be l e s s p l e a s i n g I f s o u n d e d
together. J u s t as m u lti sonant consonances can h a v e,
w ithout lo s s of a g re ea b le n ess, g r e a t e r e x o o n e n t s t h a n some
consonances c o n s i s t i n g o f few er to n e s , so a l s o t h e
e x p o n e n t s o f s u c c e s s i o n s c a n b e more c o m p o s i t e t h a n t h e
e x p o n e n t s o f c o n s o n a n c e s , w i t h o u t any l o s s o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s .
7. H owever, I t c a n n o t b e d e n i e d t h a t t h e s i m p l e r
t h e e x p o n e n t o f a s u c c e s s i o n o f two c o n s o n a n c e s , t h e e a s i e r
t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n i t s e l f a nd o f t h e o r d e r
contained in i t . P r e v i o u s l y we d i s c u s s e d t h e r u l e s c o n
c e r n i n g e a s e o f p e r c e p t i o n , and t h e s e r u l e s a r e g e n e r a l l y
a p p l i c a b l e a n d a r e s u b j e c t t o no e x c e p t i o n . But i f we u s e
s u c c e s s i o n s which a r e to o s im p le , t h e v a r i e t y by which
m u s i c g i v e s so much d e l i g h t wo uld b e u t t e r l y d e s t r o y e d .
The c o n s o n a n c e s w o u ld b e v e r y s i m p l e an d s i m i l a r t o e a c h
other. T h u s , more c o m p o s i t e e x p o n e n t s o f s u c c e s s i o n s c a n
b e u s e d , b u t I f t h e s e same e x p o n e n t s were t o r e p r e s e n t
s i m p l e c o n s o n a n c e s t h e y w o u ld u n s e t a l l h a rm on y.
8. I n o r d e r t h a t two s u c c e s s i v e c o n s o n a n c e s may be
p e r c e i v e d w i t h a g r e e a b l e n e s s , b o t h th e i n d i v i d u a l con
s o n a n c e s and t h e s u c c e s s i o n i t s e l f m u s t b e p l e a s i n g . The
126
a g r e e a b l e n e s s o f t h e s e p a r a t e c o n s o n a n c e s i s i n d i c a t e d by
t h e e x p o n e n t s , a s was shown i n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r .
L ikew ise, th e a g re e a b le n e s s o f th e s u c c e s s io n i s in d ic a te d
by i t s e x p o n e n t . More d e g r e e s o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s a r e
a l l o t t e d to s u c c e s s io n s than to th e consonances th e m selv e s,
s i n c e t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n can be more c o m p o s i t e .
9. For d eterm in in g the exponent of a su cc e ssio n of
two c o n s o n a n c e s i t i s not s u f f i c i e n t to co n sid er each
consonance s e p a r a t e l y , b u t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o examine t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e to n e s which a re r e n r e s e n t e d i n th e s e
c o n s o n a n c e s by t h e same n u m b e r s . S i n c e t h e same c o n s o n a n c e
c a n e x i s t a t a n y p i t c h l e v e l so l o n g a s i t s c o n s t i t u e n t
t o n e s h a v e t h e same r a t i o , i t c an b e e x p r e s s e d i n i n f i n i t e
ways. How eve r, i n a s u c c e s s i o n o f two c o n s o n a n c e s , we
s h o u l d g i v e a t t e n t i o n n o t o n l y t o t h e c o n s o n a n c e s them
s e l v e s b u t a l s o to th e p i t c h l e v e l of each. This i s b e s t
done by c o m p a r i n g t h e b a s e s w hic h c o r r e s p o n d t o e a c h
consonance. I f th e se b ases are r e f e r r e d to d i f f e r e n t
tones, the exponent o f th e s u c c e ss io n w i l l not be th e l e a s t
common m u l t i p l e o f t h e e x p o n e n t s o f t h e c o n s o n a n c e s , b u t
t h e r a t i o o f t h e b a s e s s h o u l d a l s o be r e c k o n e d i n t h e
com putation.
10. I f a g i v e n t o n e i s t a k e n a s t h e b a s e , an
o c t a v e may be r e p r e s e n t e d n o t o n l y by 1 : 2 b u t a l s o by 2 : 4 ,
3 :6 , and, in g e n e ra l, a :2 a . The n a t u r e o f t h i s c o n s o n a n c e
127
i s c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d fr o m t h e e x p o n e n t 2 and t h e f a c t o r
a is disregarded. But i f t h i s c o n s o n a n c e i s j o i n e d w i t h
others, t h e number a s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d . If th is
c o n s o n a n c e i s f o l l o w e d by a c o n s o n a n c e o f t o n e s 2b and 3 b ,
w h i c h i s t h e f i f t h an d h a s an e x p o n e n t o f 6 , t h e e x p o n e n t
o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n c a n n o t be d e d u c e d fr om j u s t t h e e x p o n e n t s
2 an d 6 , b u t t h e r a t i o a : b m u s t b e known, s i n c e t h e
e x p o n e n t o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n i s t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e
o f a , 2 a , 2 b , an d 3b.
11. In comparing s e v e r a l sim p le t o n e s w ith
e x p o n e n t 1, we s h o u l d c o n s i d e r t h e nu mb er s e x p r e s s i n g
th e ir relationship. So, t o o , i n com paring s e v e r a l con
s o n a n c e s , we s h o u l d c o n s i d e r b o t h t h e e x p o n e n t s a nd t h e i r
relationship. H en ce, a l t h o u g h t h e b a s e o f a p a r t i c u l a r
c o n s o n a n c e may be e x p r e s s e d a s u n i t y , i n c o m p a r i n g s e v e r a l
c o n s o n a n c e s we s h o u l d a s s i g n a s t h e b a s e o f e a c h t h e
number w h ic h a g r e e s w i t h t h e r>atio o f a l l t h e t o n e s . From
t h i s i t i s c l e a r t h a t i n th e co m p ariso n o f s e v e r a l con
s o n a n c e s , e a c h o f them s h o u l d be e x p r e s s e d by two n u m b e r s :
its e x p o n e n t and t h e i n d e x , w h ic h r e l a t e s i t s b a s e t-o t h e
other bases.
12 . To t h e e x p o n e n t we w i l l a l w a y s a d d t h e i n d e x
e n c l o s e d i n p a r e n t h e s e s i n o r d e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h i t fr o m t h e
exponent. F o r e x a m p l e , c o n s i d e r 6 ( 2 ) , whe re 6 i s t h e
exponent o f the consonance 1 : 2 : 3 : 6 . The i n d e x 2 r e l a t e s i t
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t o a c o n s o n a n c e w h i c h would ha v e a b a s e o f 1 i f i t were
c o n s id e re d s e p a r a t e l y , b u t i n t h i s c o n te x t i t s b a s e i s 2,
Thus t h e t o n e s o f t h i s c o n s o n a n c e s h o u l d b e i n d i c a t e d b y
t h e nu mb ers 2 : 4 : 6 : 1 2 ,
13. We h a v e s e e n t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r c o n s o n a n c e c a n
be e x p r e s s e d by a n i n f i n i t u d e o f n u m b e r s , p r o v i d e d t h a t
t h e y h a v e t h e same r a t i o t o e a c h o t h e r . The e x p o n e n t o f
t h e c o n s o n a n c e s 2 : 3 , 4 : 6 , 6 : 9 , a n d so f o r t h , i s th e same,
even i f t h e to n e s a re d i f f e r e n t . L ik ew ise, the index of a
consonance d e te rm in e s which o f t h e i n f i n i t e grouos o f
numb ers w i l l d e s i g n a t e t h e g i v e n c o n s o n a n c e . This i s
r e q u i r e d f o r m a k in g a c o m p a r i s o n o f s e v e r a l c o n s o n a n c e s .
I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l n um be rs d e r i v e d f r o m
t h e e x p o n e n t mus t be m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e i n d e x . In t h i s
way t h e b a s e o f t h e c o n s o n a n c e I s made e a u a l t o t h e i n d e x
a n d a l l t h e t o n e s r e t a i n t h e same r e l a t i o n s h i p t o e a c h
other.
14. From t h i s i t i s c l e a r how t o f i n d t h e e x p o n e n t
and i n d e x o f a c o n s o n a n c e c o n s i s t i n g o f t o n e s e x p r e s s e d by
g iv e n numbers. The e x p o n e n t i s f o u n d by d i v i d i n g a l l t h e
numb ers b y t h e g r e a t e s t common d i v i s o r and b y f i n d i n g t h e
l e a s t common m u l t i o l e o f t h e r e s u l t . The i n d e x i s t h e
g r e a t e s t common d i v i s o r i t s e l f . Thus, th e in d ex of th e
c o n s o n a n c e 3 : 6 : 9 : 1 5 i s 3 and t h e e x p o n e n t i s 3 0 , w h i c h I s
t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e numbers 1 : 2 : 3 : 5 . This

consonance i s e x p re ss e d as 3 0 (3 ).
129
15. C o n s i d e r a c o n s o n a n c e w i t h an e x p o n e n t A and
a nd i n d e x a . L e t th e d i v i s o r s o f A be 1, , fB, */, 8 , * *.
The t o n e s o f t h i s c o n s o n a n c e w i l l ha v e t h e r a t i o 1 : o< : {3
\ rY\ a n d t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e s e num be rs
i s A. I f th e index a i s added, the to n e s o f th e conson
a n c e A( a ) s h o u l d b e e x p r e s s e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g n u m b e r s :
a : 0( a : ^ a : y a : $ a :
The l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e s e numb ers i s Aa b e c a u s e
o f t h e g r e a t e s t common d i v i s o r &. In d e term in in g the
a g r e e a b le n e s s o f th e consonance i t s e l f , t h e nu mb er a i s
d i s r e g a r d e d , and th e a g r e e a b l e n e s s i s i n d i c a t e d by th e
exponent.
16. L e t A(a) b e f o l l o w e d b y B ( b ) . The d i v i s o r s o f
t h e e x p o n e n t B a r e 1 : 7| : d : L Since th e a g re e
a b l e n e s s o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n depends uoon th e a g r e e a b l e n e s s
of the com posite consonance, t h e exponent o f the succession
is the l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e numbers
a: c<:â: y a : â:b: 0]b:^b : l b : y b .

Th e s e t o n e s would be c o n s i d e r e d i f b o t h c o n s o n a n c e s were
h e a r d a t t h e same t i m e . S i n c e t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e s
of th e n u m b e rs _a; Of a : a a nd o f b : 7 | b : - 0 ' b : l b : y b
a r e Aa a n d Bb, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e succession
w i l l b e t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e n u m b e rs Aa a nd Bb.
17. As we have n o t e d , the a g re e a b le n e s s o f a con
s o n a n c e w ou ld b e j u d g e d I n c o r r e c t l y f r o m t h e l e a s t common
130
m u l t i p l e o f t h e n um bers e x p r e s s i n g t h e t o n e s i f t h e s e
numb ers ha v e a common d i v i s o r , en d t h e same mus t h o l d t r u e
o f a s u c c e s s i o n o f two c o n s o n a n c e s . T herefore, i f the
numbe rs
a : o(a : y3a: Y&: & : b : ^ b : 0-b: ( b : ^ b
h a v e a common d i v i s o r , e a c h m u s t f i r s t b e d i v i d e d b y i t a n d
r e o l a c e d by th e q u o t i e n t . T h i s c a n n o t be done i f a a n d b
h a v e no common f a c t o r s . Hence, whenever t h e i n d i c e s o f
two c o n s o n a n c e s h a v e a common d i v i s o r , t h e i n d i c e s m u s t be
d i v i d e d by i t b e f o r e th e exp o n en t o f th e s u c c e s s i o n i s
obtained.
18. Now c o n s i d e r t h e i n d i c e s a a nd b o f t h e
c o n s o n a n c e s A ( a ) a n d B (b) when t h e s e i n d i c e s ha ve no
common f a c t o r s . The e x p o n e n t o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f t h e s e
c o n s o n a n c e s w i l l b e t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e
numb ers Aa a n d Bb. To f i n d t h i s , i t i s n ecessary to
o b t a i n t h e g r e a t e s t common d i v i s o r , D. E i t h e r number i s
d i v i d e d by D a n d t h e q u o t i e n t i s m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e o t h e r
number. T h u s , ABab/D w i l l b e t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e
o f t h e numb er s Aa and Bb an d w i l l a l s o be t h e e x p o n e n t o f
th e s u c c e s s io n of the g iv e n consonances. This exponent
d enotes the a g reeab len ess of th e su ccessio n .
19 . S i n c e a an d b a r e a ss um e d t o be numbers w i t h no
common f a c t o r s , t h e numb ers Aa a n d Bb w i l l h a v e a common
f a c t o r i f A a n d B o r A an d b o r B a n d a h a v e f a c t o r s i n
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common. But t h e more s u c h d i v i s o r s a r e f o u n d , t h e g r e a t e r
w i l l be t h e g r e a t e s t common d i v i s o r o f _Aa an d Bb; a n d t h e
more c o m p o s i t e t h a t g r e a t e s t common d i v i s o r i s , the s m a lle r
w i l l be t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e a n d t h e more a g r e e a b l e
w i l l be t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f c o n s o n a n c e s . Since the exponent
o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n i s ABab/D, t h e l a r g e r t h e g r e a t e s t common
d i v i s o r , t h e s i m p l e r w i l l be t h e o u o t i e n t ABab/D an d t h e
deg re e o f a g r e e a b le n e s s to which th e s u c c e s s io n b e l o n g s .
20. L e t t h e nu mb ers A, JB, a , a n d b b e l o n g t o t h e
d e g r e e s o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s jo, r , an d s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
A l s o , l e t t h e g r e a t e s t common d i v i s o r D b e l o n g t o d e g r e e _t.
Then t h e number ABab/D w i l l b e l o n g t o t h e d e g r e e
p+ q+ r+ s-t-2 , a s may b e d e d u c e d fr o m wh at h a s b e e n s a i d
p r e v i o u s l y .^ Therefore, t h e g i v e n num be rs A, B, a , b ,
a n d D w i l l y i e l d t h e d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s to w h i c h t h e
s u c c e s s i o n o f A(a) a n d B(b) b e l o n g s , t h a t i s ,
p4 q + r + a - t- 2 . The s m a l l e r t h i s number i s , t h e more
ag reeab le the s u c c e ss io n .
21, For example, l e t th e consonance 120(2) con
s i s t i n g o f t h e t o n e s 2 : 4 : 6 : 6 : 1 0 : 1 2 : 1 6 b e f o l l o w e d by t h e
consonance 60(3) c o n s i s t i n g of th e to n e s 3 : 6 : 9 : 1 2 : 1 5 .
The se c o n s o n a n c e s b e l o n g t o t h e t e n t h a n d n i n t h d e g r e e s
^See S e c t i o n s 25 a n d 2 6 , C h a p t e r I I . ABab b e l o n g s
to degree + - * - + - 3 . ABabD b e l o n g s t o + q + r + s + t - 4 .
Then t h e d e g r e e o f ABabD e x c e e d s t h e d e g r e e o f A~Bab~" b y ~ t - l ,
a n d t h e d e g r e e o f ABab e x c e e d s t h e d e g r e e o f ABab by t - 1 .
Thus t h e d e g r e e o f ABab/ D i s p 4 _ q 4 - r - f - s - t - 2 .
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respectively. The s u c c e s s i o n s h o u l d b e j u d g e d f r o m t h e
l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e numbers 240 a n d 1 8 0 , o f w h i c h
t h e g r e a t e s t common d i v i s o r i s 6 0 , b e l o n g i n g t o t h e n i n t h
degree. S i n c e A= 1 2 0 , a = 2 , B6 0 , b 3 , an d D 6 0 , t h e n
jo 1 0, _q = 9 , r - 2 , = 3 , a n d t 9 . T h u s , jo + + 4- - - 2 = 1 3 .
He nce , t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n i s 1 3 , t h e d e g r e e o f
agreeableness of the succession.
22. If the e x p o n e n ts o f e a c h consonance a re g i v e n ,
th e i n d i c e s can be d e te r m in e d so t h a t t h e s u c c e s s i o n i s t h e
most a g r e e a b l e . L e t M be t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e
e x p o n e n t s A a n d 3. O bviously, th e s u c c e s s io n s exponent
ABab/D i s e i t h e r e q u a l t o , o r g re a te r than, M i t s e l f ,
s i n c e i t c a n n o t be l e s s . The s u c c e s s i o n w i l l b e m os t
agreeable if ABab/D i s e q u a l t o M itself; I t w i l l ha ve
l e s s a g r e e a b l e n e s s i f ABab/D i s e q u a l t o 2M o r 3M o r 4M,
etc. Therefore, i f we s e t ABabr : nDM, t h e more a g r e e a b l e
t h e s u c c e s s i o n made b y t h e i n d i c e s a and b , t h e s m a l l e r
t h e number n .
23. We w i l l d e s i g n a t e a s u c c e s s i o n o f f i r s t o r d e r
a s one i n w h i c h t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e numbers
Aa an d Bb i s e q u a l t o M i t s e l f o r t o t h e l e a s t common
m u l t i p l e o f t h e numb ers A a n d B. A second o rd e r s u c c e s s io n
w i l l have an exponent o f 2M. A t h i r d o rd e r succession
w i l l have an exponent of e ith e r 3M o r 4M, s i n c e t h e
nu mb ers 3 a n d 4 b e l o n g t o t h e t h i r d d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s .
R e p ro du ced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
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In g e n e r a l , t h e s u c c e s s i o n whose e x p o n e n t I s nM w i l l ha v e
t h e same o r d e r a s t h e d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s t o w h i c h n
belongs. Care sh o u ld be ta k e n n o t to confuse th e o r d e r of
s u c c e s s i o n w i t h t h e d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s , f o r we s a y
t h a t a s u c c e s s i o n i s o f f i r s t o r d e r when i t f u l f i l l s the
g iv e n c o n d i t i o n s , even i f th e s u c c e s s io n i t s e l f b e lo n g s to
a much h i g h e r d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s .
24. Thus, i t I s c l e a r t h a t th e s u c c e s s io n o f
c o n s o n a n c e s A a n d B w ou ld b e o f f i r s t o r d e r i f b o t h a and
b w e re u n i t y ; f o r t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e numbe rs
A1 a n d 31 I s M. However, e v e n i f a an d b a r e n o t e q u a l ,
t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f c o n s o n a n c e s A (a ) and 3 ( b ) c a n be o f
f i r s t order. T h i s h a p p e n s i f b i n Bb e i t h e r i s e q u a l t o A
o r c o n s i s t s o n l y o f f a c t o r s o f A, a n d i f a t t h e same t i m e a
i n Aa i s equr-1 t o B o r c o n s i s t s o n l y o f f a c t o r s o f B. In
t h i s c a s e M w i l l be t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f Aa a n d Bb.
25. L e t d b e t h e g r e a t e s t common d i v i s o r of t h e
e x p o n e n t s A a n d B a n d A r d t , B n d F , w i t h E a n d F h a v i n g no
common f a c t o r s . A l s o , l e t e_ a n d f b e f a c t o r s o f E a n d F ,
respectively. The n t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f c o n s o n a n c e s dE(f.) an d
d F ( ) w i l l b e o f f i r s t o r d e r , f o r t h e l e a s t common m u l t i o l e
o f d Ef a n d dFe i s dEF, w hi ch i s t h e same a s t h a t f o r A and
B o r dE an d d F . F o r e x a m p l e , i f A - 1 5 and B 1 8 , t h e n d 3 ,
E - 5 , a n d F 6 . T h e r e f o r e , c a n be e i t h e r 1 o r 5 an d f
c a n be 1 , 2 , 3 , o r 6 . The s u c c e s s i o n w i l l be o f f i r s t
%
134
o r d e r i f A ( a ) i s 1 5 ( 1 ) , 1 5 ( 2 ) , 1 5 ( 3 ) , o r 1 5 ( 6 ) , and B ( b ) ,
the consonance fo llo w in g A (a ), i s 16(1) o r 1 8 ( 5 ) .
26. From t h i s i t i s c l e a r wh at k i n d o f i n d i c e s
must be used i n o r d e r t h a t th e exoonent of a s u c c e s s io n
may be 2M o r 2dEF, i n w h i c h c a s e t h e s u c c e s s i o n i s o f
second o r d e r . I n l i k e m a n n e r , I n d i c e s c an b e f o u n d so
t h a t t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n i s ndEF o r so t h a t t h e
s u c c e s s i o n i t s e l f may b e o f a g i v e n o r d e r . T h i s c a n be
done i n s e v e r a l w a ys , w h i c h would b e d i f f i c u l t and
u n n e c e s sa ry to e num erate. I f t h e e x p o n e n t s o f t h e co n
s o n a n c e s a r e 15 an d 1 8 , th e s u c c e s s i o n i s o f second o r d e r
i f th e f i r s t consonance I s 15(1) o r 15(3) ana th e o t h e r i s
18(2) o r 13(10) o r i f the f i r s t i s 1 5 ( 4 ) o r 1 5 ( 1 2 ) an d t h e
o th e r i 3 18(1) or 1 8 (5 ).
27. I f th e exponents o f th e consonances a re e q u a l,
o r BA, a n d i f a b 1 , t h e r e w i l l b e o n l y one s u c c e s s i o n
of f i r s t o rd er: A ( l) and A ( l ) . Th e re w i l l be two
s u c c e ss io n s o f second o r d e r : A (l) t o A (2 ) a n d A(2) t o A ( l ) ,
w i t h a n e x p o n e n t o f 2A i n e a c h c a s e . There w i l l be f o u r
successions of th ir d o rd e r: A (l) to A (3), A (l) to A (4),
and t h e i r i n v e r s e s . There w i l l be s i x s u c c e s s io n s of f o u r t h
order: A ( l ) t o A ( 6 ) , A (2 ) t o A ( 3 ) , A ( l ) t o A ( 8 ) , an d t h e i r
inverses. Any s u c h s u c c e s s i o n w i l l b e o f t h a t o r d e r
i n d i c a t e d by t h e d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s o f t h e p r o d u c t o f
the In d ic e s .
135
I. 2 A (1 ) : A ( 1 ) , 2 A ( 1 ) : A ( 2 ) .
II. 2 A (1 ):A (4 ), 2A(2):A{1 ) .
III. 2A (1):A(6), 2 A (l):A (3 ):A (l), 2A (3):A(2),

~ 2 aT 1 ) : A ( bT , 2 aT 4 ) : aT D .
IV. 2A (1):A(12), 2A (2):A (3), 2A (3):A (4), 2A (l)sA (16),

2ATB) :A(1 ) T ~
V. 2A(1):A(10), 2 A (l)sA (5), 2A (5):A(1),

2A(5):A(2T, 2 A T l) :A ( lI ) , 2 A (1 ):A (9 ),
2 A ( 9 ) : A ( 1 ) , 2A(9) : A ( 2 ) , 2 A T D sAT24),
2A (3):A(8), 2A (4):A (3), 2A (1):A (32),
2 A ( l o ) 7 a <1).
I f the exponents of su c c e ss iv e consonances a r e A
and 3A, t h e s u c c e s s i o n s w i l l be t h e f o l l o w i n g :
I. 3A (1):A(1), 3A (1):A (3)..
II. 3A( 1 ) : A( 6 ) , 3 A ( 1 ) : A ( 2 ) , 3 A ( 2 ) : A ( 1 ) , 3 A ( 2 ) : A ( 3 ) .
III. 3 A (1 ):A (9 ), 3A (3):A {1), 3A(1):A(12>, 3 A (1 ):A (4 ),

3 A l 4 ) : A ( l T , 3 A l 4 ) : A ( 3 T .
IV. 3A(1) :A (1 8 ) , 3 A (3 )sA (2 ), 3 A (2 );A (9 ),

3 A T D : A ( 2 4 T , 3A T1):A(8T, 3 aT b ) : A ( 1 ) ,
3 A (8 );A (3 ).
If th e e x p o n e n t s a r e A an d 4A, t h e s u c c e s s i o n s w i l l
be t h e f o l l o w i n g :
I. 4A (1):A(1), 4A (1):A (2), 4A (1):A (4).
II. 4A(1 ) : A ( 8 ) , 4 A ( 2 ) : A { 1 ) .
III. 4A(1):A(12), 4A (1):A (6), 4A (1):A (3),.

" 4 A l3 ) :A ( l) , 4A(3) :A (2), 4A (3):A (4),
4 A ( 1 ) : A ( 1 6 ) , 4 A ( 4 )Ta ( 1 ) . "
IV. 4A( 1 ) :A ( 2 4 ) , 4 A ( 2 ) : A ( 3 ) , 4 A ( 3 ) : A ( 8 ) ,
4 aT 6 ) ; A ( 1 ) 7 4 A ( T ) : A ( 3 2 7 , 4ATb ) : A ( 1 ) .
136
28. I f t h e e x p o n e n t o f one c o n s o n a n c e i s t w i c e t h a t
o f a n o t h e r , o r i f B 2,&, t h e s e two s u c c e s s i o n s w i l l b e o f
f i r s t order: A ( l ) t o 2A(1) a n a 2A(1) t o A ( 2 ) , f o r t h e
e x p o n e n t o f t h e s e i s 2A, w h i c h i s t h e same a s f o r t h e
e x p o n e n t s t h e m s e l v e s , A a n d 2A. The e x p o n e n t o f s u c c e s s
i o n s o f t h e s e c o n d o r d e r i s 4A. Such s u c c e s s i o n s a r e A ( l )
t o 2 A ( 2 ) , A(4) t o 2 A ( 1 ) , a n d t h e i r i n v e r s e s . S im ilarly,
we can p r o c e e d w i t h s u c c e s s i o n s o f a ny o r d e r , w i t h B 3A o r ,
in g e n e ra l, BSnA. Th u s , we c a n e a s i l y f i n d t h e s i m p l e r
s u c c e s s io n s which a re u s e f u l .
29. I f t h e exponents of consonances are eq u al to
each o t h e r , the su cc e ssio n s o f th e f i r s t th rough the
s i x t h o r d e r s w i l l be t h e f o l l o w i n g , where t h e o r d e r s o f
t h e s u c c e s s i o n s a r e i n d i c a t e d by Roman n u m e r a l s a n d t h e
e x p o n e n t s o f e a c h c o n s o n a n c e b y A s ;
I. A (l):A (1).
II. A (2):A (1).
III. A ( 3 ) : A ( 1 ), A(4) : A ( 1 ) .
IV. A ( 6 ) : A ( 1 ) , A( 3) : A ( 2 ) , A ( 8 ) : A ( 1 ) .
V. A ( 5 ) : A ( 1 ), A(9) : A ( 1 ) , A (1 2 ) : A ( 1 ) , A(4 ) : ^ ( 3 ) ,
A jlB ):A ll) .
V I. a ( 1 C ) : a ( 1) , A (5 ) :A{2) , A ( l d ) : A ( l ) , A ( 9 ) :A (2 )
A( 2 4 ) : A ( l ) , A i d ) : A ( 3 ) , A ( 3 2 ) : A ( l ) .
I f t h e e x p o n e n t s o f t h e c o n s o n a n c e s a r e 2A a n d A,
t h e s u c c e s s i o n s t h r o u g h t h e f i f t h o r d e r w i l l be t h e f o l l o w
ing:
137
I f t h e e x p o n e n t s a r e A a n d 6A, t h e s u c c e s s i o n s
w i l l be th e f o l l o w i n g :
I. 6A (1):A (1), 6A (1):A(2), 6A(1):A(3),

" 6AT1):A(6T*
II. 6 A ( 1 ) ; A ( 1 2 ) , 6 A ( 1 ) : A( 4 ) , 6 A ( 2 ) : A ( 1 ) ,
6AT2) : A ( 3 )T
III. 6A (1) ;A (1 8 ), 6 A (1 ):A (9 ), 6A(3):A<1),

" 6Al3) :A(2)T 6A (1):A(24T, 6A T1):A (8),
6]C(4) : ] [ ( 1 ) , 6 X ( 4 ) : A ( 3 ) .
I f t h e e x p o n e n t s a r e 2A and 3A, t h e s u c c e s s i o n s w i l l
be th e f o l l o w i n g :
I. 3 A ( 1 ) : 2 A ( 1 ) , 3A (2) : 2 A ( 1 ) , 3 A ( 1 ) : 2 A ( 3 ) ,
~ 3A(^):2A(3T.
II. 3A(1 ) :2 A (2 ) , 3 A (1 ):2 A (6 ), 3 A (4 ):2 A ( 1 ),
~ 3 A (4 ) : 2 A (3 7
III. 3 A ( 1 ) : 2 A ( 9 ) , 3 A ( 3 ) :2 A (1 ) , 3 A ( 6 ) : 2 A ( 1 ) ,
3A (2 ):2 A (9 7 , 2A(I) : 2 A ( l2 ) , 3 A l l ) : 2 A ( 4 ) ,
3 l ( 8 ) : 2 l ( l ) , 3l(8):2A (3).
I f t h e e x p o n e n t s a r e A a n d 8A, t h e s u c c e s s i o n s w i l l
be the fo llo w in g :
I. 8 A (1 ) : A ( 1 ) f 8 A (1 ) : A ( 2 ) , 8 A ( 1 ) : A ( 4 ) ,
_ 8 aT i ):A(87.
II. 8A (1):A (16), 8A (2):A(1).
III. 8 A (1}:A (2 4 ), 8A(1 ) :A (12), 8 A ( l ) s A ( 6 ) ,

8 A ll ) : A ( 3 ) , 8A (3):A (1), 8A (37:A (2),
8A (3):A (4), 8A (3):A (8), 8A (1):A (32),
8 A ( 4 ) :A ( 1 ) .
I f t h e e x o o n e n t s a r e A a n d 5A# t h e s u c c e s s i o n s w i l l
I. 5A (1):A (1), 5A (1):A(5).
II. 5A(1 ) : A ( 10 ) , 5 A ( 1 ) : A ( 2 ) , 5 A ( 2 ) : A ( 1 ) ,
5A l2):A {5)7
138
I f t h e e x p o n e n t s a r e A a nd 9A, t h e s u c c e s s i o n s w i l l
be the fo llo w in g :
I. 9 A (1 ) : A ( 1 ) , 9A( 1 ) : A( 3 ) , 9 A ( 1 ) : A ( 9 ) .
II. 9A (1):A(18), 9A (1):A (6), 9A (1):A (2),

~ 9AT2):A(1)7 9 A (2 ):A (3 ), 9 A (2 ):A (9 ).
I f t h e e x D o n e n t s a r e A an d 12A, t h e s u c c e s s i o n s w i l l
I. 12A (1):A(1), 12A (1):A (2), 12A (1):A (3),

~ 12A7D:A(4)7 1 2 A l l ) : A ( b ) 7 1 2 A j l ) :A(1 2) .
II. 12A(1):A(24), 12A (1):A (8), 1 2A (2)sA (l),
12A I2):A (3).
I f t h e e x p o n e n t s a r e 3A a n d 4A, t h e s u c c e s s i o n s
w i l l be th e f o l l o w i n g :
I. 4A(1) :3A (1), 4A (1):3A (2), 4A (1):3A (4),

4 A ( 3 ) : 3 A ( l 7 , 4 A ( T ) : 3 A ( l 7 , 4A(3) : 3 A ( 2 ) ,
4 l(3 ):3 l{4 ).
II. 4A( 1 ) : 3A( 8 ) , 4 A ( 2 ) : 3 A ( 1 ) , 4 A ( 3 ) : 3 A ( 8 ) ,

4A (6):3A (l7.
I f t h e e x o o n e n t s a r e A an d 16A, t h e s u c c e s s i o n s
will b e t h e f o l l o w i n g :
I. 1SA(1) :A(1 ) , 16A (1) : A ( 2 ) , 1 6 A (1 ): A ( 4 ),

1 6 A l l ) : A ( 8 ) , 1 6 A T 1 ) :A ( 1 6 7 .
II. 1 6 A ( 1 ) : A ( 3 2 ) , 16A(2 ) : A ( 1 ) .
30. From t h e a bov e i t i s c l e a r how b o t h t h e
e x p o n e n t and t h e o r d e r o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f two c o n s o n a n c e s
can be d e te r m in e d . Knowledge o f t h e s e makes i t e a s y t o
f i n d th e d e g re e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s w it h which a g iv e n
s u c c e s s i o n o f consonances w i l l be r e c e i v e d by t h e h e a r i n g .
139
A l s o , a c o n s o n a n c e c a n tie c h o s e n t o f o l l o w a g i v e n co n
s o n a n c e so t h 8 t t h e y c o n s t i t u t e a s u c c e s s i o n o f g i v e n
order, e ith e r f i r s t , second, t h i r d , e t c . T h i s can b e done
i n many w a y s , a s t h e p r e c e d i n g r u l e s and t a b l e c l e a r l y
show.
31. I t is also c le a r th a t i t i s o o s s i b l e to produce
i n s e v e r a l ways s u c c e s s i o n s o f two c o n s o n a n c e s w i t h t h e
same e x p o n e n t o f s u c c e s s i o n . I n o r d e r t h a t t h i s may b e
c l e a r e r , l e t E be t h e e x p o n e n t o f s u c c e s s i o n s nd t a k e M
a n d N a s any two d i v i s o r s whose l e a s t common m u l t i p l e i s E.
Then l e t e a c h o f t h e d i v i s o r s b e r e s o l v e d i n t o two f a c t o r s
so t h a t M r Aa a n d N = B b , where a and b ha v e no common
facto rs. T h e n , t h e s u c c e s s i o n A ( a ) : B ( b ) may b e f o r m e d ,
a n d i t s e x p o n e n t w i l l b e E.
CHAPTER VI
ON SERIES OF CONSONANCES
1. I n t h e two p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s we h a v e d i s c u s s e d
a t l e n g t h how t o o b t a i n p l e a s i n g harmony i n s i n g l e co n
s o n a n c e s and i n s u c c e s s i o n s o f two c o n s o n a n c e s . But t h i s
i s n o t a t a l l s u f f i c i e n t f o r p r o d u c i n g an a g r e e a b l e m u s i c a l
com position. In o r d e r t h a t s e v e r a l consonances or
s u c c e s s i o n s o f c o n s o n a n c e s may be p e r c e i v e d w i t h p l e a s u r e ,
i t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t h a t the o r d e r e x i s t i n g in the
c o m p l e t e s u c c e s s i o n o f c o n s o n a n c e s b e p e r c e i v e d by t h e
min d and t h a t t h i s o r d e r a d v a n c e t h e r e a l g o a l , a g r e e a b l e
ness.
2. S in g le c o nsonances, a g r e e a b le In th e m s e lv e s ,
c a n p r o d u c e no narmony i f jo in e d w ith o u t system . This i s
a l s o t r u e o f s e v e r a l s u c c e s s i o n s , w h ic h may i n d e e d b e
a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o p r e s c r i b e d l a w s b u t s t i l l ha v e a
h i g h l y u n p l e a s a n t e f f e c t on t h e e a r s u n l e s s c e r t a i n r u l e s
are observed. I n t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e n , we w i l l show what
la w s m u s t b e o b s e r v e d i n j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r s e v e r a l c o n
sonances.
3. T h a t d i v i s i o n o f m u s i c whic h shows how t o j o i n
s e v e r a l consonances to e ac h o t h e r to c o n s t i t u t e a g r e e a b l e
harmony i s commonly c a l l e d s i m p l e c o m p o s i t i o n . The word
" c o m p o s i t i o n " i s u s u a l l y u n d e r s t o o d t o mean t h e c r e a t i o n
o f a m u s i c a l work. F o r c om posi ng a s i m o l e c o m p o s i t i o n ,
141
w hich i s the b a s is of a ll o th e r com positions, it is first
necessary t o know i n w h a t e x i s t s th e a g re e a b le n e ss of
several su ccessive c o n so n a n c e s o r o f th e w hole harm ony.
Then, from t h i s p rin cip le, ru les a r e d ed u ced w hich must be
observed in sim ple co m position.
4. The s o u r c e o f t h e a g r e e a b l e n e s s w h i c h c a n e x i s t
in a su c c e ssio n of s e v e ra l consonances is the same a s t h a t
of sin g le consonances and s u c c e s s io n s o f two c o n s o n a n c e s .
Hence, in o rd e r to o e rc eiv e the harm ony o f s e v e r a l suc
cessiv e consonances, it is n e c e ssa ry to u n d e rstan d the
order e x istin g in the in d iv id u a l parts, i. e ., in the to n e s
and c o n so n a n c es, sin g ly and c o l l e c t i v e l y .
5. From t h e exam ples of in d i v id u a l consonances and
o f s u c c e s s i o n s o f two c o n s o n a n c e s , it easily follow s th at
we c o m p r e h e n d t h e h a r m o n y o f s e v e r a l consonances in
succession i f we p e r c e i v e th e e x p o n e n t of a l l the tones
co n stitu tin g th is series of consonances. Thus i t is clear
th a t com prehension o f th e agreeableness of several
su ccessiv e consonances re q u ire s a g ra sp of th e exponent
of a l l the tones and o f the c o n s o n a n c e s comoosed o f th em .
6. The e x p o n e n t o f a l l the tones co n stitu tin g the
su ccessiv e consonances is the least common m u l t i p l e of the
num bers r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e tones. T herefore, in the case
of a given s e r i e s of consonances, the r e q u ir e d d egree o f

\
com orehensive f a c i l i t y can be f o u n d from th e least common
1*12
m u ltip le of a ll the tones in the series, w ith th e h e lp of
the g iv e n ta b le and r u l e s . From t h e d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e
n e ss g iv e n e i t h e r by the t a b l e o r by t h e ru les, it can
b e d e t e r m i n e d how a g r e e a b l e any g iv e n s e r i e s o f consonances
w i l l be to the h e a rin g .
7. Since the exponent o f a s e r ie s of consonances
is the l e a s t common m u l t i p l e of a l l th e num bers r e p r e s e n t
ing the v a rio u s to n e s w hich o c c u r , it is c le a r th at th is
exponent is d i v i s i b l e by th e expo nents of the in d iv id u al
consonances and o f ev ery b in a ry succession. Hence, in
o r d e r t o know t h e exponent of th e w hole s e r i e s of con
sonances, it is necessary th a t bo th the in d iv id u al
c o n so n a n c es and th e b i n a r y su c c e ssio n s be p e rc e iv e d . In
th is way, co n se c u en tly , th ere w i l l be com prehension o f
the whole c o n n e c t i o n .
8. W hether i t is known i n a d v a n c e o r i s perceiv ed
from s e v e r a l c o n s o n a n c e s , the exponent of a s e r ie s of
consonances w ill r e v e a l what k in d o f to n e s o r co n so n an ces
can o c c u r. Thus t h a t e x p o n e n t d e t e r m i n e s t h e l i m i t s of
the co m p o sitio n and a ls o in c lu d e s a ll the ap p ro p riate
t o n e s and e x c l u d e s the u n s u i t a b l e ones. T his l i m i t a t i o n
is c alled th e m u s i c a l mode, w h ic h i s a p articu lar
selectio n of tones s u ita b le f o r use in com posing a p ie c e
of m usic. O th e r t o n e s c a n n o t be i n t r o d u c e d .
9. T herefore, since a m u s i c a l mode i s determ ined
by th e exponent o f a l l the to n e s w hich c o n s t i t u t e th e mode,
143
we w i l l c a l l t h i s e x p o n e n t t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e mode o r
modal e x p o n e n t . He nc e , i f we h a v e a c o m p l e t e consonance^-
w i t h a n e x p o n e n t e q u a l t o t h a t o f t h e mode, t h i s c o n
s o n a n c e w i l l hav e a l l t h e t o n e s w h ic h c an be u s e d i n t h i s
mode. I f t h i s e x p o n e n t i s known, one c a n j u d g e a t once
w h e t h e r t h e mode h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d i n a g i v e n c o m p o s i t i o n
o r some t r a n s g r e s s i o n h a s b e e n made a g a i n s t t h e mode by
u s e o f t o n e s n o t c o n t a i n e d i n t h e modal e x p o n e n t .
10. We s a i d t h a t g o i n g b e y o n d t h e mode i s a
t r a n s g r e s s i o n , b u t t h a t i s t r u e o n l y so l o n g a s t h e mode
is retained. I n d e e d , a l t e r a t i o n o f t h e mode and t r a n s i t i o n
f r o m one mode t o a n o t h e r a r e o e r m i t t e d an d a r e u s u a l l y
v e ry p l e a s a n t , n o t only w i t h i n a c o m p o sitio n b u t even
w i t h i n t h e same p a r t o f a c o m p o s i t i o n . The same r u l e s
given f o r a s u c c e s s io n of consonances w i l l apply to the
c han ge o r s u c c e s s i o n o f mode s.
11 . When t h e same mode i s u s e d i n any p o r t i o n o r
p e rio d of a c o m p o sitio n , the exponent of t h a t p o r t i o n o r
o f two s u c h p o r t i o n s i n s u c c e s s i o n w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d
j u s t a s t h e e x p o n e n t o f any c o n s o n a n c e o r b i n a r y s u c c e s s i o n
was f o u n d . F i n a l l y , t h e e x p o n e n t o f a whole c o m p o s i t i o n
re p r e s e n ts a l l exoonents or a l l tones used i n a l l p a r t s .
I S e e S e c t i o n 2 1 , C h a n t e r IV.
144
12. T herefore, in o rd e r f o r a com position to
p lease, th e re m ust be p e rc e p tio n o f th e exponents of
(1) sin g le consonances, (2) s u c c e s s i o n s o f two c o n s o n a n c e s ,
(3) sin g le p erio d s, (4) s u c c e s s i o n s o f two p e r i o d s o r
changes o f m odes, and (5) all the p erio d s, th at is, the
whole c o m p o s i t i o n . I f one p e r c e i v e s a l l of these, he
u n d e rsta n d s the com position p e r f e c tly and i s ab le to judge
it co rrectly .
13. I do n o t d o u b t th at such com prehension of a
c o m p o s i tio n seems t o be a n a cc o m p lish m e n t o f t h e g r e a t e s t
d ifficu lty , far su rp assin g th e pow er o f t h e human i n t e l l e c t
b ecau se o f th e h ig h ly com posite n a tu re of th e exponent of
th e w hole c o m o o s i t i o n . B u t n o m a t t e r how d i f f i c u l t th is
c o m p r e h e n s i o n may s e e m , the in te lle ct is assisted in a
w o n d e r f u l way a s t h e p ercep tio n Is acq u ired g ra d u a lly .
J u s t a s t h e e x p o n e n t o f a s u c c e s s i o n o f two c o n s o n a n c e s i s
p e r c e i v e d w i t h no d i f f i c u l t y by o b s e rv in g the exponents o f
the consonances, even i f the exponent of the su ccessio n is
v e ry co m p o site and can h a r d ly be re c o g n iz e d in i t s e l f , so
also , w ith su ccessive p ercep tio n of sim p ler exponents, the
c o m p re h e n s io n o f more c o m p o s ite e x p o n e n ts f o l l o w s w ith o u t
d ifficu lty .
14. The p e r c e o t i o n o f t h e exponent of a succession
o f tw o c o n s o n a n c e s should r e s u l t from th e o r d e r o f th e
su ccessio n , n o t from th e exponent i t s e l f or Its degree
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of ag reeab len ess. S im ilarly , the e x p o n e n t o f a mode o r o f
one p e rio d i s ma de e a s i e r b y t h e p e rc e p tio n o f the
e x p o n en ts o f b o th co n so n an ces and s u c c e s s i o n s . This
com prehension o f modal ex p o n en ts le a d s ouite n atu rally to
r e c o g n itio n of exponents of s u c c e ss io n s o f modes. In th is
way p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e e x p o n en t o f th e w hole c o m p o s itio n
becomes q u i t e sim ple.
15. T herefore, in o rd e r t h a t a m u sical com oosition
may b e h e a r d w i t h p l e a s u r e , it is necessary th a t the
exponents of th e s u c c e s s i o n s o f two c o n s o n a n c e s n o t b e
much m ore c o m o o s i t e than the e x p o n en ts o f tn e consonances
them selves; th at the modal e x p o n e n ts n o t g r e a t l y exceed
the exponents o f th e su ccessio n s; and t h a t the exponent
of the w hole c o m p o s i t i o n be n o t much m ore d i f f i c u l t to
p erceive than th e o th e r exponents. Th e r e a l a g r e e a b l e n e s s
and o l e a s u r e w hich th e liste n er can d e r i v e from m u sic l i e
in t h a t p e r c e p t i o n and in com prehension p r o g r e s s i n g from
the sim pler to t h e more c o m o o s i t e ; and t h i s was am ply
dem onstrated in G haoter I I in the tre a tm e n t of the tru e
p rin cip les o f harm ony.
16. From t n e s e m a t t e r s it is c l e a r how a m u s i c a l
work s h o u ld be prepared in o rd e r to p lease in te llig e n t
listen ers. At t h e s am e t i m e , it is clear th a t m usical
w orks i n w h ich t h e r e is encroachm ent (we s h a l l In o u ire of
what k in d ) of these ru les should d is o le a s e the hearers.
146
I t i s e a s y t o s e e how s u c h i m p e r f e c t m u s i c a l wo rks c a n b e
a c c e p t e d by l e s s i n t e l l i g e n t h e a r e r s , s i n c e t h e y do n o t
n o t i c e i m p e r f e c t i o n s and encroachm ents o f t h e r u l e s o f
harmony b u t s t i l l p e r c e i v e and a p p r e c i a t e t h e c o n g r u o u s
passages.
17. Since the exponent of s e v e ra l consonances i s
the exponent of a l l th e tones c o n s t i t u t i n g those consonances,
i t w i l l b e t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e numb er s r e p r e
sen tin g the in d iv id u a l tones. I t c an be f o u n d e a s i l y fr o m
the ex p o n en ts p lu s i n d i c e s o f th e c o n so n a n c e s , i n a manner
s i m i l a r t o t h a t b y w n i c h we f o u n d t h e e x p o n e n t o f a
su ccessio n in the preceding c h a p te r. The same r u l e s w h ic h
w e re g i v e n f o r two c o n s o n a n c e s a r e v a l i d f o r t h r e e o r m o r e .
The e x p o n e n t o f a s e r i e s o f c o n s o n a n c e s i s m e r e l y t h e l e a s t
common m u l t i p l e o f t h e e x p o n e n t s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n
sonances .
18. Let us c o n s id e r f i r s t s e v e r a l simple to n e s
produced s u c c e s s i v e l y , w ith a m utual r e l a t i o n s h i p e x p re s s e d
by t h e nu mbe rs a:b :c^:d:e^, an d l e t u s s e e k t h e e x p o n e n t o f
t h i s s e r i e s o f numbers, d ince a sim ple tone i s a con
s o n a n c e o f t h e f i r s t d e g r e e an d h a s a n e x p o n e n t o f u n i t y ,
u n l e s s I t i s c om pa re d w i t h o t h e r s , the l e t t e r s a , b , , d,
and e w i l l d e n o te th e i n d i c e s o f th o s e sim p le t o n e s , s i n c e
th e y com prise the r e l a t i o n s h i p which t h e s e t o n e s , con
s i d e r e d a s c o n so n a n c es, have w ith each o t h e r . Therefore,
147
these to n e s, lik e consonances, s h o u l d be e x p r e s s e d t h u s :
l(a ):l(b )sl(c):l(d ):l(e).
19. The e x p o n e n t ox t h i s s e r i e s o f s i m p l e t o n e s I s
t h e same a s t h a t o f t h e c o n s o n a n c e composed o f t h e s e t o n e s .
The e x p o n e n t o f t h e c o n s o n a n c e a , ! b : : d : e i s t h e l e a s t
common m u l t i p l e , s a y , D, o f t h e numb ers a, b , c , d , e .
H en ce, c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s u c c e s s i v e t o n e s a s c o n s o n a n c e s ,
the exponent of th e s e r i e s o f consonances 1 ( ) : l ( b ) : 1 ( )
: l ( d ) : l ( ) w i l l a l s o b e D, i . e., t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e
o f the i n d i c e s a , b , , d, , s in c e a l l the exponents
them selves a re 1. From t h e d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s t o
w h i c h D b e l o n g s we c a n j u d g e how p l e a s i n g t h a t s e r i e s o f
to n e s w i l l be to th e h e a r in g .
20. Now l e t A, B, C, D, E b e t h e e x p o n e n t s o f
s u c c e s s i v e c o n s o n a n c e s and a , b , , d , be t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
i n d i c e s which e x p re s s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the b a s e s of the
consonances, so t h a t t h i s s e r i e s o f c o n s o n a n c e s may be
represented thus: A ( a }: B ( b ) : C ( ) : D ( d ) : E ( e ) . Let u s a ls o
assume t h a t a_, b , c , d , h a v e no common f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n
unity. I f t h e y h a v e a common f a c t o r , t h e y s h o u l d be
d i v i d e d by i t b e f o r e t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e s e r i e s i s s o u g h t .
21. The t o n e s o f t h e c o n s o n a n c e A(a) a r e d i v i s o r s
o f t h e exponent A, w i t h e a c h d i v i s o r m u l t i p l i e d b y a .
H e n c e , t h e i r l e c s t common m u l t i p l e w i l l be Aa. S im ilarly,
t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e s o f B ( b ) , C ( ) , D ( d ) , and E ( )
148
w i l l b e Bb, c , Dd, a n d E e , resp ectiv ely . T herefore, the
least common m u l t i p l e of a ll the to n es c o n ta in e d in the
successive c o n s o n a n c e s w i l l be t h e least common m u l t i p l e
o f t h e n u m b e r s A a , B b, C c , Dd, a n d E e . T his l e a s t common
m u ltip le w i l l be the d e s i r e d exponent o f the g iv e n s e r i e s
o f consonances.
22. For exam ple, c o n s id e r th e fo llo w in g co n so n an ces:
8 :1 2 :1 6 :2 4 :3 2 :4 8 ,
8 :1 2 :2 0 :2 4 :4 0 :6 0 ,
9 :1 2 :1 8 :2 7 :3 6 :5 4 ,
1 0 :1 5 :2 0 :3 0 :4 5 :6 0 ,
9 :1 5 :3 0 :3 6 :4 5 :6 0 .
D ivide each tone o f each consonance by th e g r e a t e s t common
d i v i s o r and f in d the least common m u l t i p l e o f t h e r e s u l t i n g
num bers. The g r e a t e s t common d i v i s o r w i l l b e t h e index,
and th e le ast common m u l t i p l e w i l l be th e exponent o f the
consonance. Th e g i v e n c o n s o n a n c e s may now b e e x p r e s s e d
th u s:
2 4 (4 ):3 0 (4 ):3 5 (3 ):3 6 (5 ):5 0 (3 ).
From t n e s e the exponent o f a s e r ie s o f consonances is
fo u n d to be 4320, w hich b e lo n g s t o d e g r e e XVI.
23. This exam ple and th e g iv e n r u l e s clarify how t o
f in d the e x p o n e n t o f any g i v e n series of consonances.
T his exponent e n a b le s us to judge th e m u tu a l harmony of
those consonances. The e x p o n e n t o f e a c h c o n s o n a n c e should
149
be m u l t i p l i e d b y I t s i n d e x , and t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e
o f t h e p r o d u c t s t h u s o b t a i n e d w i l l be t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e
given s e r i e s of consonances,
24. I f two o r more s e r i e s o f c o n s o n a n c e s a r e
c o n j o i n e d t o make a w hole p i e c e o f m u s i c a n d t h e e x p o n e n t s ,
M, N, P, Q, e t c . , h a v e b e e n f o u n d by t h e g i v e n r u l e s , we
must f i r s t a s c e r t a i n w h e th er o r n o t u n i t y d e s i g n a t e s th e
same t o n e i n e a c h e x p o n e n t . I f i t does n o t, the r a t i o
among t h o s e t o n e s d e n o t e d b y u n i t y i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l
s e r i e s s h o u l d b e i n d i c a t e d by t h e s m a l l e s t n u m b e r s , s a y ,
m, n , jo, o , e t c . , w h i c h a r e t h e i n d i c e s t o be c o n n e c t e d
w i t h t h e e x p o n e n t s , so t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s e r i e s
o f c o n s o n a n c e s may be e x p r e s s e d t h u s :
M(m) :N ( n ) : P ( p ) : .
25. Since such a s e r i e s of consonances e x p re ss e d
by an e x p o n e n t i s a m u s i c a l mode, i t i s c l e a r how t h e
t r a n s i t i o n f r o m one mode t o a n o t h e r and t h e j o i n i n g o f
s e v e r a l modes s h o u l d be j u d g e d . I f t h e s u c c e s s i v e modes
a r e e x p r e s s e d by e x p o n e n t s and i n d i c e s t h u s : M(m):N(n)
: P ( p ) : Q ( q ) , we c a n f i n d t h e e x p o n e n t which w i l l g i v e u s
t h e n a t u r e a n d c h a r a c t e r o f t h e whole m u s i c a l work
composed o f t h o s e modes by f i n d i n g t h e l e a s t common
m u l t i p l e o f ton, Nil, Pp, Qq_, e t c . T h i s w i l l be t h e e x
ponent of th e giv en co m p o sitio n as a whole.
150
26. I n o r d e r t h a t a c o r r e c t ju d g m e n t may be made
a b o u t a g i v e n c o m p o s i t i o n , we m u s t f i r s t c o n s i d e r t h e
in d i v i d u a l consonances and f i n d t h e i r exponents. Secondly,
we m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e s u c c e s s i o n s o f two c o n s o n a n c e s .
T h i r d l y , we s h o u l d c o n s i d e r t h e s e v e r a l c o n s o n a n c e s i n
o ne mode. F o u r t h l y , we s h o u l d exami ne t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f
two modes o r t h e c h a n g e f r o m one mode t o a n o t h e r . F ifth ly ,
we s h o u l d i n v e s t i g a t e t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f a l l t h e modes
j o in e d t o g e t h e r i n the c o m p o sitio n . We ha v e a d e q u a t e l y
shown a b o v e how e a c h o f t h e s e s t e p s c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d
w ith the a id of exponents.
27. I t r e m a i n s f o r u s t o show i n t h i s c h a o t e r , a s
much a s c a n b e done a t t h i s p o i n t , how a s e r i e s o f
c o n s o n a n c e s a n d t h e n a who le c o m p o s i t i o n s h o u l d be p r e p a r e d
so t h a t p l e a s i n g harmony r e s u l t s . I n t h i s m a t t e r we s h a l l
be o c c u p ie d i n f i n d i n g th e ex p o n en ts o f i n d i v i d u a l con
s o n a n c e s f r o m a g i v e n mode o r t h e e x p o n e n t o f a s e r i e s o f
consonances. S i n c e t h e v e r y g r e a t number o f e x p o n e n t s
which can be u s e d g iv e r i s e to innum erable s e r i e s of
c o n s o n a n c e s , t h e a r t o f m u s i c i s l i m i t l e s s i n s c o p e an d
c a n b e e x p a n d e d n o t o n l y b y new w or ks b u t a l s o b y new
mode s
28. T o d a y , when t h e s t u d y o f m u s i c h a s b e e n
brought to such a degree of p e r f e c t io n , i t is certainly
a s t o n i s h i n g t h a t s k i l l e d c o m p o s e r s a r e so b u s y c r e a t i n g
151
new w o r k s , c a r i n g n o t h i n g a b o u t i n c r e a s i n g t h e s m a l l
number o f modes w h i c h h a v e b e e n i n u s e f o r a l o n g t i m e .
The r e a s o n i s t h a t h i t h e r t o t h e t r u e p r i n c i p l e s o f harmony
were unknown, a n d , b e c a u s e o f t h i s l a c k , t h e s t u d y o f
m u s i c was c a r r i e d on o n l y b y e x p e r i m e n t and c u s t o m ,
29. S ince th e exponent o f a s e r i e s of consonances
i s t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h e
e x p o n e n t s and r e s p e c t i v e i n d i c e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
c o n s o n a n c e s , a l l t h e p r o d u c t s t h u s o b t a i n e d w i l l be
d i v i s o r s of th e exponent of the s e r i e s . He nc e , i n o r d e r
t o f i n d t h e c o n s o n a n c e s t h e m s e l v e s i f t h e e x p o n e n t , M, o f
a series of c o n s o n a n c e s i s g i v e n , we u s e a s many a s we
p l e a s e o f M's d i v i s o r s , w h i c h c o u l d b e d e s i g n a t e d a s
Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, e t c . Then A(_a) : B ( b ) :C (^ ) :D ( d ) w ill
r e p r e s e n t a s e r i e s o f c o n s o n a n c e s w i t h t h e g i v e n number M
as exponent.
30. I n f i n d i n g t h e s e d i v i s o r s we s h o u l d k e e p i n
mind t h a t t h e y e x h a u s t t h e g i v e n e x p o n e n t M so t h a t t h e y
do n o t ha v e a s m a l l e r l e a s t common m u l t i p l e t h a n M. This
i s a c c o m p l i s h e d i f a t t h e b e g i n n i n g we p l a c e t o g e t h e r some
c o n s o n a n c e s whose e x p o n e n t s e x h a u s t t h e g i v e n number M.
T h i s w i l l be v e r y u s e f u l b e c a u s e t h e e x p o n e n t o f a w ho le
s e r i e s o f c o n s o n a n c e s i s p e r c e i v e d b y f i r s t h e a r i n g a few
consonances. R e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s e x p o n e n t makes e a s i e r
t h e j u d g m e n t o f t h e harmony o f t h e whole s e r i e s . B ut more
about th e se th in g s l a t e r .
CHAPTER V I I
ON THE CURRENT NAMES OF VARIOUS INTERVALS
1. Having shown i n g e n e r a l t h e r u l e s o f h a rm on y
a p p r o o r ia te f o r consonances as w e ll as t h e i r com bination,
we go on t o t r e a t more f u l l y t h e u s e s o f t h e g i v e n r u l e s
in the v a rio u s k inds of m usic. But b e f o r e t h e k i n d s o f
m u s i c can b e p r o p e r l y l i s t e d a n d d i s c u s s e d , t h e s p e c i a l
c u r r e n t names s h o u l d be e x p l a i n e d s o t h a t we can u s e t h e
u su a l term inology in our d i s c u s s i o n . Th es e names were
a p p l i e d a l o n g t i m e a go t o s e v e r a l m u s i c a l i n t e r v a l s .
B ec a u se o f t h e i r c o n t i n u e d u s e , it i s c o n v e n i e n t an d
n e c e s s a r y t o e x p l a i n th em .
2. T h e s e n am es, o f w h ic h some hav e b e e n m e n t i o n e d
h e r e an d t h e r e i n p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , hav e b e e n g i v e n
d e f i n i t i o n s which a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y n a t u r a l and a r e
poorly s u ite d f o r our purpose. The I n t e r v a l s t o w h i c h
p a r t i c u l a r names a r e a p p l i e d a r e u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e d fr om
p r a c t i c e and e x o e r i e n c e r a t h e r t h a n fr om t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
sounds. We w i l l c o n t i n u e t o e x p r e s s i n t e r v a l s b y t h e i r
r a t i o s o r by t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g l o g a r i t h m s , whence a
b e t t e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s i z e o f any i n t e r v a l c a n be
made.
3. We h a v e p r e v i o u s l y shown t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e
o f p i t c h b e t w e e n two t o n e s i s an i n t e r v a l , a n d t h e
g reater th is difference is , the l a r g e r th e i n t e r v a l i s
153
s a i d to b e . T h e r e f o r e , i f t h e t o n e s a r e t h e same t h e r e
w i l l b e no d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the m . The i n t e r v a l o f t h e
to n e s having the r a t i o o f e q u a l i t y , 1 : 1 , w i l l be z e r o ,
and th e l o g a r i t h m of t h i s r a t i o i s a l s o z e r o ; f o r , a s we
h a v e a l r e a d y d e c i d e d , we w i l l m e a s u r e i n t e r v a l s by t h e
lo g a rith m s of th e r a t i o s between the to n e s. This
v a n i s h i n g i n t e r v a l o f two e q u a l t o n e s i s c a l l e d a u n i s o n .
4. I n e x p r e s s i n g t h e s e l o g a r i t h m s o f r a t i o s we
c o u l d u s e an y l o g a r i t h m i c s y s t e m i n w h i c h t h e l o g a r i t h m
of un ity is zero. I t w i l l be a d v a n t a g e o u s , h o w e v e r , t o
u s e a s y s t e m i n w h i c h l o g 2 i s u n i t y s i n c e 2 o c c u r s m os t
o f t e n i n e x p r e s s i n g c o n s o n a n c e s an d i s v e r y h i g h l y
regarded in m usic. By t h i s means t h e c o m p u t a t i o n i s a l s o
made much e a s i e r . The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e o f s u c h l o g a r i t h m s
w ill s u f f ic e f o r o u r purpose:
log 1 = 0 .0 0 0 0 0 0 log 5 = 2.321928
lo g 2 = 1.000000 log 6 = 2.584962
lo g 3 = 1.584962 log 7 = 2.807356
lo g 4 = 2.000000 log 8= 3.000000
5. A f t e r t h e u n i s o n , we s h o u l d c o n s i d e r t h e
i n t e r v a l h a v in g the r a t i o 2 : 1 , which the Greek m u s ic ia n s
c a l l e d the d ia p a s o n . Its t o n e s s oun d a l m o s t l i k e o n e ,
a n d t h i s i n t e r v a l i s c o n s i d e r e d t o comprehend a l l o t h e r
intervals. The L a t i n name f o r t h i s i n t e r v a l i s o c t a v a ,
154
a n d t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s name i s l i n k e d t o t h e d i a t o n i c
m u s i c a l g e n u s w h i c h we w i l l d i s c u s s l a t e r i n more d e t a i l .
The m e a s u r e o f t h e d i a p a s o n o r octave^- i s l o g 2 m in u s
log 1 o r lo g 2 , which i s 1.000000.
6. S in c e the i n t e r v a l o f t o n e s h a v in g a r a t i o of
4:1 i s 2.0 0 0 0 0 0 , tw ic e as l a r g e a s the o c t a v e , t h i s
i n t e r v a l i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d the d ls d l a p a s o n o r double
o ctave. The i n t e r v a l o : l , since i t i s 3.000000, th r e e
tim es the s iz e of th e o c ta v e , i s c a l l e d th e t r i p l e
octave. Sim ilarly, th e i n t e r v a l 1 6 :1 , w ith a measure
o f 4 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 , i s c a l l e d t h e q u a d r u p l e o c t a v e , a nd 3 2 : 1 i s
c a l l e d t h e q u i n t u p l e o c t a v e , a n d so o n . S i n c e t h e names
o f t h e l a r g e r i n t e r v a l s c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e number o f
o c t a v e s c o n t a i n e d i n them, our c h o ic e o f u n i t y a s lo g 2
is obvious. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of th e l o g a r i t h m ex p re ssin g
any i n t e r v a l i n d i c a t e s how -many o c t a v e s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n
th at in te rv a l.
7. The G r e e k a n d L a t i n names f o r t h e i n t e r v a l 3 : 2
a r e d i a p e n t e and o u l n t a , r e s p e c t i v e l y , and th e d e r i v a t i o n
l l n h i s E x t r a i t d ' u n e r e p o n s e de M. Rameau si
M. E u l e r s u r l * i d e n t l t S d e s ~ o c t a v e s . . . TP&ii,s T i ' 7 5 ' 3 ) ,
Itameau o b j e ' c t e d t o E u l e r ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o c t a v e
a s an i n t e r v a l d i s t i n c t from th e u n i s o n . Shirlaw says,
" I t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d how t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s
o f E u l e r d i d n o t s u i t Rameau. But t h e l a t t e r , i n h i s
r e p l y * o n l y d e m o n s t r a t e d how b a d l y h e was e q u i p p e d ,
c h ie fly through la c k of the n ecessary s c i e n t i f i c tr a in i n g ,
f o r e n t e r i n g t h e l i s t s a g a i n s t s u c h men a s E u l e r . " See
S h i r l a w , M a t t h e w , The T h e o r y o f Harmony, p p . 2 7 4 - 2 7 5 .
155
o f t h i s name a l s o comes fr om t h e d i a t o n i c g e n u s . The
measure o f t h i s I n t e r v a l i s l o g 3 - l o g 2 0 . 5 6 4 9 6 2 , Th u s,
t h i s i n t e r v a l i s s m a l l e r t h a n the o c t a v e , and the r a t i o
o f t h e m e a s u r e s o f t h e o c t a v e and t h e f i f t h cannot be
e x p re s s e d by r a t i o n a l numbers. The f o l l o w i n g r a t i o s 2 a r e
approxim ations to the tru e r a t i o :
5:3, 7:4, 12:7, 17:10, 29:17, 41:24, 53:31.
More a c c u r a t e r a t i o s c a n n o t be g i v e n i n numbers s m a l l e r
th a n the above.
8. Since th e measure o f the i n t e r v a l 3:1 i s
1 . 5 6 4 9 6 2 , w h ic h i s t h e sum o f t h e m e a s u r e s o f t h e o c t a v e
and f i f t h , t h i s I n t e r v a l i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d an octave p lu s
a fifth . S i m i l a r l y , 6 :1 r e p r e s e n ts a double octave plus a
fifth , s in c e i t s measure Is 2.584962. A lso , 12:1 i s c a l l e d
a trid e o c tav e p lu s a f i f t h , and 24:1 i s c a l l e d a quadruple
octave p lu s a f i f t h . Thus, i f the decim al f r a c t i o n Is
.5 8 4 9 6 2 , t h e i n t e r v a l i s composed o f a f i f t h and as many
o ctav es as the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c indicates,
9. T h e r e i s n o t much d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e f i f t h
and t h e d i a t e s s a r o n o r f o u r t h . The t o n e s o f t h e l a t t e r
have th e r a t i o 4 : 3 w i t h a measure o f .415033. Obviously,
i f t h e f i f t h a nd f o u r t h a r e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r , they con
s t i t u t e an o c t a v e , since t h e sum o f t h e i r m e a s u r e s i s
2See S e c t i o n 3 8 , C h a o t e r IV, f o r t h e c o n t i n u e d
f r a c t i o n f r o m w h i c h t h e s e r a t i o s were d e r i v e d .
156
1.000000. S i m i l a r l y , th e i n t e r v a l 8 : 3 , w ith a measure of
1 . 4 1 5 0 3 8 , i s c a l l e d an o c t a v e p l u s a f o u r t h , an d 1 6 : 3 ,
w i t h a m e a s u re o f 2 . 4 1 5 0 3 8 , i s c a l l e d a d o u b l e o c t a v e p l u s
a f o u r t h , and so o n .
10 . The f i f t h and t h e f o u r t h , b o t h s m a l l e r t h a n
t h e o c t a v e , hav e s i m p l e n a m es , and t h e i n t e r v a l s r e s u l t i n g
fr o m a d d i n g one o r more o c t a v e s t o e a c h o f them ha ve
c o m p o s i t e n am es. T h u s , a l l i n t e r v a l s l e s s t h a n an o c t a v e
a re u s u a l l y c a l l e d simple i n t e r v a l s , and a l l g r e a t e r t h a n
an o c t a v e a r e c a l l e d c o m p o s i t e i n t e r v a l s . T h erefo re , the
measures o f simple i n t e r v a l s a re l e s s than u n i t y , and t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the lo g arith m s m e a s u r i n g them i s 0 . The
lo g a rith m s of com posite i n t e r v a l s a r e g r e a t e r th a n u n i t y ,
o r t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are g r e a t e r than zero. Thus, i t
i s c l e a r t h a t a l l sim ple i n t e r v a l s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n the
o c t a v e , a nd f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e o c t a v e i s a l s o c a l l e d
diapason.
11. S i n c e t h e names o f c o m p o s i t e i n t e r v a l s come
f r om t h e number o f o c t a v e s w h i c h they co n tain p lu s the name
o f th e e x c e s s , which i s a sim ple i n t e r v a l , i t w i l l be
s u f f i c i e n t t o e n u m e r a t e t h e s i m p l e i n t e r v a l s w h ic h ha v e
b e e n named and a d o o t e d by m u s i c i a n s . I n o r d e r t o make
t h i s c l e a r e r , we w i l l b e g i n w i t h t h e s m a l l e s t i n t e r v a l s :
t h e comma, d i e s i s , a n d d l a s c h i s m a , which c a n s c a r c e l y be
p e rc e iv e d by the h e a r i n g . I f they a re added to or
157
s u b t r a c t e d from l a r g e r I n t e r v a l s , t h e l a t t e r do n o t seem
t o be i n c r e a s e d o r d e c r e a s e d . Eve n i f t h i s makes no
d i f f e r e n c e t o d u l l e r e a r s , we c a n n o t r e j e c t t h e s e i n t e r v a l s
i n p e r f e c t ha rm on y.
12. The comma i s a n i n t e r v a l h a v i n g t h e r a t i o 8 1 : 8 0 ,
w i t h a m e a s u r e o f l o g 81 - l o g 8 0 0 . 0 1 7 9 2 0 . H en ce, t h e r e
a r e a b o u t 56 commas i n a n o c t a v e . The d i e s i s i s t h e
i n t e r v a l 128:125 w ith a m easure o f 0 ,0 3 4 2 1 6 . The d i e s i s ,
t h e r e f o r e , i s a l m o s t t w i c e a s l a r g e a s t h e comma, a n d an
o c t a v e c o n t a i n s a b o u t 29 d i e s e s . The d i a s c h i s m a , 2 0 4 8 : 2 0 2 5 ,
has a measure of 0 .0 1 6 2 9 6 . T h e r e a r e a b o u t 61 d i a s c h i s m a t a
i n an o c t a v e . I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e d ia sc h is m a i s the
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e d i e s i s an d t h e comma.
13. Th es e v e r y s m a l l i n t e r v a l s do n o t o r d i n a r i l y
o c c u r I n o u r a c c u s t o m e d m u s i c , and s u c c e s s i v e t o n e s d i f f e r
i n g so l i t t l e a r e n o t u s e d ; y e t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s o f some
l a r g e r i n t e r v a l s a r e f o u n d t o be so s m a l l t h a t i t h a s b e e n
necessary to Introduce these sm allest i n t e r v a l s f o r
ex p ressin g those d i f f e r e n c e s . The s m a l l e s t i n t e r v a l s w h i c h
a r e a c t u a l l y u s e d i n m u s i c a n d wh ich a r e e x p r e s s e d by t o n e s
a r e t h e m a j o r and m i n o r s e m i t o n e s an d t h e m a j o r and m i n o r
lim m ata. Since th e se i n t e r v a l s d i f f e r l i t t l e f r o m one
a n o t h e r , t h e y a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s e q u a l by t h e l e s s e x p e r i
e n c e d an d a r e a l l c a l l e d s e m i t o n e s .
158
14. The m a j o r s e m i t o n e ^ i s t h e i n t e r v a l 1 6 : 1 5 , and
i t s measure i s 0*093110. The m i n o r s e m i t o n e ,4 2 5 : 2 4 ,
d i f f e r s f r o m t h e m a j o r by 1 2 8 : 1 2 5 , d i e s i s , a n d h a s a
m easure o f 0 .0 5 8 8 9 4 ; and i f th e measure of t h e o i e s i s i s
added t o t h i s , t h e r e s u l t w i l l be t h e m e a s u r e o f t h e m a j o r
sem itone. T h e r e f o r e , t e n m a j o r s e m i t o n e s p l u s tv;o d i e s e s ,
o r s e v e n t e e n m i n o r s e m i t o n e s , w i l l g i v e a p p r o x i i m s l y one
octave.
15. The m a j o r ll m m a , 2 7 : 2 5 , e x c e e d s t h e m a j o r
s e m i t o n e b y a comma and h a s a m e a s u r e o f 0 . 1 1 1 0 3 0 . The
m i n o r lirama, 1 3 5 : 1 2 8 , a l s o e x c e e d s t h e m i n o r s e m i t o n e by a
comma a n d h a s a m e a s u r e o f 0 . 0 7 6 6 1 4 . The m a j o r limma
exceeds th e m inor by a d i e s i s . Nine m a j o r l i m m a t a o r
t h i r t e e n m i n o r l i m m a t a a p p r o x i m a t e one o c t a v e .
16. As we h a v e s a i d , these fo u r kinds o f i n t e r v a l s
are in d is c r im in a te ly c a l l e d sem itones. They a r e a l s o
c a l l e d m i n o r s e c o n d s , and t h i s d e s i g n a t i o n , a s w e l l a s t h a t
of th e o c ta v e , f i f t h , an d f o u r t h , h a s i t s o r i g i n i n t h e
d ia to n ic genus. The m a j o r s e v e n t h s , w i t h name f r o m t h e
same o r i g i n , d e s i g n a t e t h e o c t a v e c o m p le m e n ts o f t h e
a f o r e m e n t i o n e d s e c o n d s a n d ha ve t h e r a t i o s 1 5 : 8 , 4 8 : 2 5 ,
^The j u s t d i a t o n i c s e m i t o n e .
^The j u s t c h r o m a t i c s e m i t o n e .
159
50:27, and 255:135.T h e i r m easures a re 0 .9 0 6 8 9 0 , 0.941106,
0 . b 8 8 9 7 0 , a n d 0 . 9 2 3 1 8 6 , an d t h e s e a r e t h e larg est in terv als
i n use l e s s than an o c ta v e .
17. Next i n s iz e to the sem itones are the tones
o r m ajor seconds. There a r e t h r e e k in d s o f t o n e s , o f
which th e f i r s t , 9:8, i s c a l l e d t h e m a j o r t o n e an d h a s a
measure o f C . 169924. S i x s u c h t o n e s e x c e e d a n o c t a v e by
more t h a n a comma. The m i n o r t o n e , 1 0 : 9 , i s one comma
l e s s t h a n t h e t h e m a j o r t o n e , and t h u s i t s m e a s u r e i s
.152004. A t h i r d t o n e , 2 5 6 : 2 2 5 , e x c e e d s t h e m a j o r t o n e by
a d i a s c h i s m a an d t h e m i n o r t o n e b y a d i e s i s . The o c t a v e
c om p le m e n ts o f t h e t o n e s a r e c a l l e d m i n o r s e v e n t h s .
18. The t o n e c o n s i s t s o f two s e m i t o n e s , in a broad
s e n s e , f o r t h e m a j o r t o n e i s t h e sum o f t h e m a j o r s e m i t o n e
a n d t h e m i n o r limma and i s a l s o t h e sum o f t h e m i n o r s e m i
t o n e and t h e m a j o r limm a, a n d t h e m i n o r t o n e i s t h e sum o f
the m ajor and minor s e m ito n e s . The l a r g e s t t o n e , 2 5 6 : 2 2 5 ,
is t h e sum o f two m a j o r s e m i t o n e s . S im i l a r l y , the
s u c c e e d in g i n t e r v a l s a r i s e from t h e a d d i t i o n o f s e m i t o n e s ,
19 . I n t e r v a l s c a l l e d m i n o r t h i r d s a r i s e from
i n c r e a s i n g to n e s by a s e m ito n e . S t r i c t l y s p e a k in g , however,
t h e o n l y i n t e r v a l d e s e r v i n g t h i s name i s t h e one whose
t o n e s hav e t h e r a t i o 6 : 5 . Ea ch o f t h e i n t e r v a l s w h ic h
d i f f e r fr om t h i s r a t i o b y a comma, a d i a s c h i s m a , o r a
d i e s i s i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a m inor t h i r d , which i s a r a t h e r
160
pleasing in te rv a l. The o c t a v e complement i s c a l l e d t h e
m a j o r s i x t h , .5:3. The r e s p e c t i v e m e a s u r e s o f t h e m i n o r
t h i r d an d m a j o r s i x t h a r e 0 . 2 3 6 0 3 4 and 0 . 7 3 6 9 6 6 .
20 . The m a j o r t h i r d , w h i c h e x c e e d s t h e m i n o r t h i r d
by a m i n o r s e m i t o n e , i s a p l e a s i n g c o n s o n a n c e and i s
e x p r e s s e d by t h e r a t i o 5 : 4 . I t s measure i s 0 .3 2 1 9 2 8 . Thus,
t h e m a j o r t h i r d i s t h e sum o f t h e m a j o r a n d m i n o r t o n e s ,
an d i t s o c t a v e complement i s c a l l e d t h e m i n o r s i x t h , w h i c h
c o n s i s t s of t o n e s h a v in g th e r a t i o 8 : 5 and which h a s a
measure of 0 .6 7 8 0 7 2 . The G r e e k word f o r t h e s i x t h i s
hexachordon. Thus t h e m a j o r a n d m i n o r s i x t h s c o r r e s o o n d
to th e m ajo r and m inor h e x a c h o rd s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
21. I f we add t h e m a j o r s e m i t o n e , 1 6 : 1 5 , t o t h e
m a j o r t h i r d , 5 : 4 , we o b t a i n t h e i n t e r v a l c a l l e d the
d l a t e s s a r o n or f o u r t h , which i s e x p r e s s e d by t h e r a t i o
4:3. The o c t a v e complement of t h i s i n t e r v a l i s t h e
dlapente or f i f t h , 3:2. The se i n t e r v a l s ha v e a l r e a d y b e e n
discussed. F i n a l l y , we s h o u l d n o t e t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e
between the f i f t h and the f o u r t h i s the m ajor tone, 9 :b ,
w hic h f i r s t s u p p l i e d t h e a n c i e n t s w i t h t h e i d e a o f a m a j o r
tone.
22. S ince a l l the o t h e r i n t e r v a l s which f o llo w e a c h
o t h e r i n s i z e d i f f e r fro m one a n o t h e r b y s e m i t o n e s ,
m u s i c i a n s hav e d e s i g n a t e d a n i n t e r v a l w h i c h I s h a l f w a y
b e t w e e n t h e f i f t h a nd f o u r t h an d w h ic h d i f f e r s fro m e a c h by
161
a sem itone. This i n t e r v a l i s called the t r i t o n e , since it
is the sum o f t h r e e to n es. It is also c a l l e d augm ented
fo u rth , d im inished f i f t h , and f a l s e fifth . For each of
th e fo u r kinds of sem itones th e re Is a v ariety of the
trito n e , the first o f w hich, 6 4 :4 5 , co n sists of the fo u rth
p lu s th e m ajor sem itone. The s e c o n d , 4 5 : 3 2 , resu lts from
the s u b t r a c t i o n o f a m a jo r sem ito n e from a f i f t h . The
th ird kin d , 2 5 :18, is the sum o f t h e f o u r t h and th e m in o r
sem itone. The f o u r t h k i n d , 36:25, r e s u l t s from s u b t r a c t i n g
th e m inor sem ito n e from th e fifth o r from t h e ad d itio n of
tw o m i n o r t h i r d s .
23. We h a v e o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e n a m e s o f t h e s e
in terv als a r e d e r i v e d from num bers and a r e called second,
th ird , fo u rth , fifth , e tc ., up to t h e o ctave. S im ilar
names a r e g iven to in terv als w hich a r e com posite o r l a r g e r
th a n an o c ta v e . An o c t a v e p l u s a m a j o r o r m i n o r s e c o n d i s
c a ll e d a m ajor o r m inor n in th . An o c t a v e plus a th ir d is
called a ten th . An o c t a v e plus a f o u r th i s c a l l e d an
elev en th . N o t e t h a t we a d d s e v e n t o t h e names of th e
sim Dle i n t e r v a l s . Thus a t w e l f t h is an o ctav e plus a
fifth . A fifteen th is the double o c ta v e . These exam oles
are su fficien t to clarify names o f t h i s kind.
24. To s u m m a r i z e t h e s e r e m a r k s , we h a v e a d d e d a
tab le w hich g iv e s t h e fo llo w in g In fo rm atio n in succeeding
colum ns: (1) t h e names o f t h e sim ple in te rv a ls, (2) the
162
ratio of the tones in num bers, (3) th e m easures of th e
in terv als g i v e n by l o g a r i t h m s chosen f o r our purpose, and
(4) th e degree o f a g re e a b le n e s s f o r each i n t e r v a l . From
the la st colum n i t is p o ssib le to judge a t o n c e how m u c h
m o r e some . i n t e r v a l s w i l l p l e a s e the h e a rin g than o th e r s .
In terv al Name R atio M easure Degree o f

A greeableness
D iasch ism a 2048 2025 0.016296 XXVIII

Comma 81 80 0.01 7 9 2 0 XVII
D iesis 128 125 0.034216 XX
M inor S e m ito n e 25 24 0.058894 XIV
M i n o r Limma 13 5 128 0.076814 X V III
M ajor S em itone 16 15 0.093110 XI
M a j o r Limma 27 25 0.111030 XV
M i n o r T one 10 9 0.152004 X
M a jo r Tone 9 8 0.169924 V III
M inor T h i r d 6 5 0.263034 V III
M ajor T h i r d 5 4 0.321928 V II
F o urth 4 3 0.415038 V
25 18 0.473932 XIV
45 32 0.491852 XIV
T ritone
64 45 0.508148 XV
36 25 0.526068 XV
F ifth 3 2 0.58 4 9 6 2 IV
M inor S i x t h 8 5 0.678072 V III
M ajor S i x t h 5 3 0.73 6 9 6 6 V II
16 9 0.830076 IX
M inor S e v e n th 9 5 0.847996 IX
50 27 0.88 8 9 7 0 XVI
15 8 0.906890 X
M ajor S e v e n th 256 135 0.92 3 1 8 6 XIX
48 25 0.9 4 1 1 0 6 XV
O ctave 2 1 1.000000 II
T herefore, in the m a t t e r o f a g r e e a b le n e s s , the
in te rv a ls progress th u s: octave, fifth , f o u r th , m ajor
t h i r d and m ajo r s i x t h , m a jo r to n e , m inor t h i r d and m inor
s i x t h , b o th m inor s e v e n th s , m inor to n e and the m ajor
s e v e n th w hich d i f f e r s from th e o ctav e by a m ajor sem ito n e,

C
sem itone, and t h e o th e r m ajor s e v e n th s .u
^ T h e t r i t o n e w o u l d come n e x t i n t h i s h i e r a r c h y o f
i n t e r v a l s , w hich h a s a m odern c o u n t e r o a r t i n H in d e m ith s
S e rie s 2. He e s t a b l i s h e s t h e f o l l o w i n g h a r m o n i c v a l u e - o r d e r
of in te rv a ls : o c ta v e , f i f t h , f o u r t h , m ajo r t h i r d , m inor
s i x t h , m inor t h i r d , m a jo r s i x t h , m a jo r seco n d , m inor
se v e n th , m inor second, m ajo r se v e n th . The t r i t o n e i s
p la c e d o u t s i d e o f th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , w hereas E u le r a s s ig n s
i t a d e fin ite valu e. Like E u l e r , how ever, H indem ith
m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e r e i s no p o i n t a t w h ic h c o n s o n a n c e
c e a s e s and d i s s o n a n c e b e g i n s . S e e H i n d e m i t h , P a u l , The
C r a f t o f M u s i c a l C o m p o s i t i o n , Book I , p a s s i m .
CHAPTER V I I I
OH MUSICAL GENERA
1. T h u s f a r we h a v e s e t f o r t h the n a tu re o f tones
and th e r u l e s f o r m ak in g harmony from t h e s e t o n e s and
have a v o id e d a d i s c u s s i o n of th e s p e c ia l r u le s of m usical
com position. B efore these ru les can be accom m odated t o
actu al p ractice, m u sical in stru m en ts and t h e i r tu n in g
should be c o n s id e re d . S ince the to n e s u sed in p ro d u cin g
m usic a r e offered to t h e e a r b y m e a n s o f t h e hu ma n v o i c e
or in stru m en ts, th en , before anything e l s e , t h e v o ic e and
the i n s tr u m e n ts m ust be a d a p te d f o r th e p r o d u c tio n o f a l l
tones r e c u i r e d f o r r e n d e r i n g a m u s i c a l work.
2. Since t h e e x p o n e n t o f a m u s i c a l work c o n t a i n s
a ll the necessary to n e s, it should in d icate th e number and
n atu re of th e tones p ro ducible by th e m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s .
Thus, c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e m usical in stru m e n ts d e p e n d s on
t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e m u s i c a l work w hich i s to be p r e s e n te d
t o th e h e a r i n g by means o f th o s e in stru m en ts. Thus, if
we w i s h t o p e r f o r m m u s i c a l works of v a r i o u s e x p o n e n t s , we
may h a v e t o h a v e m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s w h i c h a r e a d a p t e d t o
those exponents.
3. In pro d u cin g the to n e s o f a com position w ith a
g iven exponent, the in stru m en ts sh o u ld be a d a p te d so t h a t
th e y can produce a l l t h e t o n e s w hich t h a t e x p o n e n t
165
r e p r e s e n t s , u n l e s s p e r h a p s some t o n e s would l i e b e y o n d
the range of h e a r i n g . Such t o n e s would b e s u p e r f l u o u s
and c o u ld s a f e l y be d i s r e g a r d e d . The t o n e s w h ic h t h e
g iv e n e x p o n en t r e p r e s e n t s a r e o b t a i n e d from i t s d i v i s o r s .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e i n s t r u m e n t s s h o u l d b e c o n s t r u c t e d so t h a t
t h e i r compass i n c l u d e s a l l t h e p e r c e p t i b l e tones e x o re ss e d
by th e d i v i s o r s o f t h a t e x p o n en t. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t
i s c l e a r what k i n d s o f m u s i c a l works a r e s u i t e d t o a
given m usical in stru m e n t.
4. The t o n e s o f a g i v e n i n s t r u m e n t a r e b e s t
i n d i c a t e d b y t h e e x p o n e n t w h ic h i s t h e l e a s t common
m u ltip le of a l l th e tones of th a t in stru m e n t. The
e x p o n e n t o f an i n s t r u m e n t t h u s makes i t c l e a r f o r what
k i n d o f m u s i c a l works i t i s a d a p t e d . I t would n o t be
s u i t a b l e f o r m u s i c a l works whose e x p o n e n t i s n o t a d i v i s o r
of the in s tr u m e n t s exponent. The i n s t r u m e n t mus t be
c a p a b l e o f a l l t o n e s w h i c h a r i s e fr om t h e d i v i s o r s o f i t s
exponent. I f i t l a c k s any o f t h e s e t o n e s , t h e i n s t r u m e n t
i s i m p e r f e c t and u n s u i t a b l e f o r u s e .
5. For c o r r e c t l y c o n stru c tin g a m usical in stru m e n t,
a s u i t a b l e exponent i s chosen which c o n t a i n s th e
e x p o n e n t s o f a l l t h e m u s i c a l wo rks t o be c l a y e d by t h e
in stru m ent. Hence, a l l th e d i v i s o r s of t h i s exponent
sh o u ld be i n v e s t i g a t e d , a n d , e x c e p t f o r th o s e beyond th e
range of h e a r i n g , th e to n e s e x p re s s e d by th e s e d i v i s o r s
166
s h o u l d be r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e i n s t r u m e n t . B esides these
t o n e s , o t h e r s may o r o p e r l y b e a d d e d f o r u n i f o r m i t y so
t n a t t h e t o n e s i n e a c h o c t a v e may be e q u a l i n n u m b e r .
This procedure i s i n g e n e r a l u s a g e a n d makes i n s t r u m e n t s
more p e r f e c t so t h a t t h e y a r e s u i t a b l e f o r p r o d u c i n g
more m u s i c a l w o r k s .
6. T h u s , any d i v i s o r o f t h e a s s u m e d e x p o n e n t
r e p r e s e n t s a t o n e o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t a nd a l s o r e p r e s e n t s
i t s double, quadruple, o c tu o le , e t c . , or i t s h a lf, fourth,
eighth, etc. I n t h i s way i t h a p p e n s t h a t a l l i n t e r v a l s
c a l l e d d i a p a s o n h a v e a n e q u a l number o f t o n e s and a r e
d i v i d e d i n t h e same way. A l s o we h a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e
th at, i f one o c t a v e i s c o r r e c t l y t u n e d , t h e r e m a i n i n g
o c t a v e s , h i g h e r a n d l o w e r , may be e a s i l y tuned because
t h e t o n e s c o n t a i n e d i n one o c t a v e a r e r e p r o d u c e d one o r
more o c t a v e s h i g h e r o r l o w e r .
7. Suooose th e exo o n en t o f th e i n s t r u m e n t i s A
a nd i t s d i v i s o r s a r e 1 , a, b , , d , <3, e t c . The i n s t r u
ment s h o u l d b e a b l e t o p r o d u c e t h e t o n e s i n d i c a t e d by
t h e s e d i v i s o r s a n d a l s o t h e t o n e s 2, 2 a , 2 b , 2c, 2d, e t c . ,
4, 4a, 4 b , 4_c, e t c . , 1/2, l/2 a , l/2b, l/2_c, e t c . , and
1/4, l / 4 a , l/4 b , l/4c_, e t c . I f we e l i m i n a t e t h e f r a c t i o n s
by m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , a l l th e t o n e s of th e I n s t r u m e n t can be
e x o r e s s e d by 2n , 2r*a, 2nb , 2n c_, 2nd , ... 2n A, w he re n
i s a n y whole n u m b e r. The e x p o n e n t o f an i n s t r u m e n t b u i l t
167
i n t h i s m a n n e r w i l l no l o n g e r b e A, b u t 2mA, w i t h m
d e n o t i n g an i n d e f i n i t e number e i t h e r s m a l l o r l a r g e , so
long as the to n e s a re p e r c e p t i b l e .
8. An i n s t r u m e n t t h u s c o n s t r u c t e d i s n o t o n l y
s u i t a b l e f o r p r o d u c i n g m u s i c a l works w i t h e x p o n e n t s
c o n t a i n e d i n A b u t i s a l s o s u i t a b l e f o r p ro d u c in g works
w i t h e x p o n e n t s c o n t a i n e d i n 2mA. From t h i s i t is clear
t h a t an in stru m en t w ith to n es e q u a lly d i s t r i b u t e d in a l l
o c t a v e s a t t a i n s g r e a t e r p e r f e c t i o n a n d i s a cc om mo da te d t o
more m u s i c a l w o r k s . This a ls o has the advantage f o r
b e g i n n e r s t h a t by r e c o g n i z i n g t h e t o n e s i n one o c t a v e t h e y
a lso e a s i l y reco gn ize the tones of th e rem aining o c ta v e s .
9. I n t h e f u t u r e we w i l l u s e t h e form 2mA f o r t h e
e x p o n e n t s o f m u s i c a l w o r k s , a n d we w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e t h e
number a n d n a t u r e o f t h e t o n e s w h i c h s h o u l d be c o n t a i n e d
i n a ny o c t a v e . We w i l l u s e o n l y odd numb ers f o r A, s i n c e
t h e f a c t o r 2 i s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n 2m. Any e x p o n e n t 2mA
w ill g iv e a p a r t i c u l a r d iv i s i o n of the o c ta v e , bo th as to
t h e number o f t o n e s and a s t o t h e i n t e r v a l s f o r m e d f r o m
these to n e s. M usicians u s u a l l y c a l l such a d i v i s i o n o f
the octave a m u sic al genus. The d i a t o n i c , c h r o m a t i c , a nd
e n h a r m o n i c g e n e r a ha ve b e e n known f o r a l o n g t i m e .
10. S u p p o s e we wan t t o f i n d t h e d i v i s i o n o f a n
o c t a v e fr o m a g i v e n e x p o n e n t 2mA. I f t h e l o w e s t t o n e i s E,
t h e h i g h e s t w i l l b e 2E, a n d t n e r e m a i n i n g t o n e s w i l l b e
158
c o n t a i n e d b e t w e e n t h e l i m i t s E an d 2E. T h e r e f o r e , the
i n d i v i d u a l d i v i s o r s m us t b e m u l t i p l i e d by b i n a r y power s
t o make them l a r g e r t h a n E b u t l e s s t h a n 2E. This w ill
give a l l the to n e s c o n ta in e d i n the o c ta v e . Thus, i t i s
c l e a r t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d be a s many t o n e s i n an o c t a v e a s
A has d i v i s o r s , s in c e t h e r e i s a tone in each o ctave
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e a c h d i v i s o r o f A.
11. If th e in s tru m e n ta l exponent, o r exponent of
t h e m u s i c a l g e n u s , a s we w i l l c a l l i t h e n c e f o r t h , i s
2ma P , where a i s a pri m e nu m b e r, t h e n one o c t a v e w i l l
h a v e p + 1 t o n e s s i n c e aP h a s t h a t number o f d i v i s o r s . But
i f t h e e x p o n e n t i s 2ma P b <*, t h e number o f t o n e s i n t h e
o c t a v e w i l l be (_d + 1 ) ( + 1 ) o r jcq-f -f_Q + 1 , f o r t h i s i s
t h e number o f d i v i s o r s o f a Pb ^ i f a a n d b a r e d i s t i n c t
prime numbers. S i m i l a r l y , t h e e x p o n e n t 2miPbclcr w i l l g i v e
( jd4- 1) ( + 1 ( r + 1) t o n e s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e i n t e r v a l o f
one o c t a v e . T h e r e f o r e , th e g e n e r i c exponent a llo w s us to
d e c i d e f o r t h w i t h how many t o n e s may be c o n t a i n e d i n one
octave.
12. The d i v i s o r s o f A i n d i c a t e t h e n a t u r e of t h e
tones contained in each o ctav e. Each d i v i s o r sh o u ld be
m u l t i p l i e d by s u c h b i n a r y powers t h a t t h e r a t i o o f t h e
l a r g e s t t o the s m a l l e s t i s l e s s than 2 :1 . T h i s i s more
c o n v e n i e n t l y done b y a d d i n g l o g a r i t h m s . Using o u r system
i n w h i c h l o g 2 1 , i t w i l l be c l e a r a t once wh at b i n a r y
169
power e a c h d i v i s o r m u s t be m u l t i p l i e d by, so t h a t t h e
l o g a r i t h m s o f a l l t h e t o n e s do n o t d i f f e r f r o m e a c h
o t h e r by more t h a n u n i t y .
13. We w i l l s u r v e y t h e u s a b l e m u s i c a l g e n e r a ,
t r i e d and u n t r i e d , fr o m t h e s i m p l e s t t o t h e mos t
c o m p o s i t e , a n d we w i l l i n d i c a t e t o what m u s i c a l works
each i s b e s t s u i te d . C e rta in ly , the sim p le st m usical
g e n u s i s 2 m, w h i c h r e s u l t s when A 1 . Hence, th e o nly
tone i n th e o c ta v e i s 1. The n e x t t o n e , 2 , i s an o c t n v e
higher. Thus, a l l th e to n e s in a m u sic al in s tru m e n t
would b e 1 : 2 : 4 : 8 : 1 6 , s in c e i n s t r u m e n t s r a r e l y have a
compass o f more t h a n f o u r o c t a v e s . Because o f i t s g r e a t
sim plicity, t h i s g e n u s i s u n s u i t a b l e f o r o r o d \ i c i n g any
ha rm ony .
14. I f A 3 , w i t h d i v i s o r s 1 an d 3 , t h e e x o o n e n t
2mA w i l l g i v e t h e n e x t m u s i c a l g e n u s . He re t h e t o n e s
c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e o c t a v e w i l l be 2 : 3 : 4 . Thus, in t h i s
g e n u s t h e o c t a v e i s d i v i d e d i n t o two p a r t s : t h e f i f t h and
the f o u r th . By m a k i n g 3 t h e l o w e s t t o n e , t h e f o r m o f
t h i s o c t a v e c a n be r e p r e s e n t e d by 3 : 4 : 6 , where t h e l o w e r
i n t e r v a l i s th e f o u r t h and th e u o p e r is th e f i f t h . A ll
tones of in s tru m e n ts b u i l t according to the exoonent
2m*3 w i l l be 2 : 3 : 4 : 6 : 8 : 1 2 : 1 5 : 2 4 : 3 2 . This genus i s a l s o
too sim ple f o r u s e .
170
15. M u s i c i a n s h a v e n o t g on e b e y o n d 5 i n f o r m i n g
c o n s o n a n c e s a n d ha v e u s e d o n l y c o n s o n a n c e s whose e x p o n e n t s
h a v e no p r im e f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n 2 , 3 , o r 5 . Therefore,
in itia lly , I w i l l u s e i n p l a c e o f A no nu m b e rs o t h e r t h a n
3 , 5 , an d t h e i r p o w e r s . A f t e r we ha ve d i s c u s s e d t h e
m u s i c a l g e n e r a w h i c h t h u s a r i s e , we w i l l a l s o t r y t o
introduce 7. T h i s may l e a d t o new g e n e r a a n d t o new a n d
u n u su al m u s ic a l works.
16 . The t h i r d g e n u s o f m u s i c i s 2r a , 5 , i n whic h t h e
t o n e s i n one o c t a v e a r e 4 : 5 : 8 , whe re t h e l o w e r i n t e r v a l
i s a m a j o r t h i r d an d t h e u p p e r i s a m i n o r s i x t h . This
g e n u s i s n o t u s a b le * n o t o n l y b e c a u s e o f i t s sim p licity ,
but a lso because i t c o n t a i n s t h e number 5 and o m i t s 3 ,
a n d , l a c k i n g t h e s i m p l e c o n s o n a n c e s due t o 3 , i t contains
more c o m p o s i t e c o n s o n a n c e s . I t w o u ld b e u n s u i t a b l e t o u s e
t h e l a r g e r p r i m e n um be rs i n c o n s o n a n c e s a n d t o n e g l e c t t h e
s m a l l e r , b e c a u s e i n t h i s way t h e ha rmony w o u l d become
unnecessarily in tr ic a te and l e s s o l e a s i n g .
17. I n t h e s e l a s t two g e n e r a t h e r e i s a s i n g l e
f a c t o r of e i t h e r 3 o r 5. Now l e t u s c o n s i d e r e x p o n e n t s
w ith e i t h e r o r b o th of th e se f a c t o r s re n e a te d . The f o u r t h
g e n u s h a s an e x p o n e n t o f 2 *n*3 2 , i n w h i c h t h e d i v i s o r s o f
A o r 3^ are 1 : 3 : 9 . An o c t a v e c o n t a i n s t h e t o n e s
8 : 9 : 1 2 : 1 6 and c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e i n t e r v a l s : a m a j o r t o n e
an d two f o u r t h s . I t has been s a i d t h a t t h i s i s the f i r s t
171
g e n u s t o ha ve b e e n u s e d . ^ Its o riginator, M e r c u r y , was
th e f i r s t music maker of G re ec e . He r e p r e s e n t e d e a c h o f
th e f o u r to n e s by s t r i n g s , and t h u s th e i n s t r u m e n t i s
called tetrachordon. L ater m usicians, showing t h e i r
r e s p e c t f o r M e r c u r y , h a v e d i v i d e d t h e i r more c o m p o s i t e
g e n e r a i n t o t e t r a c h o r i s , named f o r t h e i n s t r u m e n t .
13. This o r i g i n a l m u sical genus i s in e x t r a
o r d i n a r y a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e l a w s o f h a rm o n y , a n d f o r t h i s
reason i t aroused the h ig h e s t a d m iratio n in i t s h e a r e r s ,
t o whom harmony was unknown. In t h i s genus th e i n t e r v a l s
p l e a s i n g t o t h e e a r were t h e f i f t h , f o u r t h , m ajor to n e ,
and o c t a v e . The c o n s o n a n c e c a l l e d t h e t h i r d r e m a i n e d
unknown u n t i l t h e t i m e o f P t o l e m y , who f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d
it in t o m usic.
19. The f i f t h g e n u s h a s an e x o o n e n t o f 2m*3*5.
S i n c e t h e d i v i s o r s o f 3*5 a r e 1 , 3 , 5 , a n d 1 5 , t h i s g e n u s
h a s i n one o c t a v e t h e t o n e s 3 : 1 0 : 1 2 : 1 5 : 1 6 . The i n t e r v a l s
a r e t h e m a j o r an d m i n o r t h i r d , m a j o r a n d m i n o r s i x t h ,
fifth , f o u r t h , major sem ito n e, and m ajor sev e n th . It is
n o t c e r t a i n t h a t t h i s genus has e v e r be en in u s e , even
t h o u g h i t h a s more p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r v a r i e t y th a n the
p re c e d in g genus of Mercury. Undoubtedly, the reason f o r
l l n h i s De i n s t i t u t i o n s m u s i c a B o e t h i u s , o.u ot in g
N i c om ac hu s , s a y s t h a t t h e mos t a n c i e n t meth od o f t u n i n g
t h e l y r e was c - f - g - c ' . See S h i r l a w , M a t t h e w , The T h e o r y
o f Harmony, p . 4 7 0 , a n d h e d f i e l d , J o h n , M u s i c : A S c i e n c e
an d an A r t , p. 8 3 .
172
t h i s i s t h a t t h e number 5 p r o d u c e d m a j o r a nd m i n o r t h i r d s
w h ic h were i g n o r e d up t o t h e tim e o f P t o l e m y , who
i n t r o d u c e d a more c o m p o s i t e g e n u s .
20. The s i x t h g e n u s h a s an e x p o n e n t o f 2 m*5 2. The

p
d iv is o r s of 5 a r e 1 , 5 , and 2 5 , a n d t h e t o n e s i n one
octave are 1 6 :2 0 :2 5 :3 2 . Thus t h e o c t a v e i s d i v i d e d i n t o
three in te r v a ls . The f i r s t two a r e m a j o r t h i r d s and t h e
l a s t c o n s i s t s of a major t h i r d p lu s a d i e s i s . I t is not
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h i s genus has n e v e r been used, s in c e
t h i r d s we re unknown i n a n c i e n t t i m e s a nd s i n c e t h i s g e n u s
h a s some c o n s o n a n c e s w i t h o u t much a g r e e a b l e n e s s . It
s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t i t l a c k s two o f t h e m os t a g r e e a b l e
c o n s o n a n c e s , t h e f i f t h and t h e f o u r t h .
21. The s e v e n t h g e n u s h a s an e x p o n e n t o f 2m , 3 ^ .
The d i v i s o r s o f 3^ a r e 1 , 3 , 9 , and 27 , e n d t h e o c t a v e
d i v i s i o n i s 1 6 :1 8 :2 4 :2 7 : 3 2 , which has no t been a c c e p te d
in p r a c t i c e .
The e i g h t h g e n u s h a s a n e x p o n e n t o f 2ra ,32 5 . The
d i v i s o r s o f 3 2 *5 a r e 1 , 3 , 5 , 9 , 1 5 , and 4 5 . The o c t a v e
d iv is io n i s 32:36:40:45:48:60:64. T h i s g e n u s h a s much
a g r e e a b l e n e s s a n d would d e s e r v e t o b e u s e d , e v e n i f I t
were n o t c o n t a i n e d I n a n y a c c e n t e d g e n e r a .
The n i n t h g e n u s h a s t h e e x p o n e n t 2m*3*52 , a n d t h e
octave i s d iv id e d in the r a t i o 64:75:80:96 :10 0 :1 2 0:1 2 8.
The t e n t h g e n u s h a s t h e e x p o n e n t 2m*5^, and t h e
octave i s d iv id e d in the r a t i o 64:8 0 :1 0 0 :1 2 5 :1 2 8 .
173
22. The e l e v e n t h g e n u s h a s t h e e x p o n e n t 2m*3^ a nd
the octave i s d iv id e d in th e r a t i o 6 4 :7 2 :8 1 :9 6 :1 0 8 :1 2 8 .
I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t i n t h e t e n t h an d e l e v e n t h g e n e r a
t n e r e a r e i n t e r v a l s a n d c o n s o n a n c e s which a r e n o t p r e s e n t
in th e p r e v a i l i n g genus of the p r e s e n t day. Hence, th e
c u r r e n t g e n u s, th e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c , does not c o n ta i n
t h e s e l a s t two g e n e r a , b u t i t d o e s comp rehend i n i t s e l f
a l l o f t h e o r e c e d i n g g e n e r a a n d can b e u s e d f o r any m u s i c a l
works f o r w hi ch t h e y a r e a d a D t e d .
23. The t w e l f t h g e n u s h a s a n e x p o n e n t o f 2m*3^*5
a nd i t s o c t a v e i s d i v i d e d i n t h e r a t i o
128:135:144:160:180:192:216:240:256.
This genus c l o s e l y re s e m b le s th e d i a t o n i c genus of t h e
a n c i e n t s , a lth o u g h t h e i r s had o n ly seven to n e s . I f the
t o n e r e p r e s e n t e d by 135 i s o m i t t e d , th e t w e l f t h genus i s
i n agreem ent w ith P to le m y 's genus d i a t o n i c syntonon^ in
w h ic h t h e o c t a v e i s d i v i d e d i n t o two t e t r a c h o r d s , e a c h o f
w n ic h s p a n s a f o u r t h a n d i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e i n t e r v a l s
w h ic h a r e , fr o m l o w e s t t o h i g h e s t , a m a j o r s e m i t o n e , a
m a j o r t o n e , and a m i n o r t o n e .
24. I f t h e t o n e 135 i s o m i t t e d , o u r t w e l f t h genus
h a s t h i s p a r t i c u l a r d i v i s i o n , f o r , by b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e
to n e r e p r e s e n t e d by 120, the o c ta v e w i l l have t h e f o l l o w i n g
^The a g r e e m e n t i s p e r f e c t . See B a r b o u r , J . M.,

Tu ni ng and T e m p e r a m e n t , p . 20 .
174
form:
120:128:144:160 | 180:192:216:240.
Eac h o f t h e two p a r t s i s a f o u r t h d i v i d e d so t h a t t h e
l o w e s t i n t e r v a l s , 1 2 0 : 1 2 8 and 1 8 0 : 1 9 2 , a r e m a j o r s e m i t o n e s ;
the middle i n t e r v a l s , 128:144 and 1 9 2 :2 1 6 , a r e m ajo r
to n e s ; and th e h i g h e s t , 1 4 4 : 1 6 0 and 2 1 6 : 2 4 0 , a r e m i n o r
tones. P to le m y s d i a t o n i c genus had a h ig h d e g re e o f
agreeableness. T h i s i s f u l l y e v i d e n c e d by e x p e r i e n c e ,
sin ce t h i s genus i s still i n u se w hile o t h e r s o f the
a n c i e n t s ' g e n era, having l i t t l e o r no a g r e e a b l e n e s s , a r e
negle c t e d .
25. S i n c e t h i s d i a t o n i c g e n u s of t h e a n c i e n t s
l a c k s t h e t o n e 1 3 5 , w h i c h b e l o n g s i n t h e o c t a v e a s much a s
the o th e r to n e s , it s h o u l d n o t a t a l l be c o n s i d e r e d p e r f e c t ;
y e t, since there is so much a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n i t and o u r
t w e l f t h g e n u s , we w i l l c a l l t h e l a t t e r t h e c o r r e c t e d
diato n ic. Prom t h i s i t i s c l e a r t h a t the a n c i e n t m u s ic ia n s
a d h e r e d so r i g i d l y t o t h e p l a n o f M er cury t h a t t h e y
d iv i d e d t h e i r m u s ic a l in s t r u m e n t s i n t o t e t r a c h o r d s and the
tetrachords in to three p a rts . Such a n a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h i s
g e n u s i s i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f har mon y b u t h a s
been the cause of u n o le a sa n t r e s u l t s in the o t h e r s .
26. In a d d it io n to P to lem y 's d ia to n ic syntonon,
s e v e r a l s p e c i e s o f t h e d i a t o n i c g e n u s were u s e d b y t h e
175
ancients. The i n t e r v a l s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t e t r a c h o r d s had
the fo llo w in g r a t i o s :
Pythagoras' D iatonic 243:256, 8 : 9 , 8:9
S oft D iatonic 20:21, 9 :1 0 , 7 :8
D iato n ic T oniaion 27:28, 7 :8 , 8:9
Equal D ia to n ic 11:12, 10:11, 9:10
In a l l of t h e s e , ^ the arrangem ent i s such t h a t t h e f i r s t
i n t e r v a l I s a l m o s t a s e m i t o n e and t h e o t h e r two a r e
a l m o s t t o n e s , a n d t h e t h r e e t o g e t h e r s pan a f o u r t h . It is
e a s y t o s e e how i m p e r f e c t a n d h a r s h t h e s e g e n e r a a r e , and
it i s no won de r t h a t t h e y a r e a l l e x t i n c t .
27. Today m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o
o c t a v e s , a l l of which a re d i v i d e d e q u a l l y , h u t t h e
a n c ie n ts p re fe rre d to d iv id e t h e i r instrum ents in to fo u rth s
and to d i v i d e th e f o u r t h s e q u a l l y i n t o t h r e e i n t e r v a l s .
In t h i s m a tte r th e y a dhered to M ercury's t e t r a c h o r d r a t h e r
t h a n t o har mon y i t s e l f . The P y t h a g o r e a n m u s i c i a n s ,
p articu larly , c a r r i e d t h i s o u t w i t h a r b i t r a r y n u m b e r s and
w i t h o u t r e g a r d f o r ha rm o n y . T h i s i s q u i t e c l e a r fr o m t h e
given examples. They d i d m u s i c no l i t t l e ha rm w i t h t h e s e
n um be rs and d e s e r v e d t h e c e n s u r e t h e y r e c e i v e d fro m
A r i s t o x e n u s a nd h i s f o l l o w e r s .
3S ee i b i d , p o . 1 9 - 2 1 . P y t h a g o r a s d i a t o n i c i s the
same a s E r a t o s t h e n e s ' d i a t o n i c . The e q u a l d i a t o n i c
c o rresp o n d s to P to le m y 's d ia to n i c hem lolon.
176
23. P tolem y s d i a t o n i c syntonon, which f o r t u n a t e l y
a r o s e f r o m t h i s wrong me th od o f t r e a t i n g m u s i c , i s
d e s e r v e d l y s t i l l i n u s e an d can be o b s e r v e d i n h a r p s i c h o r d s ,
c l a v i c h o r d s and o t h e r keyboard i n s t r u m e n t s which have
s h o r t e r and l o n g e r keys f o r p ro d u c in g t h e to n e s of th e
d i a t o n i c syntonon genus. These keys a r e u s u a l l y d e s i g n a t e d
by l e t t e r s , and i t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o d e n o t e t h e t o n e s th em
s e l v e s by t h e same l e t t e r s . Thus, the tone w ith the
number 192 i s c a l l e d . O t h e r s a r e 216D, 240E, 2 5 6 F , 288G,
320A, 3 6 0 B, an d 3 8 4 c .
29. T ones a n o c t a v e h i g h e r , e x p r e s s e d by numbers
t w i c e a s l a r g e , a r e i n d i c a t e d b y t h e same l e t t e r s , not
c a p i t a l i z e d , and t h e s e s m a l l l e t t e r s , w i t h one o r more
lin es, in d ic a te the tones in h ig h e r o c ta v e s . T h u s , we
h a v e 320A, 6 4 0 a , 1 2 8 0 a , 2 5 6 0 a , 5 1 2 0 a , e t c . In l i k e manner,
f o r to n e s w ith su cc e ed in g numbers, th e r e are c o rre sp o n d in g
sm all o r c a o i t a l l e t t e r s . A l l t o n e s e x p r e s s e d by t h e
f o r m u l a 2n , 3 a r e c a l l e d C; t o n e s e x p r e s s e d b y 2n *3^, D;
2n 3 5 , E; 2n , F; 2n *32 , G; 2n *5, A; a nd 2n 32 5, B.
2n *33 ' 5 , the tone o m itte d i n th e c u r r e n t d i a t o n i c genus,
i s c a l l e d F # , w h ic h e x c e e d s F by a s e m i t o n e .
30. The t h i r t e e n t h g e n u s h a s a n e x p o n e n t o f
2m*32 *52 , and i t s o c t a v e o f n i n e t o n e s i s d i v i d e d i n t h e
ratio 128:144:150:160:180:192:200:225:240:256. The
a n c i e n t s seem t o h a v e o o i n t e d t o w a r d t h i s g e n u s w i t h t h e i r
177
c h r o m a t i c g e n u s , e v e n i f t h e y may ha ve r e c o g n i z e d no
harmony i n i t . The t e t r a c h o r d i n t h e c h r o m a t i c g e n u s
c o n s i s t e d o f two c o n s e c u t i v e sem itones fo llo w e d by a
m inor t h i r d o r th e i n t e r v a l r e s u l t i n g from s u b t r a c t i o n of
two s e m i t o n e s fro m a f o u r t h . I n o u r g e n u s t h e r e a r e two
s u c c e s s i o n s o f two s e m i t o n e s . I f some t o n e s a r e o m i t t e d ,
th e s e s u c c e s s i o n s a re fo ll o w e d by m inor t h i r d s . It is
fittin g t h a t we c a l l o u r t h i r t e e n t h g e n u s t h e c o r r e c t e d
chrom atic a f t e r t h i s h i g h l y d e f e c t i v e c h ro m a tic genus of
the a n c i e n t s .
31. The a n c i e n t s h a d t h r e e p r i n c i p a l s p e c i e s o f t h e
chrom atic g e n u s .4 E a c h o f t h e two i d e n t i c a l t e t r a c h o r d s
o f e a c h s p e c i e s was d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e i n t e r v a l s a s
follow s:
Old C h r o m a t i c 243:256, 6 7 :7 6 , 4664:5427;
S o f t Chromatic 27:28, 14:15, 5:6;
C hrom atic Syntonon 2 1 :22, 11:12, 6:7.
Anyone c a n e a s i l y s e e now much t h e s e s p e c i e s o f the
chrom atic genus d i s a g r e e w ith the tr u e p r i n c i p l e s of
ha rm ony. They m i g h t h a v e b e e n a b l e t o u s e o u r c h r o m a t i c
g e n u s by o m i t t i n g t o n e s 225 a nd 150 a n d a r r a n g i n g I t i n
two t e t r a c h o r d s t h u s : 1 2 0 :1 2 8 , 144:160 j 180:192, 200:240.
The d i v i s i o n o f t h e f i r s t t e t r a c h o r d i s t h e d i a t o n i c
syntonon. The d i v i s i o n o f t h e s e c o n d i s t h e t r u e chrom atic.
4 8ee i b i d , p p . 1 7 - 1 8 .
178
32. The f o u r t e e n t h g e n u s h a s an e x p o n e n t o f
2m*3*5'^, a n d t h e o c t a v e I s d i v i d e d i n t h e r a t i o
256:300:320:375:384:400:500:512. This genus i s c a l l e d the
c o r r e c t e d enharmonic s in c e i t a g r e e s i n a measure w ith t h e
enharmonic genus o f t h e a n c i e n t s . They b e q u e a t h e d t h e
fo llo w in g te t r a c h o r d d i v i s i o n s ^ of t h i s genus:
Old E n h a r m o n i c 125:128, 243:250, 64:81;
P to le m a ic Enharmonic 45:46, 23:24, 4 :5 .
N e i t h e r o f t h e s e i s i n a c c o r d w i t h h a rm o n y . I f the a n c ie n ts
h a d r e p l a c e d t h i s e n h a r m o n i c ge n u s w i t h t h e a r r a n g e m e n t
240:250:256:320 | 375:384:400:480,
w h ic h o m i t s t h e t o n e 3 0 0 , t h e y w o u ld h a v e h a d some a g r e e
a b l e n e s s ; b u t , w ith th e o m is s i o n , t h i s genus i s t o be
considered im p erfect.
33. The f i f t e e n t h g e n u s h a s a n e x p o n e n t o f 2In*5^,
and t h e o c t a v e i s d i v i d e d i n t h e r a t i o
5 1 2 :6 2 5 :640:800:1000:1024.
T h i s g e n u s i s o f no u s e b e c a u s e o f i t s h a r s h e r i n t e r v a l s
and l a c k o f t h e p l e a s i n g c o n s o n a n c e s c o n t r i b u t e d by t h e
number 3 .
The s i x t e e n t h g e n u s h a s a n e x p o n e n t o f 2m , 3^ a n d
^S ee i b i d , o . 16 . The o l d e n h a r m o n i c c o r r e s p o n d s
c l o s e l y t o A r i s t o x e n u s ' e n h a r m o n i c . The P t o l e m a i c d i v i s i o n
c o rre sp o n d s to E r a t o s t h e n e s ' enharmonic.
179
the o c tav e i s d i v i d e d in th e r a t i o
128:144:162:192:216:243:256.
Because o f t h e l a c k o f consonances a r i s i n g from 5, t h i s
genus has i n s u f f i c i e n t v a r i e t y .
The s e v e n t e e n t h g e n u s , w hic h h a s an e x p o n e n t o f
2m* 34 *5, seems t o b e l e a s t i n c o n g r u o u s s i n c e i t may be
usable. The o c t a v e i s d i v i d e d i n t h e r a t i o
2 5 6 :2 7 0 :2 8 8 :3 2 0 ; 324:350:384:40 5:432:4-80:512.
The o n l y c r i t i c i s m a g a i n s t t h i s g e n u s m i g h t be i t s
i n c l u s i o n o f commas, w h i c h c a n s c a r c e l y b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
by t h e h e a r i n g .
34. The e i g h t e e n t h g e n u s , w h ic h h a s a n e x p o n e n t o f
2m , 3 ^ . 5 ^ , s h o u l d f o l l o w a t t h i s p o i n t , b u t s i n c e i t is the
d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c genus i t s e l f , c u r r e n t l y i n us e among a l l
m usicians, it i s worthy of t r e a t m e n t i n a s p e c i a l c h a p t e r .
F o r c o n v e n i e n t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e o t h e r g e n e r a w h i c h ha ve
been d is c u s s e d , I h a v e a dded t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e , w h i c h
g i v e s t h e e x p o n e n t s o f e a c h g e n u s , t h e t o n e s i n any o c t a v e ,
and the i n t e r v a l s between a d j a c e n t t o n e s . I ha v e a l s o
i n c l u d e d t h e u s u a l p i t c h names an d ha v e i n d i c a t e d o t h e r
p i t c h e s n o t commonly known w i t h an a s t e r i s k a d d e d t o t h e
nearest l e tte r .
lao
TABLE OF MUSICAL GENERA
Pitch
Names Tones Intervals I n t e r v a l Names
Genus I . E x p o n e n t 2m.
F I
1:2 Diapason o r Octave
f 2
Genus I I . E x p o n e n t 2m*3.
F 2
2:3 D iapente o r F i f t h
c 3
3:4 D ia te s s a ro n or Fourth
f 4
Genus I I I . Ix pone nt 2m 5.
F 4
4:5 M a jo r t h i r d
A 5
5:8 Minor s i x t h
f 8
Genus IV. E x p o n e n t 2m*32.

The m os t a n c i e n t m u s i c a l g e n u s o f M ercur y
F 8
8:9 Majo r t o n e
G 9
3:4 Fourth
c 12
3:4 Fourth
f 16
Genus V. Ex o o n e n t 2ra,3*5
F 8
A 10
5:6 Minor t h i r d
c 12
4:5 Major t h i r d
e 15
15:16 M a jo r s e m i t o n e
f 16
la i
TABLE OF MUSICAL GENERA (C ontinued)
Pitch
Genus V I . E x p o n e n t 2m*5,i.
F 16
A 20
c# 25
25:32 M a jo r t h i r d p l u s a d i e s i s
f 32
Genus V I I . E x o o n e n t 2m*3^.
F 16
8:9 M ajor t o n e
G IB
3:4 Fourth
c 24
8:9 M a jo r t o n e
d 27
27:32 Minor t h i r d l e s s a comma
f 32
Genus V I I I . Ex o o n e n t
F 32
8:9 M aj o r t o n e
C- 36
A 40
8:9 M ajor tone
B 45
15:16 Major sem itone
c 48
4:5 M aj o r t h i r d
e 60
f 64
182
TABLb) OF MUSICAL GENERA (C ontinued)
P itch
Names Tone s Intervals I n t e r v a l Names
Genus IX. E x p o n e n t 2m*3*52,
F 64
64:75 M ino r t h i r d l e s s a d i e s i s
G# 75
1 5 :1 6 Major semitone
A 80
5:6 Minor t h i r d
c 96
24:25 Mi nor s e m i t o n e
C# 100
5:6 M in or t h i r d
e 120
15:16 M ajor sem itone
f 128
Genus X. E x p o n e n t 2m*5^.
F 64
4:5 M ajor t h i r d
A 80
4:5 Majo r t h i r d
c# 100
4:5 M aj or t h i r d
f* 125
125:128 Enharmonic d i e s i s
f 128
Genus XI. E x p o n e n t 2m , 3 ^ .
F 64
G 72
A* 81
27:32 M in o r t h i r d l e s s a comma
c 96
d 108
27:32 M inor t h i r d l e s s a comma
183
TABIE OP MUSICAL GENERA (C ontinued)
P itch
Names Tones In terv als I n t e r v a l Names
Genus X I I . E x p o n e n t 2m*33 *5.

C o rre c te d d i a t o n i c genus of th e a n c ie n ts
F 128
128:135 M inor limma
F# 135
15:16 M aj or s e m i t o n e
G 144
9:10 Minor t o n e
A 160
8:9 M ajor t o n e
B 180
c 192
8:9 M ajo r t o n e
d 216
9:10 Minor t o n e
e 240
f 256
Genus X I I I . Exponent
C o r r e c t e d c h r o m a t i c g e n u s o f the a n c i e n t s
F 128
8:9 M aj or t o n e
G 144
24:25 Minor s e m i t o n e
G# 150
A 160
8:9 M ajor t o n e
B 180
15:16 M ajo r s e m i t o n e
c 192
C# 200
8 :9 Major to n e
d# 225
e 240
f 256
TABLE OF MUSICAL GENERA (C ontinued)
Pitch
Names T on e s Intervals I n t e r v a l Names
Genus XIV. E x p o n e n t 2m*3 5 ^ .

C o r r e c te d enharmonic genus o f t h e a n c i e n t s
F 256
54:75 Minor t h i r d l e s s a d i e s i s
G# 300
A 320
64:75 M ino r t h i r d l e s s a d i e s i s
B* 375
c 384
C# 400
5:6 Minor t h i r d
e 480
24:25 Minor sem ito n e
f# 500
1 2 5 :1 2 8 E n h a rm o n i c d i e s i s
f 512
Genus XV. E x p o n e n t 2m*5 ^.
F 512
512:625 Major t h i r d l e s s a d i e s i s
k* 625
A 640
4:5 M aj o r t h i r d
C# 800
f* 1000
1 2 5 :1 2 8 E n h a rm o n i c d i e s i s
f 1024
185
TABLE OF MUblCAL GENERA (C ontinued)
P itch
Genus XVI. E x p o n e n t 2m , 3 ^ .
F 128
8:9 M ajor t o n e
G 144
A* 162
27:32 Minor t h i r d l e s s a comma
c 192
d 216
8:9 Majo r t o n e
e* 243
243:256 P y t h a g o r e a n limma
f 256
Genus X V II . Ex p o n e n t 2m*3 ^* 5.
F 256
128:135 Minor limma
F# 270
G 288
9:10 M ino r t o n e
A 320
80:81 Comma
A* 324
9:10 M in or t o n e
B 360
15:16 Maj or s e m i t o n e
c 384
128:135 M in or limma
C# 405
d 432
9:10 Mi nor to n e
e 480
15:16 Major s e m i t o n e
f 512
CHAPTER IX
ON THE DIATONIC-CHROMATIC GENUS
1. The r e a s o n f o r d e s i g n a t i n g o u r e i g h t e e n t h g e n u s
as th e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c genus i s c l e a r from th e exponent
2m*33 *52 , s i n c e i t is t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f
2m*33 , 5 a n d 2m , 3 ^ * 5 ^ f t h e e x p o n e n t s o f t h e d i a t o n i c and
c h r o m a t i c g e n e r a , r e s o e c t i v e l y ; and t h u s i t f u s e s t h e s e two
genera. From t h i s one would s u r m i s e t h a t t h i s g e n u s i s i n
a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e g e n u s now u s e d b y m u s i c i a n s , s i n c e t h e y ,
t o o , co m b in e d t h e c h r o m a t i c and d i a t o n i c g e n e r a o f t h e
ancients,
2. F i r s t , we w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e t h e t o n e s w h i c h
s h o u l d be i n e a c h o c t a v e o f o u r g e n u s . T h e r e f o r e , we w i l l
t a k e a l l t h e d i v i s o r s o f 33 , 52 . Th e s e a r e 1 , 3 , 5 , 32 ,
3 * 5 , 52 , 35 , 3 2 *5, 3 * 5 2 , 33 *5, 3 2 *52 , 3S *52 o r 1, 3 , 5 , 9 ,
15 , 2 5 , 2 7 , 4 5 , 7 5 , 1 3 5 , 2 25 , 6 7 5 . Since the l a r g e s t of
t h e s e i s 6 7 5 , t h e o t h e r s m u s t be m u l t i p l i e d by powers o f 2
so t h a t a l l w i l l b e c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e r a t i o 1 : 2 , t h a t
i s , w i t h i n an o c ta v e . A r r a n g i n g t h e s e n um be rs i n o r d e r o f
s i z e , we ha ve t h e f o l l o w i n g t o n e s f o r one o c t a v e :
51 2 :540:576:6 0 0 :6 4 0 :o 7 5 :720:768:800:364:90C :960:1024.
3. H en ce, one o c t a v e o f o u r g e n u s c o n t a i n s t w e l v e
t o n e s , and t h i s a g r e e s w i t h t h e number o f t o n e s i n t h e
custom ary d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c genus. The i n t e r v a l s w i l l
187
show c l e a r l y w h e t h e r t h e t o n e s i n e a c h g e n u s a r e t h e same.
In o u r genus the i n t e r v a l s betw een a d j a c e n t to n e s p r o g r e s s
in t h i s o r d e r :
512 720
M in o r limma M a jo r s e m i t o n e
540 768
M a jo r s e m i t o n e M in o r s e m i t o n e
576 800
Mi nor s e m i t o n e M a j o r limma
600 864
Major sem itone M inor s e m i t o n e
640 900
Mi nor limma Major sem itone
675 960
M a jo r s e m i t o n e M aj or s e m i t o n e
720 1024
L e t u s s e e how t h e s e i n t e r v a l s compare w i t h t h e u s u a l
d i v i s i o n of the o c ta v e .
4. A l t h o u g h m u s i c i a n s e v e n now d i s a g r e e a b o u t t h e
d i v i s i o n o f t h e o c t a v e a n d many d i f f e r e n t modes a r e u s e d ,
I ha ve f o u n d i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f m u s i c i a n s one d i v i s i o n
w h ic h seems t o b e t h e m o s t h i g h l y a p p r o v e d . I f we d e s i g n a t e
the f i r s t tone as F, th e i n t e r v a l s p ro g re s s th u s :
F B
Mi nor limma M aj or s e m i t o n e
F# c
Major sem itone Minor s e m i t o n e
G C#
M ino r semi t o n e M a j o r limma
G# d
Major sem itone Minor s e m i t o n e
A d#
b M a j o r limma Major sem itone
B e
M in or s e m i t o n e Major sem itone
B f
188
T h e s e i n t e r v a l s a r e t a k e n fr om M a t t h e s o n s Die G e n e r a l - Bass
S c h u l e .1
5. T h i s s y s t e m o f d i v i d i n g t h e o c t a v e seem s t o b e
q u i t e new s i n c e m u s i c i a n s were u s i n g a n o t h e r p l a n f o r many
years. Ho wever, s i n c e t h e y f i n a l l y a r r i v e d a t t h e g i v e n
p l a n , t h e r e c a n be l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t t h e y d i s c o v e r e d fr o m
e x p e r i e n c e t h a t i t i s more s u i t e d f o r p r o d u c i n g h a r m o n y .
Since t h i s p la n d i f f e r s so l i t t l e f r o m . t h e t r u e h a r m o n i c
genus ( o n l y two i n t e r v a l s and one p i t c h , , d iffer), the
t r u t h of our p r in c ip le s , a lread y s u f f i c i e n t l y dem onstrated
e l s e w h e r e , i s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y c o n f i r m e d by t h e c l o s e
agreement of o u r th eo ry w ith long e x p e r ie n c e .
6. The u s u a l m e t h o d o f d i v i d i n g t h e o c t a v e h a s b e e n
c a r r i e d t o such p e r f e c t i o n by e x p e r ie n c e a lo n e t h a t , in
o r d e r t o make i t mos t p e r f e c t , t h e o n l y n e c e s s a r y c o r r e c -
b
t i o n i s to lo w e r th e tone B by a d i e s i s , w hich is the
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a m a j o r and a m i n o r li m m a . W it h t h i s
correction i t w i l l become t h e m o s t p e r f e c t g e n u s , t h e genus
b e s t s u i t e d f o r p ro d u c in g harmony. T h i s g e n u s h a s a s many
t o n e s a s harmony r e q u i r e s , no more an d no l e s s , a n d a l l
t h e t o n e s w i l l ha ve among t h e m s e l v e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e la w s o f ha rm o n y .
^ G r o s s e G e n e r a l b a s s - S c h u l e , 17 31 .
189
7. The t o n e s and t h e i r i n t e r v a l s o f t h e d i a t o n i c -
h a r m o n i c g e n u s now i n u s e , b u t c o r r e c t e d by t h e o r y , w i l l
ha ve t h e r e l a t i o n s h i o shown i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e .
According to m u s i c i a n s ' u s u a l custom, t h i s t a b l e b e g in s
w i t h t h e t o n e G an d p r o g r e s s e s t o . We h a v e i n d i c a t e d
t h e t o n e s by numbers b o t h r e s o l v e d a n d u n r e s o l v e d i n t o
factors. T h i s makes i t e a s i e r t o exami ne t h e m u t u a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e t o n e s and t h e i n t e r v a l s .
Genus X V I I I . Ex p o n e n t 2m , 3 3 *52
P itch
C 27 *3 384
24 s 25 Minor s e m i t o n e
c# 24 52 400
25:27 M ajo r limma
D 2 4 *33 432
24:25 Mi n o r s e m i t o n e
D# 2 *3 2 *52 450
E 2 5 *3*5 480
15:16 Majo r s e m i t o n e
F 29 512
12 8 :1 3 5 Minor limma
F# 22 *33 *5 540
G 26 *32 576
G# 23 *3*52 600
ry
15:16 Major s e m i t o n e
A 27 *5 640
12 8 :1 3 5 Minor limma
33 , 5 675
1 5 :1 6 M a jo r s e m i t o n e
B 24 *32 *5 720
1 5 :16 Ma j o r semi t o n e
c 1 28 , 3 768
This t a b l e i s a c o n t i n u a t i o n of the l i s t i n g of the p r e
ceding c h a p te r.
190
8. The r a t i o b e t w e e n any two t o n e s c a n b e f o u n d
from t h i s t a b l e . However, i n o r d e r t o show t h e s e r a t i o s
more c l e a r l y , it seems p r o p e r t o a d d t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e
w h i c h shows a l l p o s s i b l e s i m p l e i n t e r v a l s .
Tones In terv als I n t e r v a l Names
C:C# 24:25 Minor s e m i t o n e
C:D 8:9 M aj o r t o n e
C:D# 54:75 M in or t h i r d l e s s a d i e s i s
C:E 4:5 M aj or t h i r d
CsF 3:4 Fourth
C:F# 32:45 Tritone
C:G 2:3 F ifth
C:G# 15:25 Minor s i x t h l e s s a d i e s i s
C:A 3:5 M aj o r s i x t h
b
C:B 128:225 M in or s e v e n t h
C:B 8:15 M a jo r s e v e n t h
C:c 1:2 O ct ave
191
Tones Intervals I n t e r v a l Names
C#:D 25:27 M ajor limma
C#:D# 8:9 M a jo r t o n e
C#:E 5:6 M in o r t h i r d
C#:F 25:32 Major t h i r d p lu s a d i e s i s

C #: F# 20:27 F o u r t h p l u s a comma
C#:G 25:36 T ritone
C#:G# 2:3 F ifth
C#:A 5:8 M in or s i x t h
C#:Bb 16:27 M aj o r s i x t h p l u s a comma
C#:B 5:9 Minor s e v e n t h

C#:c 25:48 M a jo r s e v e n t h
C #:c# 1:2 O c ta ve
D:D# 24:25 M ino r s e m i t o n e

D:E 9:10 M in or t o n e
D:F 27:32 M in or t h i r d l e s s a comma
D:F# 4:5 Major t h i r d
D:G 3:4 Fourth
D:G# 18:25 T rltone

D:A 27:40 F i f t h l e s s a comma
D:Bb 16:25 M in o r s i x t h l e s s a d i e s i s
D;B 3:5 M a jo r s i x t h
D:c 9:16 M in or s e v e n t h
D:c# 27:50 M ajor s e v e n th
D:d 1:2 Octave
192
D#:E 15 :16 Major s e m i t o n e
D#:F 225:256 Major t o n e p l u s a d i a s c h i s m a
D#:F# 5:6 Minor t h i r d

D#:G 25:32 Minor t h i r d p l u s a d i e s i s
D#:G# 3:4 F o ur th
D#:A 45:64 Tritone

D#:Bb 2:3 F ifth
D#:B 5:8 Minor s i x t h
D#:c 75:128 Major s i x t h p l u s a d i e s i s
D#:c# 9:16 Minor s e v e n t h

D#:d 25:48 Major s e v e n t h
D#:d# 1 :2 Oc t a v e
E:F 1 5:1 6 Major s e m i to n e

E:F# 3:9 Major t o n e
E:G 5 :6 Minor t h i r d
E :G# 4:5 Major t h i r d
E: A 3:4 F ourth
1
EsB 32:45 Tritone

E:B 2:3 F ifth
E :c 5:3 Minor s i x t h
E:c# 3:5 Major s i x t h
E:d 5:9 Minor s e v e n t h
Erd# 8:15 Major s e v e n t h
03
E :e
<
Octave
1

193
Tones In terv als I n t e r v a l Names
F:F# 128:135 Minor limma
F:G 8:9 M a jo r t o n e
F:G# 64:75 Minor t h i r d l e s s a d i e s i s
FsA 4:5 M a jo r t h i r d
F:Bb 512:675 F ourth l e s s a diaschism a
F:B 32:45 T r i t o ne
F:c 2:3 Fifth
F:c# 16:25 Minor s i x t h l e s s a d i e s i s
F:d 15:27 M a j o r s i x t h p l u s a comma
F:d# 128:225 Minor s e v e n t h
Fse 8:15 M ajor s e v e n t h

F:f 1:2 O ct ave
F#:G 15:1 6 Major s e m i t o n e
F#:G# 9:10 M in or t o n e
F#:A 27:32 M in or t h i r d l e s s a comma
F#:Bb 4:5 M a jo r t h i r d
F#:B 3:4 F ourth
F#:c 45:64 T ritone
F#:c# 27:40 F i f t h l e s s a comma
F#:d 5:8 Minor s i x t h

F#:d# 3:5 M a jo r s i x t h
f#:e 9:16 Minor s e v e n t h
F#sf 135:256 M aj or s e v e n t h
F#:f# 1 :2 Octave
194
G:G# 24:25 Minor s e m i t o n e
G:A 9:10 Minor t o n e

b
G:B 64:75 Minor t h i r d l e s s a d i e s i s
G:B 4:5 Major t h i r d
G:c 5:4 Fourth

G:c# 18:25 T r i t o ne
G :d 2:5 F ifth
G:d # 16:25 Minor s i x t h l e s s a d i e s i s
G:e 5:5 M aj o r s i x t h
G:T 9:16 Minor s e v e n t h
G :f# 8:15 Major s e v e n th
G:g 1:2 O c ta ve
G#:A 15:16 Maj or s e m i t o n e
G # :3 b 8:9 Majo r t o n e
G#:B 5:6 Minor t h i r d
G# :c 25:52 M a jo r t h i r d p l u s a d i e s i s
G #:c # 3:4 Fourth
G# :d 25:36 T ritone
G #: d# 2:3 F ifth
G#:e 5:8 M ino r s i x t h
G#:f 75:128 M aj or s i x t h p l u s a d i e s i s
G#:f# 5:9 Minor s e v e n t h
G#:g 25:48 M a jo r s e v e n t h
G #:g # 1:2 O ctave
195
To nes Intervals I n t e r v a l Names
A:B^ 128:135 Minor limma
A:B 8:9 M ajor t o n e
A:c 5:6 Minor t h i r d
A:c# 4:5 Major t h i r d
A :d 20:27 F o u r t h p l u s a comma
A :d # 32:45 T ritone
A:e 2:3 F ifth
A:f 5:8 M ino r s i x t h
A :f# 16:27 M aj or s i x t h p l u s a comma
A:g 5:9 Minor s e v e n t h

A:g# 8:15 Majo r s e v e n t h
A:a 1:2 O c ta v e
b
B :B 15:16 Major s em ito n e
Bb : c 225:256 Major to n e p l u s a d ia s c h is m a
Bb : c # 27:32 Minor t h i r d l e s s a comma

Bb : d 25:32 M aj or t h i r d p l u s a d i e s i s
Bb : d # 3:4 Fourth
Bb :e 45:64 T ritone
Bb : f 675:1024 F i f t h p lu s a diaschism a
Bb : f # 5:8 Minor s i x t h
B :g 75:128 Major s i x t h p l u s a d i e s i s
Bk :g # 9:16 M in or s e v e n t h
Bb : a 135:256 M a jo r s e v e n t h
b b
B :b 1:2 O c ta v e
196
T on es Intervals I n t e r v a l Names
B :c 15:16 M ajor s e m i t o n e
B:c# 9:10 M in or t o n e
3:d 5:6 Minor t h i r d
B :d# 4:5 M a jo r t h i r d
B:e 5:4 Fourth
B :f 45:64 T ritone
Bsf# 2:3 F ifth
B :g 5:8 Minor s i x t h
B :g # 3:5 M a jo r s i x t h
B:a 9:16 Mi nor s e v e n t h
B:bk 8:15 Major s e v e n t h
B:b 1:2 O c ta v e
8.2 A ll i n t e r v a l s i n t h i s genus e i t h e r a re t h e
c o n s o n a n c e s w i t h t h e u s u a l names o r d i f f e r fro m t h e s e
c o n s o n a n c e s by i n t e r v a l s so s m a l l a s t o b e i m p e r c e p t i b l e
to d u l l e r e a r s . S i n c e m u s i c i a n s s t o u t l y m a i n t a i n t h a t no
i n t e r v a l may d i f f e r fro m t h e named i n t e r v a l s by more t h a n
one o f t h e sm aller in te r v a ls , i_ .e . , comma, d i e s i s , o r
d ia sc h is m a , th e m usicians w i l l have t o re c o g n ize i n
o ra c tic e th a t our c o rre c tio n has considerable ju stificatio n .
I f th e tone i s made a d i e s i s h i g h e r , a s t h e m u s i c i a n s
^The number 8 i s r e p e a t e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l e d i t i o n .
197
b
w i s h , t h e n t h e i n t e r v a l C#:B w ou ld h e a m a j o r s i x t h p l u s
a comma a n d a d i e s i s . T h e s e l a s t two i n t e r v a l s a r e i n d e e d
s m a l l , b u t t a k e n t o g e t h e r t h e y make a l m o s t a m i n o r s e m i -
b
t o n e , so t h a t t h e i n t e r v a l C#:B i n t h e a c c u s t o m e d g e n u s
w o u ld h e a c c e p t e d a s a m i n o r s e v e n t h r a t h e r t h a n a m a j o r
b
sixth. S i m i l a r l y , B : c # would be a m i n o r t h i r d d i m i n i s h e d
by a comma a n d a d i e s i s a n d w o u l d be more l i k e a whole
tone than a t h i r d .
9. From t h e p r e c e d i n g t a b l e we h a v e p r e p a r e d t h e
f o l l o w i n g o n e , i n w h i c h g r o u p s o f e q u a l i n t e r v a l s h a ve
been p laced in o rd e r.
MINOR SECONDS
24:25 M in or s e m i t o n e 1 5 :1 6 Major sem itone
C:C# D#:E
D;D# E:F
G:G# F#:G
G#;A
128:155 M in or limma B :B
B:c
F:FS
A:B 25:27 M a jo r limma
C#:D
198
MAJOR SECONDS MAJOR THIRDS
9:10 Min or t o n e P e rf e c t m ajor t h i r d
D:E
F#:G#
G :A
B:c#
8:9 M aj o r t o n e
C:D
C#:D#
E:F# 25:32 Major t h i r d p l u s a
F:G. d iesis
G#:B C#:F
A:3 D#:G
G#:c
2 25 :2 56 Major t o n e p l u s Ef9 :d
a diaschism a
D#:F
B* : c
MINOR THIRDS FOURTHS
64:75 M in or t h i r d l e s s 512:675 Fourth le s s a

a diesis diaschism a
C:D# F:B
F:G#
G :B 3:4 Perfect fo u rth
27:32 M in or t h i r d l e s s C:F
a comma D:G
D#:G#
D:F E:A
F#:A F#:B
Bb : c # G:c
5:6 P e r f e c t m inor B^:d#

th ird B:e
C#:E 20:27 F o u r t h p l u s a comma
D#:F#
E:G C#:F#
G#:B A:d
A:c
B:d
199
TRITONES MINOR SIXTHS
18:25 Fourth plus a 16:25 Minor s i x t h l e s s a

m inor sem itone diesis
D:G# C:G#
G :c # D:Bb
r rS
F ijft
32:45 F ifth less a G :d #
m ajor sem itone
5:8 P e r f e c t minor s i x t h
C:F#
E:B*> C#:A
F:B D#:B
A:d# E:c
r ft
45:64 Fourth plus a G#:e
m ajor sem itone A:f
Bb:f#
D#:A B :g
F#:c
Bt> :e
B:f
25:36 F i f t h l e s s a m inor
semitone
C#:G
G#:d
FIFTHS MAJOR SIXTHS

27:40 F i f t h l e s s a comma 3:5 P e r f e c t m ajor s i x t h
D:A C:A
f#:c# D:B
E:c#
2:3 Perfect f i f t h F#:d#
C:G B :g #
C#:G#
D#:B6 16:27 M ajor s i x t h p l u s a
E:B comma
F:c
G:d C#:Bb
G #:d # F:d
A:e A :f#
B :f#
/ OJI cO Majo r s i x t h p l u s a
675:1024 F i f t h dI u s a diesis
diaschism a D#:c
G#:f
Bb : f Bt>:g
200
MINOR SEVENTHS MAJOR SEVENTHS
128:225 M ajor s i x t h p l u s 27:50 O ctave l e s s a

a m i n o r li m m a m a j o r limma
C : B fa D :c#
F:d#
8:15 O c ta v e l e s 3 a maj
9:16 O ctave l e s s a sem itone
m a jo r tone
C:B
D:c E:d#
D #:c# F:e
F#:e G :f#
G :f A:g#
Bb : g # B:b*>
B:a
135:256 O ctave l e s s a
5:9 O ctave l e s s a m i n o r li m m a
m inor tone
F #:f
C # :B Bb : a
E :d
G #:f# 25:48 O ctave l e s s a
A:g m inor sem itone
C #:c
D #:d
G#:g
10. Prom t h i s tab le we c a n see a t once th e
I n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n any two t o n e s w i t h i n a n o c t a v e . A lso,
we c a n s e e th e g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e betw een i n t e r v a l s of the
same n a m e , in terv als w hich a r e g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d e q u a l
by t h o s e w i t h o u t much t r a i n i n g in m usic. The tab le shows
th at th ere are fo u r sp ecies of sem ito n es, three sp ecies of
to n es, th ree sp ecies of m inor t h i r d s , etc. There i s only
one s p e c i e s of o ctave, and i t is ex p ressed by the perfect
ratio 1:2 . Because o f i t s p erfectio n th is in terv al can
201
h a r d l y b e p e r m i t t e d t o d i f f e r fr o m 1 : 2 w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r a b l e
annoyance to th e e a r . The more p e r f e c t i o n a n d e a s e of
com prehension an i n t e r v a l h a s , t h e more p e r c e p t i b l e t h e
s l i g h t e s t e r r o r becomes. However, i n t h e c a s e o f t h e
l e s s p e r f e c t i n t e r v a l s , a small v a r i a t i o n has l e s s e f f e c t
on t h e e a r .
11. W it h t h e a i d o f a m o n o c h o r d , m u s i c a l i n s t r u
m e n t s c a n e a s i l y be t u n e d t o t h i s d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c
genus. Of c o u r s e , t h e monochord s h o u l d b e d i v i d e d i n t h e
same r a t i o s w hi c h s h o u l d e x i s t among t h e t o n e s t h e m s e l v e s .
The r u l e s f o r t h i s o p e r a t i o n were t r e a t e d i n t h e f i r s t
chanter. Anyone w i s h i n g t o t u n e i n s t r u m e n t s b y e a r a l o n e
m u s t b e a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e o c t a v e i n t e r v a l a n d to form
i t by h e a r i n g a l o n e . T h e n , by l o o s e n i n g o r s t r e t c h i n g t h e
s t r i n g s , he mus t b e a b l e t o p r o d u c e e x a c t l y t h e f i f t h ,
2 : 3 , a nd m a j o r t h i r d .
12. Anyone h a v i n g s u ch a u r a l a c u i t y c a n t u n e a n
i n s t r u m e n t in th e f o l l o w i n g manner. He may f i r s t establish
t h e t o n e F , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a n d f r o m i t he
w i l l ha ve a l l t o n e s d e s i g n a t e d w i t h t h i s same l e t t e r . Then
he o b t a i n s c, a f i f t h a b o v e , a n d A, a m a j o r t h i r d a b o v e ,
a n d he w i l l t h e n ha ve a l l t h e r e m a i n i n g t c n e s d e s i g n a t e d
w ith tnose l e t t e r s . He n e x t o b t a i n s G, a f i f t h a bo ve C,
an d E, a m a j o r t h i r d a b o v e . E i s a f i f t h a b o v e A, from
w h i c h he o b t a i n s c # , a m a j o r t h i r d a b o v e . Then, s i m i l a r l y ,
202
he o b t a i n s d an d B f r o m G, G# fr om E, C# fr o m G#. From B
he o b t a i n s f # a n d d # . G# may a l s o b e u s e d t o o b t a i n d # .
F i n a l l y , B^ may b e o b t a i n e d a s t h e f i f t h o f D#. In th i s
way, b y t a k i n g a l l o c t a v e s , t h e v/hole i n s t r u m e n t w i l l be
c o r r e c tly tuned.
13. T h i s whole t u n i n g p r o c e s s may be o b s e r v e d more
d i s t i n c t l y in the f o ll o w i n g f i g u r e :
V F III
A.
f
III h i
G
V III
D
N, HI III
V j
S i n c e t h e t o n e s E, B, G#, F# , D#, and B

b may be d e t e r m i n e d
i n two w a ys , i . , , b y f i f t h s a nd t h i r d s , we h a v e a
v a lu a b le a id in t u n i n g which w i l l e n a b le us to p e r c e iv e
an d c o r r e c t a t on c e any e r r o r w hi c h may h a v e b e e n c o m m i t t e d .
14. A l t h o u g h i t was c h i e f l y by e x p e r i e n c e t h a t t h e
music of to d ay r e a c h e u t h i s o e r f e c t m u s ic a l g e n u s , w it h
w h i c h much e x c e l l e n t m u s i c i s a s s o c i a t e d , y e t much o f
t h i s a t t a i n m e n t m u s t be a t t r i b u t e d to chance. While
m u s i c i a n s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t b o t h t o n e s and s e m i t o n e s we re i n
203
t h e d i a t o n i c g e n u s , t h e y t h o u g h t t h a t a more p e r f e c t g e n u s
c o u l d b e c o n s t r u c t e d i f t h e y d i v i d e d e a c h t o n e i n t o two
p a r t s an d p l a c e d new t o n e s w i t h i n e a c h i n t e r v a l a t o n e
a p a r t , t h u s o b t a i n i n g a d j a c e n t t o n e s d i f f e r i n g by a semi
to n e , a t l e a s t in the u s u a l broad sen se ,
15, I n m a kin g t h i s new d i v i s i o n o f t h e o c t a v e , t h e
m u s i c i a n s a c t e d n o t o n l y a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r whims b u t a l s o
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f harmony, f o r t h e y d e c i d e d to
i n t e r p o l a t e to n e s which c o n s t i t u t e d a v e ry e x c e l l e n t
m usical genus. T h i s was a f r u i t f u l i n v e n t i o n , b u t m u s i c i a n s
s h o u ld c o n s i d e r I t a p ro d u c t o f chance r a t h e r t h a n o f the
kn owledge o f t r u e h a r m o n y , s i n c e t h e t r u e d i a t o n i c -
c h r o m a t i c g e n u s i s a l s o a r r a n g e d so t h a t i t h a s t w e l v e
to n e s d i f f e r i n g by a sem ito n e,
16. T h i s i s more a p p a r e n t from t h e f a c t t h a t many
m u s i c i a n s ha v e b e l i e v e d t h a t t r u e harmony c o n s i s t e d I n
e q u a l i t y of i n t e r v a l s r a t h e r th a n in t h e i r s i m p l i c i t y .
T h erefo re, In o rd e r to s a t i s f y them selves r a t h e r th a n
harmony, t h e y d i d n o t h e s i t a t e t o d i v i d e th e o c t a v e i n t o
t w e l v e e q u a l p a r t s and to d e s i g n a t e t h e u s u a l t w e l v e t o n e s
according to t h i s d i v is io n . They were s t r e n g t h e n e d I n t h i s
p u r p o s e by t h e f a c t t h a t a l l i n t e r v a l s a r e made e q u a l ,
th u s p e r m i t t i n g m o d u la tio n and t r a n s p o s i t i o n w ith o u t
a lteratio n . They w e r e n o t wrong I n t h i s p u r p o s e , b u t t h e y
f a i l e d t o o b s e r v e t h a t i n t h i s way harmony I s t a k e n away

fr om e v e r y mode.
204
17. I n o r d e r t h a t t h i s may be made c l e a r e r , we
show i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o n e s o f o u r
d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c genus and o f t h i s e q u a l g e n u s, a l l
e x p r e s s e d by l o g a r i t h m s . The d i f f e r e n c e s a r e a l s o s how n.
We w i l l t a k e l o g P a s z e r o .
Tone T r u e Genus E q u a l Genus D ifference
F 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
F# 0.076815 0.083333 0.006518
G 0.169924 0.166666 -0.003258
G# 0.228819 0.250000 0.021181
A 0.321928 0.333333 0.011405
Bb 0.398742 0.416666 0.017924
B 0.491852 0.500000 0.008148
c 0.584962 0.583333 -0.001629
C# 0.643857 0.666666 0.022809
d 0.754886 0.750000 -0.004886
d# 0.813780 0.833333 0.019553

e 0.906890 0.916566 0.009776
f 1.000000 1.000000 0.000000
I t i s c l e a r t h a t i n some c a s e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e
same t o n e s o f e a c h g e n u s e x c e e d s a comma, and t h i s i s
s u f f i c i e n t t o c a u s e no l i t t l e d i s t u r b a n c e t o the h a m o n y .
F i f t h s and f o u r t h s d i f f e r l i t t l e from th e g e n u in e , s c a r c e l y
a t e n t h o f a d i a s c h i s m a , b u t m a j o r a nd m i n o r t h i r d s d i f f e r
205
much m o r e , a n d harmony i s composed o f t h e s e J u s t a s much
a s o f f i f t h s and f o u r t h s . F inally, s i n c e i t h a s no
i n t e r v a l s e x p r e s s i b l e b y r a t i o n a l f r a c t i o n s e x c e p t the
o c t a v e , t h i s g e n u s must b e c o n s i d e r e d c o n t r a r y t o h a r m o n y ,
e v e n i f d u l l e r e a r s s c a r c e l y o e r c e i v e any d i s c r e p a n c y .
18. O th e r s , r e t a i n i n g i n t a c t th e to n e s of the
d i a t o n i c genus, d id not h e s i t a t e to d e f in e the rem aining
c h r o m a t i c t o n e s by t h e i r own a u t h o r i t y , w i t h o u t r e g a r d to
h a rm o n y . Such a m u s i c a l g e n u s a p p e a r e d n o t so l o n g a g o
in England. I n i t b o t h t h e m a j o r and m i n o r t o n e s a r e
d i v i d e d i n t o two a l m o s t e q u a l p a r t s , o f which t h e lower is
g r e a t e r than th e u p p e r , and e a c h i s d e f i n e d by a s u p e r -
p articu lar ra tio . T h i s seems t o f o l l o w a l o n g w i t h
P y t h a g o r a s who d e c i d e d t h a t o n l y s u p e r p a r t i c u l a r r a t i o s
s h o u l d be a d m i t t e d f o r p r o d u c i n g h a rm o n y . Therefore,
b e t w e e n t o n e s d i f f e r i n g b y a m a j o r s e c o n d he i n s e r t e d a
t o n e h a v i n g a r a t i o o f 1 7 ; 1 6 t o t h e one b e l o w a n d 1 7 : 1 8 t o
t h e one a b o v e . How l i t t l e t h i s d iv is io n agrees w ith
harmony i s c u i t e c l e a r f r o m t h e f o r e g o i n g .
19. We h a v e d i s c u s s e d t h e e i g h t e e n t h g e n u s , c a l l e d
the d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c , i n which, as i t i s used today, a l l
m o d u l a t i o n s c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d . In comparison w ith
o t h e r s , t h i s genus has th e re m a rk a b le p r o p e r t y t h a t a l l
its i n t e r v a l s seem a l m o s t e q u a l t o t h e h e a r i n g . Thus a ny
m e lo d y c a n be c o n v e n i e n t l y s u n g h i g h e r o r l o w e r b y a
206
s e m i t o n e , a t o n e , o r a ny i n t e r v a l . T h i s c a n n o t be done
w ith a n o th e r genus in w hich th e r e i s g r e a t e r i n e q u a l i t y
of i n t e r v a l s . B e f o r e we a p p l y g e n e r a l r u l e s o f c o m p o s i t i o n
t o t h i s g e n u s , we w i l l c o n s i d e r o t h e r g e n e r a , c o n t i n u i n g
t h e s u c c e s s i o n t h a t we ha v e b e g u n .
CHAPTER X
ON SOME MORE COMPOSITE MUSICAL GENERA
1. A l t h o u g h we ha v e d i s c u s s e d t h e e i g h t e e n i n i t i a l
g e n e r a w h i c h c o v e r b o t h modern and a n c i e n t m u s i c , i t w i l l
n o t be i n c o n g r u o u s to i n v e s t i g a t e s e v e r a l more c o m p o s i t e
g e n e r a , w h i c h e i t h e r ha v e a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h o s e
a l r e a d y t r e a t e d o r m i g h t be u s e d s u i t a b l y f o r g r e a t e r
p e r f e c t i o n of m usic. I n s u r v e y i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a , we
w i l l n o t t a k e them i n o r d e r a s we ha v e d on e n o r w i l l we go
into great d e ta i l, s i n c e t h i s w o u ld be a n u n e n d i n g a n d
u s e l e s s t a s k , b u t we w i l l d i s c u s s o n l y t h o s e t h i n g s w hic h
seem a p p r o p r i a t e t o o u r p u r o o s e .
2. L e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e ge nus w h i c h h a s t h e e x p o n e n t
2m*32 *53 a n d w h ic h c a n be a p p r o p r i a t e l y be c a l l e d t h e
chrom atic-enharm onic genus, s i n c e t h e e x p o n e n t i s composed
o f t h e e x p o n e n t s o f t h e c h r o m a t i c and e n h a r m o n i c g e n e r a a n d
i s t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e i r e x p o n e n t s . There a r e
tw elve to n e s in the octave of t h i s genus j u s t as in th e
d ia to n ic -c h ro m a tic genus. T h e s e t w e l v e t o n e s a r i s e fro m
t h e t w e l v e d i v i s o r s o f 32 *53 , w h i c h a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g :
2 10 : 3 2 *55 : 27 , 3 2 : 24 , 3 52 : 28 5 : 25 , 32 ' 5 : 22 *3*55

1024 : 1125 : 1152 : 1200 : 1280 : 1440 : 1500
2 9 , 3 : 26 52: 23 *32 , 52 : 27 , 3 5 : 2 4 , 53 : 211 .
1536 : 1600 : 1800 : 1920 : 2000 : 20 48 .
208
3. The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e shows t h e s u c c e s s i o n of
t o n e s o f t h i s genus and th e s i z e s o f t h e i n t e r v a l s :
Pitch
Names Tone s Intervals I n t e r v a l Names
C 28 *3 768
24:25 Mi nor s e m i t o n e
c# 25*52 800
8:9 Majo r t o n e
D# 22. 32.52 900
15:16 Majo r s e m i t o n e
E 26 *3*5 960
F* 23 53 1000
p 210 1024
1024:1125 M a jo r t o n e l e s s a
G-i* 32 53 1125
125:128 E n h a rm o n i c d i e s i s
G 27.32 1152
24:25 M ino r s e m i t o n e
G# 2 4.3.52 1200
A 28.5 1280
B 2 3 3 2 5 1440
e* 2 2 *3*55 1500
r\ 1 2 5 :1 2 8 En h a rm o n i c di e s i s
c 29 ,3 1536
4. In t h i s genus th e i n t e r v a l s betw een s u c c e s s iv e
tones are not a l l uniform . There a r e major sec o n d s,
s e m i t o n e s , an d d i e s e s . As a r e s u l t , a melo dy composed i n
t h i s g e n u s c a n b e t r a n s o o s e d t o no o t h e r p i t c h l e v e l .
H e n c e , t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g e n u s i s to b e p r e f e r r e d . In
t h a t g e n u s a l l t h e I n t e r v a l s a o o e a r t o be t h e sam e. It is
209
\
u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h i s e q u a l i t y was p r o d u c e d by c h a n c e an d
i s n o t a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y f o r p r o d u c i n g h a r m o n y , a s many
m u s i c i a n s ha v e b e l i e v e d ,
5. Three to n e s in t h i s genus a r e n o t found i n t h e
diatonic-chrom atic. They a r e d e s i g n a t e d a s F * , G#, a n d **,
s i n c e t h e y a r e c l o s e t o t h e t o n e s F , G, a nd c o f t h e
d ia to n ic -c h ro m a tic genus. I n f a c t , t h e y d i f f e r o n l y by a
d iesis. S i n c e s u c h a s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e c a n s c a r c e l y be
d e t e c t e d by t h e e a r , m u s i c a l w o rk s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e g e n u s
gm .3 2 .5 3 c a n b e p l a y e d q u i t e a c c e p t a b l y by i n s t r u m e n t s
tuned to the u s u a l d ia to n ic - c h r o m a tic gen u s. T h i s means
t h a t F , G, and jc w ou ld be u s e d i n p l a c e o f F->, G*, and ctt,
b u t t h e d e v i a t i o n s w ou ld b e a l m o s t i m p e r c e p t i b l e t o t h e
sense of h e a rin g .
6. In th e m a t t e r o f t r a n s p o s i t i o n , the d i a t o n i c -
c h r o m a t i c g e n u s i s a g r e e a b l y s u i t e d t o m u s i c a l wo rks w i t h
exponent I f a n i n t e r v a l w e re o r i g i n a l l y a
m i n o r s e m i t o n e , m u s i c i a n s more o f t e n u s e a m a j o r s e m i t o n e
o r a m a j o r li mm a, w h i c h d i f f e r s f r o m t h e m i n o r s e m i t o n e
b y more t h a n a d i e s i s . B e s id e s , even i f t h e In s tru m e n ts
are considered s u ite d fo r th e d ia to n ic -c h ro m a tic genus,
u n le ss they are tuned e x a c tly (h a rd ly p o s s i b l e ) , th ey w i l l
n o t co nv ey g r e a t e r a g r e e a b l e n e s s t h a n t h e u s u a l i n s t r u m e n t s .
7. The d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g e n u s h a s a w i d e r a p p l i c a
t i o n than i t s e x p o n e n t , 2n'* 3 ^ * 5 2 , i n d i c a t e s , s i n c e i t c a n be
210
u s e d s u i t a b l y f o r m u s i c a l works b e l o n g i n g t o th e genus
2m . 3 2 . 5 3 , This i s evidence of t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f the
customary genus. I t s u s e c a n be e x t e n d e d t o e v e n more
c o m p o s i t e g e n e r a , w h i c h a r e so a r r a n g e d t h a t t h e t o n e s
w h ic h d i f f e r fr o m t h o s e o f t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g e n u s
a r e so c l o s e t h a t t h e l a t t e r may be s u b s t i t u t e d s a t i s f a c t o r i l y .
We w i l l d i s c u s s more f u l l y t h e s e g e n e r a w hi ch c a n b e
s a t i s f i e d by th e d ia to n ic - c h r o m a tic genus.
8. L e t u s combine t h e e x p o n e n t s o f t h e t h r e e a n c i e n t
g e n e r a i n t o o n e , so t h a t we ha ve a d i a t o n i c - e n h a r m o n i c
g e n u s w i t h an e x p o n e n t o f 2m , 3*5^. T h u s , t h i s ge n u s
c o n t a i n s t h e d i a t o n i c , c h r o m a tic , and enharmonic g e n e r a
w i t h oxir c o r r e c t i o n s . One o c t a v e o f t h i s g e n u s h a s s i x t e e n
t o n e s , of which tw e lv e b e lo n g t o t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c
g e n u s an d f o u r a r e new o n e s d i f f e r i n g so s l i g h t l y fr o m
t o n e s o f t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g e n u s t h a t t h e y may
o b v i o u s l y b e o m i t t e d w i t h no p e r c e p t i b l e damage to t h e
h a rm on y, a s we h av e n o t e d I n t h e c a s e o f t h e p r e c e d i n g
genus. The s i x t e e n t o n e s of one o c t a v e a r e shown i n t h e
t a b l e on t h e n e x t p a g e , in p la c e of th e f o r e i g n to n e s
D*, Ffc, G#, and c * , w h ic h d i f f e r f r o m t h e p r i n c i p a l t o n e s
D, F , G, an d c o n l y by a d i e s i s , t h e l a t t e r c a n be u s e d
quite s a fe ly .
211
Pitch Tones Intervals I n t e r v a l Names

Names
C 2 IO .3 3072
c# 2V*5 2 3200
128:135 Minor limma
D* 3 3 *53 3375
1 2 5 :1 2 8 D iesis
D 2 7 . 33 3455
D# 2 4 *32 . 5 2 3600
E 2 35 3840
24:25 M inor s e m i t o n e
F* 25 *53 4000
125:128 D iesis
P 2l 2 4096
128:135 Minor limma
F# 2 5 *33 5 4320
C-v- 22 *32 *53 4500
125:128 Die s i s
G 29 *32 4608
G# 26 *3 52 4800
A 2 1 0 *5 5120
128:135 M in o r limma
Bb 23 33 52 5400
15:16 Ma j o r s e m i t o n e
B 27 *32 *5 5760
24:25 M in o r s e m i t o n e
c* 2 4 *3*53 6000
125:128 Die s i s
c 2 1 1 *3 6144
212
9. The d i e s i s i s t h e l a r g e s t o f t h e s m a l l i n t e r v a l s ,
and someone may f e e l t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e is too la rg e
to perm it th e s u b s t i t u t i o n of the p r i n c i p a l to n e s. Then
s u r e l y h e w i l l p e r m i t a d i f f e r e n c e o f a comma. The new
t o n e s w i l l d i f f e r f r o m t h e p r i n c i p a l o n e s b y a comma a t t h e
mos t i n g e n e r a whose e x p o n e n t s c a n b e e x o r e s s e d a s
2m*3n *52 , w her e n i s l a r g e r t h a n 3 . The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e
shows t h e o c t a v e s o f a l l s u c h g e n e r a w i t h n l e s s t h a n 8 .
GENERIC EXPONENT 2m*37 *52
P itch
Names T on e s Logarithm s Intervals I n t e r v a l Names
F 215 15.00000
0.07682 M ino r limma
F# 28 *33 *5 15.07682
0.01791 Comma
F#* 24 , 37 15.09473
0.05890 M in o r s e m i t o n e
G# 2 36 *52 15.15363
0.01630 Diaschisma
G 21 2 . 32 15.16993
G# 2 9 *3*52 15.22882
0.01792 Comma
G#* 2 5 *35 *5 15.24674
0.07519 Minor sem ito n e
A 2 1 3 *5 15.32193 plus a diaschi
0 .0 1 7 9 2 Comma
A* 2 9 *34 15.33985
<r
CD
2 6 . 33.52 15.39874
0.01792 Comma
2 2 .37.5 15.41666
3 2 1 0 3 2 . 5 15.49185 p lu s a diaschisn
0.01793 Comma
B# 26.36 15.50978
0.05889 M in or s e m i t o n e
c* 2 3 , 3 5 5 2 15.56867
213
GENERIC EXPONENT 2m3 7 *52 (C ontinued)
Pitch
Names Tones Logarithms Intervals I n t e r v a l Names
e* 23 . 35 . 52 15.56867
0.01629 Diaschism a
c 21 4 *3 15.58496
C# 21 1 . 52 15.64386
r a
0.01792 Comma
c#* 2 3 5 15.66178
0.07681 Minor limma
d* 37 *52 15.73859
0.01630 Diaschisma
d 21 1 . 33 15.75489
d# g S . 32.52 15.81378
0.01792 Comma
d #* 24 * 36 * 5 15.83170
0.07519 Minor s e m i t o n e
e 21 2 *3*5 15.90689 p lu s a diaschism
0.01792 Comma
e* 2s *35 15.92481
f* 25 , 34 , 52 15.98371
0.01629 Diaschisma
f 216 16.00000
T h i s g e n u s a d d s t w e l v e new t o n e s t o t h o s e o f t h e d i a t o n i c -
chrom atic genus. These tw elve t o n e s d i f f e r from th o s e o f
t h e l a t t e r by commas o r d i a s c h i s m a t a . Since th ese
d i f f e r e n c e s a r e a l m o s t i m p e r c e p t i b l e , t h e s e new t o n e s
c a n be o m i t t e d w i t h s a f e t y , an d t h e u s u a l t o n e s c a n be
used in stead . Thus t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g e n u s i s
e f f e c t i v e l y e q u a l t o t h e g e n u s 2m*37 *52 a n d s h o u l d be
considered i t s e q u iv alen t.
214
10. Thus t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g e n u s , w i t h a n
e x o o n e n t o f o n l y 2m*33 *52 , c a n b e u s e d q u i t e a g r e e a b l y
f o r c o m p o s i t i o n s w i t h much more c o m p o s i t e e x p o n e n t s
c o n t a i n e d i n 2m*37 , 52 . Although th e o c ta v e s f o r such
c o m p o s i t i o n s may c o n t a i n up t o t w i c e a s many t o n e s ,
according to the exponent, y e t , because of such sm all
d ifferences, any v a r i a t i o n i n t h e harmony i s a l m o s t
i m p e r c e p t i b l e , w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e c o m o l e t e gen us i s u s e d .
S i m i l a r l y , t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c ge nu s c a n s e r v e f o r t h e
g e n e r a l e x p o n e n t 2m*3n , 5 ^ , no m a t t e r how l a r g e n i s .
11 . The d a i l y c o m p o s i t i o n s o f m u s i c i a n s a b u n d a n t l y
t e s t i f y t o t h e p o s i t i o n and a p o l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e d i a t o n i c -
chrom atic genua. Almost a l l mo dern c o m p o s i t i o n s ha v e
e x p o n e n t s more c o m o o s i t e t h a n 2m ,3 3 , 5 2 . The c o m p o s e r s
th em selv es, c o n s id e r in g the m a tte r w ith the h i g h e s t r i g o r ,
are fo rce d to agree t h a t the usual tones are n o t s u f f i c i e n t ,
b u t t h e y wo uld r a t h e r u s e t h e s e t o n e s t h a n make t h e t r e a t
ment o f m u s i c more d i f f i c u l t by i n t r o d u c i n g new t o n e s .
12. E x t e n s i o n o f t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c ge n u s by
i n c r e a s i n g t h e e x p o n e n t o f 5 i s n o t so f r u i t f u l . Increasing
t h e power o f 5 a d d s t o n e s t o t h e u s u a l o n e s , f r o m w h ic h
t h e y d i f f e r b y a d i e s i s , w h i c h i s more t h a n a comma. Since
a d i e s i s i s about h a l f a sem itone, t h i s i s a p e r c e p ti b l e
discrepancy. To make t h i s c l e a r e r , we h a v e a d d e d t h e
f o l l o w i n g t a b l e s ho wi ng a n o c t a v e o f t h e g e n u s 2m*33 *53 .
215
GENERIC EXPONENT 2m*33 *55
P itch
Names Tones Logarithms Intervals I n t e r v a l Names
F 216 16.00000
2 2 . 33.54 16.04260 le s s a diaschisi
F#*
0.03422 D iesis
F# 2 9 *33 *5 16.07682
G* 26 . 32 . 53 15.13571
0.03421 D iesis
G 2 1 3 *32 16.16992
G#* 2 3 *3*53 16.19460 less a d ie sis
0.03422 D iesis
G# 2 1 0 *3*52 16.22882
A* 27 *54 16 .2 8 7 7 1
0.03422 D iesis
A 2 1 4 *5 13.32193
B*** 33*55 16.36453 le s s a diaschisi
0.03421 D iesi3
Bb 27.33.52 16.39874
B* 24 *32 *54 16.45763
0.03422 D iesis
B 2I I . 3 2 . 5 16.49185
0.05890 Minor sem itone
c* 2B ,3*53 16.55075
0.03421 Die s i s
c 2 1 5 *3 16 .5 8 4 9 6
c#* 2 3 *5^ 1 6 .6 0 9 6 4 less a d iesis
0.03422 D iesis
C# 2 12 *52 16.64386
0.07681 M in or limma
a* 25 *33 53 16.72067
0.03421 D iesis
d 2 I 2 . 33 16.75488
0.02468 M ino r s e m i t o n e
d#* 2 2 *32 *55 16.77956 less a d iesis
216
GENERIC EXPONENT 2m*33 55 (C ontinued)
Pitch
Names Tones Logarithm s Intervals I n t e r v a l Names
d #* 22 . 32 . 55 16,77956
0.03422 D iesis
d# 2 9 *32 *52 16.81378
e* 26 *3*54 16.87267
0.03422 D iesis
e 2 1 3 *3 5 16.90689
f* 2 1 0 *53 16.96578
0.03422 D iesis
f 2 17 17.00000
13. I n t h i s g e n u s t h e new t o n e s a l t e r n a t e w i t h t h e
usual ones, an d e a c h new one d i f f e r s f r o m i t s p r i n c i p a l
tone by a d i e s i s . Since t h i s i s a p e r c e p t i b l e d i f f e r e n c e ,
t h e new t o n e s c a n s c a r c e l y be o m i t t e d . M o r e o v e r , some
o f th e s e to n e s a re c l o s e r to the p r e c e d i n g p r i n c i o a l s th a n
t o t h e s u c c e e d i n g o n e s f r o m w h i c h t h e l e t t e r names w e re
borrowed. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e t o n e G#* i s n e a r e r t o G t h a n
it i s t o G# , a n d h e n c e i t would be s u i t a b l e t o u s e G I n
its place. T h i s wo uld p r e s e n t g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y s i n c e G
s h o u l d b e u s e d I n p l a c e o f G*, a n d t h e d i s t i n c t t o n e s G*
a n d # * c a n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d by t h e seme t o n e . For such
mus ic i t would b e more s u i t a b l e t o d i v i d e t h e o c t a v e i n t o
tw enty-four I n te r v a l s . Such a g e n u s h a s t h e f u r t h e r
d i s t i n c t i o n of n e a rly equal i n t e r v a l s .
14. T h i s new g e n u s , w i t h a n o c t a v e h a v i n g t w i c e a s
many t o n e s a s o u r c u s t o m a r y g e n u s , w o u l d h a v e a more
217
extended a p p lic a tio n . I f we t a k e t h e e x p o n e n t 2m*3^*5P,
where I s g r e a t e r t h a n 5, t h e r e s u l t i n g g e n u s w i l l
accommodate a l l s u c h s u b g e n e r a a s 2m*35 * 5 ^ . 2m 3^*5P
w o u ld s u f f i c e f o r t h e u n i v e r s a l g e n u s 2m*3n *5P, u n l e s s n
a nd a r e e x c e e d i n g l y l a r g e n u m b e r s ; b u t h a m o n y d o e s n o t
p e r m i t s u b s t i t u t i o n o f s u c h l a r g e numb ers f o r n a n d p .
15. The harmon y w i l l b e i m p a i r e d i f t h e d i a t o n i c -
c h r o m a t i c g e n u s , 2m , 3 ^ * 5 ^ , i s e x t e n d e d t o works w i t h
e x p o n e n t s l a r g e r t h a n 2m*3'', *5^. A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s no
law s a y i n g t h a t 3 c a n n o t ha v e a n e x p o n e n t l a r g e r t h a n 7 ,
y e t t h e la w s o f harmony i t s e l f o p p o s e c o m p o s i t i o n o f s u ch
works w i t h a more c o m p o s i t e e x p o n e n t . Hence, i t i s n o t
suitable to e x te n d the use o f t h i s a c c e p te d genus beyond
m u s i c a l wo rk s w i t h e x p o n e n t s c o n t a i n e d i n 2m* 3 ^ * 5 ^ , a n d
m ode rn m u s i c i a n s a r e n o t a c c u s t o m e d t o e x c e e d t h i s l i m i t .
15. I n o r d e r t h a t t h e a c c e p t e d g e n u s 2m , 3 ^ * 5 2 may
s a t i s f y t h e more c o m p o s i t e g e n u s 2m*3I'r*5 ^ , a d o u b l e t o n e i s
a f f i x e d t o e a c h p i t c h o r key a s d e s i g n a t e d i n t h e t a b l e o f
s e c tio n 9. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e k e y s d e s i g n a t e d a s B w i l l show
t h e t o n e s u n d e r t h e e x p o n e n t 2m*3^*5 a s w e l l a s t h o s e u n d e r
2m*3. The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e shows w h a t key s h o u l d be u s e d
f o r a n y t o n e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e e x o o n e n t 2rn,3 ^ , 5 ^ . F Is
d e n o t e d b y 2 n , where n i s an a r b i t r a r y f i x e d n u m b e r.
218
GENERIC EXPONENT 2m 3 7 *5 2
Pitch P rincipal Secondary

Names Tones To ne s
2n -2 . 3 2n - 1 3 . 3 5 . 5 2
C
c# 2n - 5 . 5 2 2n - 9 . 34.5
D 2n - 5 . 33 2n-16.37 .52
D# 2n - 3 . 3 2 .5 2 2n - 12. 36.5
E 2 n - 4 *3*5 2n - 8 . 3 5
P 2n 2n - l l . 34 .5 2
2n - 7 . 33 . 5 2 n 1 1 *3 7
F#
G 2n - 3 . 3 2 g n -1 4 . 36.^2
G# 2n 6 *3*5 2 2n 1 0 * 3 5 *5
A 2n~ 2 *5 2n ~ 6 . 3 4
2 n - 9 . 33 . 52 2n - 1 3 . 3 7 . 5
B 2 n - 5 . 22 . 5 2 n - 9 . 36
C 2n 1 *3 2n - 1 2 . 3 5 . 5 2
C#
2n - 4 . 52 2n - 8 . 3 4 . 5
d 2n - 4 . 3 3 2n - 1 5 . 3 7 . 52
d# 2 n 7 . 3 2 . 5 2 2 n - l l . 36 . 5
e 2n 3 *3*5 2 n - 7 . 35
f 2n + l 2n - l O . 3 4 . 5 2
2n - 6 . 3 3 . 5 2n - 1 0 . 37
f#
2 n - 2 . 32 2n " 1 3 . 3 6 . 5 2
&
2 n - 5 . 3 . 52 2n - 9 . 3 5 . 5
6#
GENERIC EXPONENT 2m,37 *52 (C ontinued)
Pitch P rincipal Secondary

Names Tone s Tones
a 2 n " 1 *5 2n - 5 .34
b*> 2n - 8 . 3 3 . 5 2 2n - 1 2 . 37 . 5
b 2n - 4 . 32 . 5 2n 8 , 3 6
c 2n *3 2n - l l . 35 . 5 2
C# 2 n - 3 . &2
2n ~ 7 *34 , 5
d 2n - 3.^3
2n ~ 1 4 *37 , 5 2
d# 2n (5*32 , 5 2 2n 10*36 *5
e 2 n " 2 *3*5 2 n 6 *35
f 2 n +2 2n - 9 . 3 4 . g 2
f# 2n 5 . 3 3 . 5 2n-9.37
6
2 n - l . 32 2n~^2 . 3 5 ^
2 ^ - 4 .3.52 2n 8 35 5
S#
a 2^.5 2n - 4 . 3 4
& 2n - 7 . 3 3 . 5 2 2 n - 1 1 . 37 . 5
b 2n - 3 3 2 *5 2n 7 . 3 6
c 2n + l . 3 2n - l O . 36.52
2 n - 2 . 52 2n - 6 . 3 4 . 5
2n ~ 2 3 3 2 n - 1 3 . 37 . 52
H# 2n - 5 . 52 . 52 2n - 9 . 3 6 . 5
"e 2 n 1 *3*5 2 n - 5 . 35
220
GENERIC EXPONENT 2m*37 *52 (C ontinued)
P itch P rincipal Secondary

Names Tone s Tones
f 2n+3 2n - 8 . 34 . &2
2n - 4 . 33 . 5 2n - 8 . 3 7
h
2 n - l l . 36 . 52
t 2n , 32
2 n - 7 . 35 . 5
I# 2 n 3 - 3 52
a 2n + l . 5 2n - 3 , 34
b* 2n - 6 . 33 . 52
2 n 1 0 3 7 *5
b 2 n - 2 . 32 . 5 2n - 6 . 36
2n + 2 . 3
c 2n 9 *35 , 52
17. Thus t h i s t a b l e shows t h e p r o p e r k e y f o r
p roducing b o t h th e p r i n c i p a l and th e secondary t o n e s .
The p r i n c i p a l t o n e s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e e x p o n e n t 2m335^,
an d t h e ke y s h o u l d be a d j u s t e d t o t h o s e t o n e s a s a c c u r a t e l y
as p o ssib le . The s e c o n d a r y t o n e s c a n n o t b e p r o d u c e d so
a c c u r a t e l y b y t h e same k e y s . Since th ey d i f f e r so l i t t l e
from t h e p r i n c i p a l t o n e s , t h e s e k e y s c a n b e u s e d s a f e l y
f o r p l a y i n g them w i t h o u t p e r c e p t i b l e d e t r i m e n t to th e
ha rm o n y . S h a r p e r e a r s c a n d e t e c t t h e comma o r d i a s c h i s m a
d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw ee n t h e p r i n c i p a l and s e c o n d a ry t o n e s , b u t
s i n c e s e c o n d a r y t o n e s c a n n o t be m i x e d 'with p r i n c i p a l s i n
t h e same c o n s o n a n c e o r i n a s u c c e s s i o n of two c o n s o n a n c e s ,
221
t h e e r r o r c a n n o t be p e r c e i v e d by t h e m o s t a c u t e h e a r i n g .
For example, i f t h e key F were t o b e u s e d i n t h e f i r s t
c o n s o n a n c e t o e x o r e s s t h e t o n e 2n , t h e same key c a n s a f e l y
be u s e d i n t h e one h u n d r e d a n d f i r s t c o n s o n a n c e t o p l a y t h e
t o n e 2n " n , 3 4 , 52 .
18. T h i s t a b l e shows w h a t k e y s mus t b e s t r u c k t o
p la y a s e r i e s of to n e s o r c o n so n an ces g i v e n i n numbers.
For a cc o m p lish in g t h i s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e number n
be c h o s e n so t h a t a l l t h e g i v e n nu mb ers may b e f o u n d i n t h e
t a b l e , p ro v id ed t h a t the r a t i o of the g r e a t e s t to the
s m a l l e s t does n o t exceed 1 6 :1 . T h e r e f o r e , t h e numbe r n
s h o u l d be d e r i v e d fr om e i t h e r t h e l a r g e s t o r t h e s m a l l e s t
of th e g iv e n numbers. A f t e r t h i s , t h e p r o p e r k e ys f o r t h e
rem a in in g to n e s w i l l be o b ta in e d e a s i l y , p ro v id e d t n a t th e
l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e g i v e n numbers i s c o n t a i n e d i n
2ra*3 7 , 5 2 .
19. T h e r e f o r e , a l l m u s i c a l work s t o w h i c h o u r
d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g e n u s i s accommodated a r e c o m p re h e n d e d
i n t h i s e x p o n e n t 2m*3 7 *5^, so t h a t a l l wo rks o f o t h e r
e x o o n e n t s c a n n o t be o l a y e d b y i n s t r u m e n t s t u n e d a c c o r d i n g
to t h i s g e n u s . H e n c e , t h e e x p o n e n t s o f a l l m u s i c a l works
s h o u l d b e composed s o l e l y o f t h e numb ers 2 , 3 , 5 , an d
t h e i r pow ers, w ith th e r e s t r i c t i o n t h a t t h e powers of 3
222
a n d 5 n o t e x c e e d 7 and 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . L e ib n itz has
s t a t e d t h a t i n music i t i s n o t custom ary to count beyond 5 .^
20. B e s i d e s t h e s e t h r e e n u m b e r s , i t would be v e r y
d i f f i c u l t t o i n t r o d u c e i n t o m u s i c a n y o t h e r num be r, s a y , 7 ,
s i n c e c o n s o n a n c e s w i t h a 7 i n t h e i r e x p o n e n t s wo uld be
h a r s h an d d i s t u r b i n g t o t h e ha rm o n y . I f th e exponents had
f a c t o r s o f 7 and 2 o n l y , t h e c o n s o n a n c e s w ou ld h a r d l y b e
a c c e p t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e more a g r e e a b l e
i n t e r v a l s a r i s i n g fr o m 3 an d 5 . I f 7 , 3 , an d 5 a r e j o i n e d
t o p r o d u c e t h e e x p o n e n t 2m , 3 * 5 * 7 , t h e c o n s o n a n c e w oul d b e
too com posite to p le a s e the h e a r in g . However, t h e f o l l o w i n g
table i s a dd ed t o show t h e t o n e s i n one o c t a v e o f t h e g e n u s
w i t h a n e x p o n e n t o f 2in*3 3 ' 5 2 *7.
G e n e r i c E x p o n e n t 2iru3 3 , 52 *7
P itch
Names To ne s Logarithm s Intervals
F 2 12 1 2 .0 0 0 0 0
0.03617 512:525
F#* 2 3 *3*52 , 7 12.03617
0.04064 35:36
F# 25 , 3 3 *5 12.07681
0.05247 27:28
Go 27 *5 7 12.12928
^ G o t t f r i e d W il h e lm L e i b n i t z ( 1 6 4 6 - 1 7 1 5 ) , German
p h i l o s o p h e r and m a t h e m a t i c i a n . E u le r concludes in a l a t e r
t r e a t i s e , Du v e r i t a b l e c a r a c t l r e de l a m u s l q u e moderne
( 1 7 6 4 ) , t h a t " m u s ic h a s now l e a r n e d t o c o u n t t o s e v e n .
See I n t r o d u c t i o n on E u l e r a n d s e v e n .
223
G eneric Exponent 2m*3^*52 *7 (C ontinued)
P itch
Names Tones Logarithms Intervals
G* 2 7 , 5*7 12.12928
0.04064 35:36
G 2 *32 1 2 .1 6 9 9 2
0.03618 512:525
G#* s 3 . 52 . 7 12.20610
0.02272 63:64
G# 2 6 *3*5 2 12.22882
0.07039 20:21
A* 2 4 3 2 5*7 12.29921
0.02272 63:64
A 2 1 0 *5 12.32193
0.07039 2 0:21
2 8 37 12.39232
0.00642 224:225
Bb 23.33.52 12.39874
0.05247 27:28
B* 25.52.7 12.45121
0.04064 35:36
B 2 7 * 3 2 .5 12.49185
0.07039 2 0:21
c* 25.33.7 12.56224
0.02272 63:64
c 211.3 12.58496
0.03618 512:525
c#* 2 2 . 3 2 . 5 2 .7 12 .6 2 1 1 4
0.02272 63:64
C# 2 8 .5 2 12.64386
0.07039 20:21
d* 2 6 .3 .5 .7 12.71425
0.04064 35:36
d 28.33 12.75489
0.05247 27:28
d#* 210, 7 12.80736
0.00642 224:225
d# 2 5 . 3 2 .5 2 1 2 .8 1 3 7 8
0.07039 2 0:21
e* 22. 32. 5 .7 12.88417
0.02272 63:64
e 2 9 *3*5 12.90689
0.07039 2 0:21
f* 27 *3 2 7 12.97728
0.02272 63:64
f 213 13.00000
CHAPTER XI
OK CONSONANCES IN THE DIATONIC-CHROMATIC GENUS
1. The t o n e s i n t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g e n u s a r e
c l e a r l y shown i n S e c t i o n 16 o f t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r .
T h e r e we d e f i n e d n o t o n l y t h e t o n e s w h ic h t h e k e y s o f
in s tr u m e n ts r e p r e s e n t , b u t a ls o th e secondary to n e s which
can be q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e same k e y s .
We w i l l now p r o c e e d t o t h e c o n s o n a n c e s a n d w i l l f i n d o u t
what c o n s o n a n c e s c a n b e f o r m e d i n t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c
genus. We w i l l a l s o show t h e p r o p e r k e y s t o r e p r e s e n t
each consonance.
2. M u l t i p l i c a t i o n of t o n e s by 2 o r 1 /2 w i l l r a i s e
o r l o w e r th e m by one o c t a v e , a n d t o n e s d i f f e r i n g b y one o r
more o c t a v e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a l i k e b u t n o t t h e same. Thus,
c o n s o n a n c e s w i t h e x p o n e n t s d i f f e r i n g o n l y by pow er s o f two
may p r o p e r l y b e c o n s i d e r e d a s s i m i l a r . A c o l l e c t i o n of such
s i m i l a r c o n s o n a n c e s w i l l b e d e s i g n a t e d by t h e name o f t h e
kind of consonances. F o r e x a m p l e , 2m*3*5 i n d i c a t e s a
c e r t a i n s p e c i e s o f c o n s o n a n c e s , and t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s o n a n c e s
co n stituting th is s p e c i e s w i l l a r i s e when s p e c i f i c nu mb ers
a r e s u b s t i t u t e d f o r m.
3. H e n c e f o r t h we w i l l e x p r e s s s u c h a s p e c i e s o f
c o n s o n a n c e s i n t h e f o r m 2ra*A, w he re m i s an i n d e f i n i t e
number and A i s a f i x e d odd i n t e g e r . The p a r t i c u l a r
225
consonances of t h i s s o e c i e s w i l l be d e te r m in e d by t h e s e
exponents: A, 2A, 2Â, 2Â, 2Â, e t c . The t o n e s c o n
s t i t u t i n g t h e s e c o n s o n a n c e s w i l l be e x p r e s s e d b y t h e same
letters in each, and th e d i f f e r e n c e w i l l l i e o n ly i n th e
o c t a v e s by w h i c h t h e t o n e s o f t h e s e c o n s o n a n c e s d i f f e r
fr om e a c h o t h e r . This d iffe re n c e w ill not g r e a tly a f f e c t
the n a tu re of th e consonance.
4. Yet t h e s e c o n s o n a n c e s i n c l u d e d i n one s p e c i e s
s h o u l d n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d e x a c t l y t h e same, f o r t h e y c e r t a i n l y
d i f f e r w ith r e s p e c t t o th e agi-eeableness w i t h which th e y
a r e p e r c e i v e d by t h e h e a r i n g . Thus, i f a consonance of
exponent A b elo n g s to th e degree of a g re ea b le n ess n,

p
t h e n t h e c o n s o n a n c e 2A b e l o n g s t o t h e d e g r e e n-KL, 2 A t o
n + 2 , 2Â t o n + 3 , e t c . H e n c e , t h e s i m p l e s t an d most e a s i l y
p e r c e i v e d o f c o n s o n a n c e s o f t h e same s p e c i e s w i l l b e t h e
one w i t h e x p o n e n t A. N e xt i n o r d e r o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s w i l l
be t h e c o n s o n a n c e 2A, t h e n 2Â, a n d so o n .
5. The l a r g e r we make m i n ^ A, t h e more c o m p o s i t e
and d i f f i c u l t o f p e r c e p t i o n t h e consonance becomes. Since
our p ercep tio n is not boundless, a lim it should be f ix e d
in the degrees of a g r e e a b l e n e s s beyond which conso n an ces
c a n n o t b e made more c o m p o s i t e . Such a l i m i t can be d e t e r
m i n e d o n l y by e x p e r i e n c e . I t i s e s ta b lis h e d th a t m usicians
v e r y r a r e l y u s e c o n s o n a n c e s more c o m p o s i t e t h a n t h o s e w h i c h
belong to degree X II. When t h e y do us e t h e more c o m p o s i t e
226
ones, th e resu lts are not satisfacto ry . T herefore, l e t us
adopt th is l i m i t and f o r b id c o n so n a n c e s w hich ex ceed I t .
6. L e t u s now e n u m e r a t e a n d d i s c u s s the consonances
w hich can be fo rm ed i n o u r d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g enus and
whose e x p o n e n t s a r e c o n ta in e d in the exoonent 2^*3 5 .
A lthough t h i s genus a lso satisfies the e x p o n e n t 2m*3l'r , 5 2 ,
y et, a s we h a v e i n d i c a t e d , c o n so n a n c e s c an n o t be u s e d w hich
are not contained i n 2m 3 3 . 5 2 . T h u s we w i l l h a v e t h e
follow ing tw elve s p e c ie s of consonances;
I. 2m V. 2 m 3 5 IX . 2 m 3 5 2
2m *3 VI. 2m . 5 2 X. 2m . 3 3 . 5
II.
III. 2m , 5 V II. 2m *3 5 X I. 2m*3 2 * 5 2
IV. 2m*3 2 V III. 2 m*32 *5 X II. 2m 3 5 * 5 2 .
7. If in d ices are added to th e above e x p o n e n ts ,
these sp ecies of consonances can occur in se v e ra l form s.
E a c h e x p o n e n t 2 *A c a n b e c o m b i n e d w i t h a n y i n d e x B s o
th a t the s p e c i e s may b e e x p r e s s e d a s 2 mA ( B ) , provided th a t
2mAB i s a d i v i s o r o f 2m'3 ^ * 52 , g r a n t i n g th is w ider
ex ten sio n to th e d ia to n ic -c h ro m a tic genus. Since the b a se
of each consonance is the tone denoted by u n i t y , the base
of the c o n s o n a n c e 2m A ( 3 ) is B, so t h a t , no m a t t e r how t h e
index B i s v aried , the c o n s o n a n c e s e x p r e s s e d b y 2m *A(B)
d iffer only in th e ratio of the b a s e s .
8. S ince it is our purpose to exam ine p a r t i c u l a r
c o n so n an ces and s in c e they a r e n o t changed by t h e in d ices,
227
we w i l l d i s r e g a r d t h e i n d i c e s h e r e , or, r a t h e r , we w i l l
take u n ity as the index. Consonances r e p r e s e n te d in t h i s
way c a n e a s i l y b e t r a n s f e r r e d to any in d e x by s u b s t i t u t i n g
th e to n e e x p r e s s e d by th e in d e x i n p la c e of th e tone
d e sig n a te d by u n ity and by s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r th e o th e rs ,
to n es d i f f e r i n g from th e b a se b y th e s am e i n t e r v a l s . In
th is c h a p te r th e b a se w i l l alw ays be e i t h e r the tone F o r
th e sam e t o n e o n e o r m o r e o c t a v e s b e l o w F , s i n c e we may
in d icate F o r a t o n e d i f f e r i n g fro m F b y one o r more
o c ta v e s by 1 .
9. In a l l the c o n s o n a n c e s w h i c h we w i l l d i s c u s s
here, the to n e o r key F w i l l b e in d ic a te d by u n i t y , tw o,
o r a power o f tw o, a c c o rd in g t o the circum stances. We
w ill show a l l consonances w ith in an i n t e r v a l o f th r e e octav es,
thereby n e g le c tin g to n es low er th a n F and h i g h e r th a n f .
Since by t h i s p l a n we c a n r a r e l y show c o m p l e t e c o n s o n a n c e s ,
th e key F w i l l be d e n o te d v a r i o u s l y by 1, 2, 4, e tc ., so
t h a t we may o b t a i n in our th re e -o c ta v e in te rv a l a ll form s
i n w hich any c o n so n an ce can a p p e a r .
10. For re p re se n tin g th ese t o n e s we w i l l u s e tw o
o rdinary f iv e - lin e d stav es, one w i t h th e b a s s c l e f and th e
o th e r w ith th e d i s c a n t c le f ,^ - on w h ic h , in th e u s u a l way,
iThe so p ran o c l e f . The t r e b l e c lef is used in th is

tra n slatio n . See p p . 2 3 5 -2 3 6 .
228
we w i l l so p l a c e t h e c o n s o n a n c e s t h a t a l l n o t e s w i l l be
c o n tain ed w ith in th e lim its , of the s t a v e s . Here i s t h e
r e a s o n f o r u s i n g no t o n e s l o w e r t h a n F o r h i g h e r t h a n f .
A w id e r span c a n n o t be ta k e n b e c a u s e o f any s u b s t i t u t i o n s
f o r F and s e v e r a l s u c c e s s i v e c o n s o n a n c e s do n o t r e q u i r e a
g r e a t e r i n t e x v a l t h a n f o u r o c t a v e s .
11 . I n t h i s way, u s i n g t h e u s u a l m u s i c a l n o t a t i o n ,
- we ha v e r e p r e s e n t e d t h e c o n s o n a n c e s o f e a c h s p e c i e s i n
order of agreeableness. Above e a c h c o n s o n a n c e we h a v e a d d e d
the exponent; between s ta v e s , th e degree of a g r e e a b le n e s s ;
a n d b e l o w , t h e number w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h e t o n e F i n e a c h
case, w'e h a v e gone a s f a r a s d e g r e e X I I i n t h e f i r s t p a r t
of t h i s tab le, s ho w in g o n l y c o n s o n a n c e s more o f t e n u s e d .
However, we s u b s e q u e n t l y c o n t i n u e t h e c o n s o n a n c e s t h r o u g h
d e g r e e XV. T h e s e s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a s d i s s o n a n c e s .
S e v e r a l s p e c i e s c a n n o t be c a r r i e d t h a t f a r b e c a u s e t h e y
c an n o t be r e p r e s e n t e d i n such a sm all I n t e r v a l . I f the
c o n s o n a n c e 2^ o f t h e f i r s t s p e c i e s c a n n o t be e x h i b i t e d
w i t h i n an i n t e r v a l o f t h r e e o c t a v e s , then s u r e l y those
c o n s o n a n c e s f o l l o w i n g 2^ c a n n o t . T h erefo re, these are
om itted.
12. This t a b l e b e g in s w ith th e u n is o n or simple
t o n e , w h ic h I s c e r t a i n l y t h e s i m p l e s t c o n s o n a n c e . This is
f o l l o w e d by t h e c o n s o n a n c e c a l l e d a n o c t a v e , w h i c h h a s two
to n e s d i f f e r i n g by th e i n t e r v a l of an o c t a v e . T his, the
229
s im p le s t consonance a f t e r th e u n is o n , i s very easily-
perceived. For producing i t , two s t r i n g s c an e a s i l y be
t u n e d by t h e h e a r i n g a l o n e . The t h i r d c o n s o n a n c e h a s
t h r e e t o n e s w h i c h d i f f e r f r o m e a c h o t h e r b y o c t a v e s and
produce p l e a s i n g harmony. Th e s e t h r e e c o n s o n a n c e s a r e t h e
only ones of th e f i r s t s p e c i e s w h ic h c a n be e x h i b i t e d w i t h
the t h r e e - o c t a v e i n t e r v a l .
13. The s e c o n d s p e c i e s i n c l u d e s t h o s e c o n s o n a n c e s
i n w h ic h o c c u r t h e i n t e r v a l s o f t h e f o u r t h and f i f t h , in
a d d itio n to the o c tav e . The f i f t h c a n b e made s i m p l e s t b y
i n c r e a s i n g i t a n o c t a v e , so t h a t th e o c tav e p lu s a f i f t h
n o t o n l y i s mor e p l e a s i n g t o t h e h e a r i n g t h a n t h e s i m p l e
f i f t h b u t may be u s e d more s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r t u n i n g i n s t r u
m ents. For exam ple, i t i s much e a s i e r t o o b t a i n t h a n
fro m a f i x e d F . Hence, anyone w ishing t o tune in s t r u m e n t s
b y e a r o n l y w i l l b e h e l p e d c o n s i d e r a b l y by u s i n g o c t a v e s
p lu s f i f t h s i n s t e a d o f sim ple f i f t h s . The r e m a i n i n g c o n
sonances o f t h i s s p e c ie s occur o f te n and are very a g reeab le
to the h e a r in g .
14. The s i m p l e s t c o n s o n a n c e o f t h e t h i r d s p e c i e s
i s th e double o c tav e p lu s a m ajor t h i r d . This i n t e r v a l is
much more p l e a s i n g t h a n e i t h e r t h e s i m p l e m a j o r t h i r d o r
the o c ta v e dI us m ajor t h i r d . He nce , i t is of g re a te r
s e r v ic e i n tu n in g i n s t r u m e n t s s u c c e s s f u l l y than the
simple m ajo r t h i r d . I f t h e t o n e s i n t h i s i n t e r v a l seem
230
too f a r a p a r t , th e n a t l e a s t the o c tav e p lu s m ajor t h i r d
can be u s e d . I t i s h ig h l y e x p e d ie n t t o use th e s e a i d s i n
tuning m usical instru m en ts according to the r u le s p rev io u sly
treated , s i n c e t h e p r e s c r i b e d o p e r a t i o n i s made e a s i e r and
t h e r e s u l t s a r e more e x a c t .
15. T h e s e a r e t h e t h r e e s i m p l e s t s p e c i e s , of w h i c h
t h e f i r s t h a s o n l y one t o n e a n d t h e o t h e r two h a v e two
t o n e s , i f we c o n s i d e r t o n e s d i f f e r i n g b y o c t a v e s a s t h e
same. Because o f t h e i r g r e a t s i m p l i c i t y , these species
a re r a r e l y u sed except In b l c i n l a o r tw o -p a rt p ie c e s . The
s u c c e e d i n g s p e c i e s h a v e a g r e a t e r num be r o f t o n e s , so t h a t
they can be used s u i t a b l y In poly p h o n ic c o m p o sitio n s. The
fo u rth species has th re e to n e s: P , , G. Composers o f t e n
use t h i s s p e c ie s in adding t o th e b a s s e i t h e r a f i f t h an d
a s e c o n d o r a s e v e n t h an d a f o u r t h . These consonances are
u s u a l l y c a l l e d d i s s o n a n c e s by m u s i c i a n s , n o t s o much b e c a u s e
they a r e l e s s a g re e a b le as because the m usicians are
a c c u s t o m e d t o r e f e r o n l y t o members o f s p e c i e s I , II, III,
a nd V a s c o n s o n a n c e s .
16 . The f i f t h s p e c i e s s u o p l i e s m u s i c w i t h more
com posite consonances a s w e ll as w ith s e v e r a l d is s o n a n c e s .
The two c o n s o n a n c e s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e f i f t h s p e c i e s
c o n s i s t o f t h e t o n e s F, k, 0 a n d A, C, E, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e s e t o n e s , t h e s e two
consonances a r e u s u a l l y c a l l e d harm onic t r i a d s . Principal
231
t r i a d s a r e t h o s e i n w h i c h t h e l o w e s t t o n e d i f f e r s f r o m one
o f t h e o t h e r s by a m a j o r o r m i n o r t h i r d a n d from t h e o t h e r
by a f i f t h . I f t h e t o n e s a r e a r r a n g e d i n a n o t h e r order,
we ha ve t h e s u b o r d i n a t e t r i a d s .
17. An h a r m o n i c t r i a d i s c a l l e d m a j o r o r m i n o r ,
d e p e n d i n g on w h e t h e r t h e m a j o r o r m i n o r t h i r d i s u n i t e d
w i t h the f i f t h . T h u s , t h e t r i a d P , A, i s m a j o r , a n d
A, C, E i s m i n o r . Our t a b l e shows c l e a r l y how e a c h i s t o b e
e x p r e s s e d m o s t a g r e e a b l y a n d how much a g r e e a b l e n e s s i s l o s t
i f the tones a re arranged i n a n o th e r o r d e r . We w i l l ha ve
more t o s a y b e l o w a b o u t t h e b e s t way o f e x p r e s s i n g e a c h
consonance o r c h o r d , a s th e m u s ic ia n s c a l l i t .
18 . B e s i d e s t h e s e two t r i a d s , t h i s f i f t h s p e c i e s
c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s w hic h m u s i c i a n s c a l l d i s
s o n a n c e s a n d w h i c h a r e shown i n t h e t a b l e . Composers
u s u a l l y u s e o n l y m a j o r and m i n o r t r i a d s f o r c o n s o n a n c e s and
f i l l most o f t h e i r works w i t h t h e m . W it h t h e s e t h e y m e r e l y
i n t e r m i x a l l t h e r e m a i n i n g c o n s o n a n c e s , w h ic h a r e t r e a t e d
a s secondary and a r e c a l l e d d is s o n a n c e s , even though th e y
may h a v e j u s t a s much o r more a g r e e a b l e n e s s t h a n t h e t r i a d s ,
a c c o rd in g as th e s e t r i a d s a r e formed.
19. The c o n s o n a n c e s o f t h e s i x t h s p e c i e s a r e v e r y
h a r s h , s i n c e t h e s i m p l e s t w h i c h can b e a r r a n g e d i n t h e
t h r e e - o c ta v e span b elongs to the e le v e n th d e g re e. There
f o r e , i t i s v e r y r a r e l y u s e d by c o m p o s e r s , an d i t i s r a r e l y
232
s u i t a b l e to use i t . C o n s o n a n c e s o f t h e s e v e n t h and e i g h t h
s p e c i e s a r e more t o l e r a b l e a n d c a n be i n t e r m i x e d a g r e e a b l y
w ith sim pler consonances. Because o f t h e e x c e s s i v e h a r s h
ness o f t h e c o n s o n a n c e s o f s p e c i e s IX a n d X, t h e y c a n be
used o n l y w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t c a u t i o n . Of t h e l a s t two
s p e c i e s , no c o n s o n a n c e s c a n b e shown w hi ch w o u ld n o t e x c e e d
the tw e lf th degree. T h e r e f o r e , the c o n s o n a n c e s - - o r d i s
s o n a n c e s , r a t h e r o f t h e s e s p e c i e s w i l l be f o u n d i n a n o t h e r
p a r t of t h e t a b l e .
20. At t h i s p o i n t u s e f u l r u l e s c a n b e d e d u c e d , a s
f a r as p o s s i b l e , f o r a g r e e a b ly pro d u cin g the b a s s o c o n t l n u o ,
which c o n s i s t s o f f i g u r e s added to th e l o w e s t to n e to
i n d i c a t e t h e h i g h e r t o n e s w h i c h a r e t o be s o u n d e d w i t h i t
to produce a c o n so n an ce. T h e s e t o n e s a r e i n d i c a t e d by
numb ers d e r i v e d f r o m t h e u s u a l i n t e r v a l n a m e s , so t h a t 6
i n d i c a t e s t h a t a s i x t h i s to be added t o th e b a s s ; 7, a
s e v e n t h ; a n d so f o r t h . T h e s e numbers c a n i n d i c a t e e i t h e r
simple o r com oosite i n t e r v a l s , a cc o rd in g to th e circum
stances. Which o f t h e s e i s b e s t t o be u s e d i s l e f t t o t h e
s k i l l of the m u sic ia n .
21. We w i l l b e g i n o u r t r e a t m e n t o f s u ch r u l e s w i t h
th e sim ple i n t e r v a l s by w h ich a s i n g l e to n e s h o u ld be
j o in e d t o the b a s s . I f an o c ta v e i s i n d i c a t e d , i t i s
more a g r e e a b l e t o make t h e i n t e r v a l a s i m u l e o c t a v e t h a n
t o us e t h e d o u b l e o r t r i p l e o c t a v e . I f the p e rfe c t o r
233
Im p e rfec t f i f t h i s p r e s c r i b e d (im p e rf e c t f i f t h s a re con
sid e re d as p e r f e c t in t h i s m a t t e r ) , i t i s more s u i t a b l e
to use t h e o c ta v e p lu s f i f t h th a n t o use t h e sim p le f i f t h .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e s i m p l e f o u r t h i s more a g r e e a b l e to
t h e h e a r i n g t h a n t h e f o u r t h p l u s one o r more o c t a v e s .
T h erefo re, i f perchance circum stances p r o h ib i t use of th e
simple f o u r t h , th e u p p e r to n e s h o u ld be a s c lo s e t o th e
b a ss as p o s s ib le .
22. I f th e m ajor t h i r d i s p r e s c r i b e d , I t I s p ro p er
t o u s e t h a t i n t e r v a l p l u s two o c t a v e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e
sim ple one. The m i n o r t h i r d , on t h e c o n t r a r y , i s more
p l e a s i n g i f u s e i s made o f t h e s i m p l e i n t e r v a l o r a t l e a s t
one w i t h i t s u p p e r t o n e a s c l o s e t o t h e b a s s a s p o s s i b l e .
M a jo r a n d m i n o r s i x t h s a r e more a g r e e a b l e t h e s m a l l e r t h e
In terv al. The same i s t r u e o f t h e m i n o r s e v e n t h , b u t t h e
m a j o r s e v e n t h i s more p l e a s i n g t h e f u r t h e r i t s u p p e r t o n e
I s fr o m t h e b a s s . The m a j o r s e c o n d c o n s i s t i n g o f a m a j o r
t o n e s h o u l d h a v e a v e r y wid e s p a n ; t h e m a j o r s e c o n d c o n
s i s t i n g of a m inor tone sho u ld have as sm all a span as
p o s s i b l e , a s i s a l s o the case w ith the m inor second. The
f u r t h e r th e upper tone of th e t r i t o n e l i e s from th e b a s s ,
th e l e s s th e a g r e e a b l e n e s s w i l l be d i s t u r b e d .
23. T h e s e r u l e s s h o u l d b e o b s e r v e d i f one t o n e i s
added to the b a s s . This is the l e a s t f r e q u e n t arran g em en t,
b u t t h e s e r u l e s a r e e q u a l l y u s e f u l a nd v a l i d when s e v e r a l
234
to n e s a r e added to th e b a s s , s i n c e e a c h a d d e d t o n e c a n be
tre a ted indiv id u ally . The n e x t t a b l e shows how t o n e s may
be m o s t a g r e e a b l y e x p r e s s e d i f s e v e r a l n u m b e rs a r e a d d e d t o
the b a s s . T h i s t a b l e i s fo r m ed f r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g one by
o m i t t i n g s e v e r a l o f t h e l o w e s t t o n e s so t h a t e a c h t o n e o f
t h e b a s s may b e r e p r e s e n t e d .
24. To r e p r e s e n t t h e s e t h i n g s c l e a r l y , it was
n e c e ssa ry to use th re e f i v e - l i n e d s t a v e s , 2 th e lo w e st of
w h ic h h a s o n l y t h e b a s s n o t e s w i t h n um be rs a b o v e , a s i s
u s u a l l y done w i t h b a s s o c o n t l n u o o r g e n e r a l b a s s . The o t h e r
two s t a v e s o r e s e n t t h e w h o le c o n s o n a n c e b y w h i c h t h e number s'"
added to th e b a s s a re most s u i t a b l y and a g re e a b ly e x p r e s s e d .
We hav e u s e d t h e ke y o f G h e r e , b u t b y t r a n s p o s i t i o n i t
w i l l be easy t o e x te n d th e use o f t h i s t a b l e t o any o t h e r
key a n d t o o t h e r t o n e s . As b e f o r e , we hav e i n d i c a t e d t h e
d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s a n d t h e s p e c i e s to w h i c h e a c h c o n -
sonance b e l o n g s . T h i s t a b l e a l s o c o n s i s t s o f two p a r t s .
One h a s c o n s o n a n c e s up t o s p e c i e s X, and th e o t h e r g i v e s
c o n s o n a n c e s o f s p e c i e s XI a n d s p e c i e s X I I .
^See pp. 2 3 7 -2 3 9 .
235
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CHAPTER X I I
ON MODES AND SYSTEMS IN THE DIATONIC-CHROMATIC GENUS
1. A f t e r t h e c o n so n a n c e s o f t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c
genus i t would be a p p r o o r i a t e t o d e a l w it h the s u c c e s s i o n
o f consonances. But s i n c e a s u c c e s s i o n o f c o n son a n c es
must be a d a p ted t o th e m u s i c a l mode, i t seems more ad
v a n t a g e o u s t o enumerate and d i s c u s s the modes b e f o r e we
d e a l w i t h the r u l e s f o r c o n n e c t i n g c o n so n a n c e s i n any mode.
By f i x i n g the l i m i t s b e t w e e n w hic h we sh o u ld remain i n
j o i n i n g c o n s o n a n c e s , i t w i l l be e a s i e r t o e x p l a i n t h e
p a t t e r n o f c o m p o s i t i o n and t o .make m u s i c a l harmony.
2. S i n c e a m u s i c a l mode i s n o t h i n g bu t an e xp o n e n t
o f a s e r i e s o f c o n s o n a n c e s and th e modal exponent c o n t a i n s
in i t s e l f the exponents o f the in d iv i d u a l consonances, i t
i s c l e a r t h a t t h e modal e x po nent cannot be v e r y s i m p l e ,
e l s e t h e r e would no t be s u f f i c i e n t v a r i e t y i n t h e c o n so n
ances. For t h i s r e a s o n we r e j e c t the e x p o n e n t s , 2n , 2n *3,
2n *32 , 2n *3*5, and 2n 52 a s u n s e r v i c e a b l e f o r d e s i g n a t i n g
modes and b e g i n our t r e a t m e n t w i t h more com p o site e x p o n e n t s .
3. S i n c e the modal e x po ne nt sh o u ld be c o n t a i n e d i n
211. 3 3 . 5 2 , which i s the e xp o n e n t o f t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c
g e n u s , we have s i x modes whose e x o o n e n t s are a s f o l l o w s :
I. 2n *3 3 IV. 2n *33 , 5
II. 2n *32 *5 V. 2n *3 2 , 5 2
III. 2n *3*5 2 VI. 2 n 3 3 *5 2
241
A l t h o u g h t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g e n u s may e x t e n d be y o n d
t h e e x p o n e n t 2 n *3 *5 2 , y e t t h e mode c a n n o t b e more c o m p o s i t e ,
not only l e s t i t s h o u l d become i m p e r c e p t i b l e , b u t a l s o l e s t
i n t h e same mode t h e same key would h a v e t o be u s e d f o r
e x p r e s s i n g two d i f f e r e n t t o n e s . This would be i n t o l e r a b l e .
4. S i n c e modes a r e f r e q u e n t l y c h a n g e d i n a whole
m u s i c a l work a n d t h e r e a r e t r a n s i t i o n s f r o m one mode t o
a n o t h e r , t h e n t h e w h o le w o r k ' s e x p o n e n t , w h ic h c o n t a i n s
t h e e x p o n e n t s o f a l l t h e m o d e s , c a n b e more c o m p o s i t e t h a n
2n *3^*5^ a n d c an go a s h i g h a s 2n *3^*5^ w i t h o u t damage t o
t h e ha rm o n y . H e nce , t h e f o l l o w i n g l a w w i l l ha v e t o b e
e s t a b l i s h e d f o r comoosing c o m p le te w o rk s: E v e r y mode i s
c o n t a i n e d i n t h e e x p o n e n t 2n 3>552, an d t h e e x p o n e n t o f
t h e w ho le work may n o t be more c o m p o s i t e t h a n 2n 3 l'r*52.
5. Of t h e s i x modes l i s t e d , t h e f i r s t t h r e e a r e t o o
s i m o l e an d h a v e l e s s i m p o r t a n c e i n m o d e r n m u s i c s i n c e t h e y
do n o t p e r m i t t h e v a r i e t y w h i c h p l e a s e s i n t h e m u s i c o f
today. Y e t, e x c e p t f o r the f i r s t , w h i c h y i e l d s no t h i r d s
or six th s, t h e y may s t i l l b e u s e d f o r s i m p l e ha rm o n y an d
melody. The s e c o n d mode i s q u i t e s u i t a b l e f o r e x p r e s s i n g
e a s y , c h e e r f u l m e l o d i e s c o n s i s t i n g of t h e s i m p l e r c o n s o n a n c e s .
T h i s mode i s o f t e n u s e d by c o m p o s e r s . A lthough the t h i r d
mode o c c u r s m o s t r a r e l y , y e t i t c a n a l s o be u s e d s u i t a b l y
in such sim ple m e lo d ie s.
242
6. A l l o f m o d e rn m u s i c i s c om p re h e n d e d i n t h e l a s t
t h r e e m o d e s. A l l t h e k i n d s o f modes w h ic h m u s i c i a n s a r e
accustom ed to use a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e s e th r e e modes. The
mode d e s i g n a t e d a s m a j o r b y m u s i c i a n s b e l o n g s t o o u r f o u r t h
mode; t h e m i n o r mode, t o o u r f i f t h . F o r t h e most p a r t ,
c o m p o s e r s t o d a y u s e a mode composed o f b o t h m a j o r a nd
m i n o r w h i c h b e l o n g s t o o u r s i x t h mode, w h i c h i s a b u n d a n t l y
evid en t in to d a y 's com positions.
7. As we e x p r e s s them w i t h o u t i n d i c e s , t h e s e modes
a l l ha v e a s a b a s e t h e t o n e F , w hi ch i s i n d i c a t e d b y u n i t y
o r some power o f t w o . Any mode c a n b e t r a n s p o s e d by t r a n s
f e r r i n g the b a se to a n o th e r to n e , w ith o u t changing the
n a t u r e o f t h e mode. O ccurring very fr e q u e n tly in m usic,
t h e s e t r a n s o o s i t i o n s , o r v a r i a t i o n s o f m o d e s , a s we w i l l
c a l l t h e m , w i l l be i n d i c a t e d by i n d i c e s c o n n e c t e d w i t h
exponents, so t h a t t h e i n d e x w i l l be d e s i g n a t e d a s t h e b a s e
o r t h e t o n i c t o wh ich t h e mode i t s e l f b e l o n g s . Thus, i f
t h e i n d e x i s 3 , t h e b a s e o f t h e mode w i l l be t h e t o n e C;
a n d i f t h e i n d e x i s 5 , t h e b a s e w i l l be A, a s i s u n d e r s t o o d
fr o m o u r e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n .
8. A v a r i a t i o n i s c a l l e d pure i f t h e exoonent- o f
t h e mode, jo in e d w ith the in d e x , i s c o n ta in e d i n th e t r u e
e x o o n e n t , 2 n *3^*5^, o f t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g e n u s . How
ever, i f t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e m o d a l e x p o n e n t an d i n d e x
i s more c o m p o s i t e t h a n 2 n , 3 ^ * 5 ^ b u t c o n t a i n e d i n 2 n *3T'r *5^,
243
t h e n we w i l l c a l l t h i s v a r i a t i o n i m p u r e , s i n c e t h e t o n e s o f
t h e m u s ic a l genus a g r e e a p p ro x im a te ly b u t n o t e x a c tly ,,
n 7 p
Any v a r i a t i o n n o t c o n t a i n e d i n t h e e x p o n e n t 2 3 5 w i l l
r i g h t l y b e c o n s i d e r e d u n l a w f u l a n d c o n t r a r y t o h a rm on y.
9. The f i r s t mode, w i t h e x p o n e n t 2n 3 ^ , h a s t h r e e
pure v a r i a t i o n s : 2 n *3 ^ ( l ) , 2n *3 3 ( 5 ) , 2n * 3 ^ ( 5 2 ) , w i t h b a s e s
F , A, a n d C#, I t h a s t w e l v e im p u r e v a r i a t i o n s w h ic h a r e
g iv e n below w i t h t h e i r b a s e s :
2 n *3 3 ( 3 ) 2n *3 3 (3 2 ) 2 n *3 3 ( 3 3 ) 2n *3 3 (34 )
C G D A
2 n *33 ( 3 * 5 ) 2 n *3 3 ( 3 2 *5) 2n 3 3 ( 3 3 5) 2n *3 3 ( 3 4 *5)
E B F# #
2 n *33 ( 3 * 5 2 ) 2 n *3 3 (3 2 *52 ) 2n *3 3 ( 3 3 *52 ) 2n *3 3 ( 3 4 *54 )
G# D# F
The s e c o n d a r y t o n e s A, C#, and F a r e i t a l i c i z e d .
10. The n e x t t a b l e p r e s e n t s a l l t h e v a r i a t i o n s - -
p u r e and i m p u r e - - o f e a c h mode, a n d f o r e a c h v a r i a t i o n we
ha v e a d d e d t h e key i n d i c a t i n g t h e b a s e . Since a l l t h e
c o n s o n a n c e s a l s o a d m i t o f s u c h v a r i a t i o n and s i n c e i t i s
u s e f u l t o know w h i c h o f th e m a r e p u r e o r i m p u r e , t h i s t a b l e
shows v a r i a t i o n s o f b o t h c o n s o n a n c e s and m o d e s . 1
I p a r t One d e a l s w i t h t h e modes r e j e c t e d i n S e c t i o n 2
o f t h i s c h a p t e r , a n d t h e s e may be i n t e r p r e t e d a s s p e c i e s
II-V I of consonances. (See S e c t i o n 6 , C h a n t e r X I . ) Part
Two d e a l s w i t h t h e s i x modes o f S e c t i o n 3 o f t h i s c h a p t e r .
T h i s d i v i s i o n o f t h e t a b l e h a s b e e n made b y t h e t r a n s l a t o r
for c la rific a tio n .
244
PART ONE
Mode I
2n 3
Pure V a r i a t i o n s Impure V a r i a t i o n s
2 n *3 ( 1 ) P 2n *3{33 ) D
2 n *3 ( 3 ) C 2n *3 (3 4 ) A
2 n *3 ( 5 ) XI
A
2n * 3 ( 3 3 , 5) F#
2n * 3 ( 3 2 ) 0 2n * 3 ( 3 5 ) E
2n * 3 ( 3 * 5 ) E 2n *3 {3 4 *5) &
2n * 3 ( 5 2 ) c# 2n , 3 ( 3 3 *52 ) Bb
2n *3 ( 3 2 *5) B 2n * 3 ( 3 6 ) B
2n 3 ( 3 ' 5 2 ) G# 2n 3 ( 3 5 *5) G#
2 n 3 ( 3 2 *52 ) D# 2n * 3 ( 3 4 *52 ) F
2n * 3 ( 3 5 *5) 2#
2n * 3 ( 3 5 *52 ) C
2n * 3(3 6 52 ) G
Mode I I
2n *5
Pure V a r i a t i o n s Invoure V a r i a t i o n s
2n , 5 ( l ) F 2n , 5 ( 3 4 ) A
2n * 5 (3) C 2n ' 5 ( 3 5 } E
2n * 5 ( 5 ) A 2n * 5 ( 3 4 5) #
2n *5(3 2 ) G 2n * 5 ( 3 6) B
245
Mode I I (C ontinued)
2n 5
Pure V a r i a t i o n s Impu re V a r i a t i o n s
2n *5 (3 * 5 ) E 2n 5 ( 3 5 *5) G#
2n * 5 ( 3 3 ) D 2n * 5 ( 3 7 ) F#
2n * 5 ( 3 2 *5) B 2n * 5 ( 3 6 * 5 ) D#
2n 5 ( 3 3 *5) F# 2n 5 ( 3 7 *5) Bb
Mode I I I
2n 3 2
P ur e V a r i a t i o n s Impure V a r i a t i o n s
2n 3 2 ( l ) P 2n 3 2 ( 3 2 ) G
2n *3 2 (3) C 2n *32 ( 3 3 ) D
2n *3 2 ( 5 ) A 2n *3 2 ( 3 2 , 5) B
2 0 . 3 2 (3 . 5 ) E > 2n *32 ( 3 4 ) A
2n *3 2 ( 5 2 ) C# 2n *3 2 {3 3 , 5) F#
2n *3 2 ( 3 * 5 2 ) G# 2n 3 2 ( 3 2 *5 2 ) D#
2n 3 2 ( 3 5 ) E
2n , 3 2 ( 3 4 , 5) c#
2n *32 ( 3 3 *52 ) Bb
2n ' 3 2 ( 36 *5) G#
2n *32 ( 3 4 *52 ) F
2 n *32 ( 3 5 *52 ) r
246
Mode IV
2n 3 5
2n * 3 5 ( l ) F 2n * 3 * 5 ( 3 3 ) D
2n 3 * 5 ( 3 ) C 2n * 3 * 5 ( 3 3 , 5). . F#
2n * 3 5 ( 5 ) A 2n - 3 5 ( 3 4 ) A
2n * 3 * 5 ( 3 2 ) G 2n 3 * 5 ( 3 4 5) G#
2n , 3 5 ( 3 * 5 ) E 2n 3 5 ( 3 5 ) E
2n , 3 * 5 ( 3 2 *5) B 2n * 3 5 ( 3 5 *5) G#
2n * 3 * 5 ( 3 6 ) B
2n 3 5 ( 36 5) 2#
Mode V
2 *1.52
Pure V a r i a t i o n s Impu re V a r i a t i o n s
2n . 5 2 ( i ) F 2n *5 2 (3 4 ) A
2n - 5 2 ( 3 ) C 2n - 5 2 (3 5 ) E
2n *5 2 ( 3 2 ) G 2n *5 2 (35 ) B
2n *52 ( 3 5 ) D 2n *5 2 ( 3 7 ) F#
247
PART TWO
Mode I
2n . 3 3
2n *3 3 ( l ) F 2n , 33 (3 ) C
2n , 35 {5) A 2n 3 3 ( 3 , 5) E
2n *3 3 (5 2 ) C# 2n , 33 ( 3*52 ) G#
2n 3 3 (32 ) G
2n 3 3 ( 3 2 , 5) B
2n *33 ( 3 2 *52 ) D#
2n *3 3 ( 33 ) D
2n 3 3 ( 3 3 *5) F#
2n . 3 3 ( 3 3 . 5 2 ) Bfc
2n 3 3 ( 34 ) A
2n *33 (3 4 , 5) #
2n *3 3 ( 3 4 *52 ) F
Mode I I
2n *32 *5
Pure V a r i a t i o n s Immire V a r i a t i o n s
2 ^ .3 2 .5(1 ) F 2n *32 5 ( 3 2 ) G
2n .3 2 .5 (3 ) C 2H.32.5{32 .5 ) B
2n . 3 2 . 5 ( 5 ) A 2n *32 . 5 ( 3 3 ) D
2ii.32.5(3.5) E 2H .32.5(33 .5 ) F#
248
Mode I I ( C o n t i n u e d )
2n *32 , 5
Impure V a r i a t i o n s
2n*32*5(34 ) A
2n'32*5(34 , 5) c#
2n*32*5(35 ) E
2n*32 ,5(35 *5) &
Mode I I I
2n ' 3 * 5 2
Pure V a r i a t i o n s Imoure V a r i a t i o n s
2 n *3*5 2 ( l ) F 2n *3*5 2 ( 3 3 ) D
2n *3*5 2 (3 ) C 2n *3*5 2 ( 3 4 ) A
2n *3*5 2 (3 2 ) G 2n 3 *5 2 ( 3 5 ) E
2n *3*5 2 ( 3 6 ) B
Mode IV
2n *33 *5
2n 33 * 5 (1 ) F 2"* 33 * 5 ( 3 ) C
2n * 33 * 5 ( 5 ) A 2n *3 3 , 5 ( 3 * 5 ) E
2n *33 *5 (3 2 ) G
2 n *3 3 * 5 ( 3 2 * 5 ) B
2.n *3 3 * 5 ( 3 3 ) D
2 n , 3 3 * 5 ( 3 3 *5) F#
2n*33 *5(34 ) A
2 n *3 3 * 5 ( 3 4 *5) c#
249
Mode V
2 n . 3 2 52
P ur e V a r i a t i o n s Imoure V a r i a t i o n s
2n , 32 , 52 ( l ) F 2n *32 *5 2 ( 3 2 ) G
2n *3 2 , 5 2 ( 3 ) C 2n *3 2 , 5 2 (3 3 ) D
2 n . 3 2 . 5 2 ( 34 ) a
2 n . 3 2 . 5 2 ( 3 5) e
Mode VI
2n *3 3 *52
2n . 3 3 . 5 2 ( i ) F 2n . 3 3 . 5 2 ( 3) c
2n *3 3 5 2 (3 2 ) a
2n *3 3 *52 ( 3 3 ) D
2n *3 3 *52 (34 ) A
250
11. T h i s t a b l e shows how many o u r e and. impu re
v a r i a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e f o r any c o n s o n a n c e o r any mode on
a c o r r e c t l y tuned in s tru m e n t. Thus i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e
h a r m o n i c t r i a d , w h i c h i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e e x p o n e n t 2n *3 *5 ,
h a s s i x p u r e a n d e i g h t im p ur e v a r i a t i o n s . Yet t h r e e o f t h e
im p u r e a g r e e w i t h t h e p u r e , s i n c e t h e s e c o n d a r y b a s e s A, E,
and B a l s o ap p ear a s prim ary b a s e s . Therefore, th e re are
a c t u a l l y only f iv e im p u r e v a r i a t i o n s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d :
t h o s e w i t h b a s e s o f D, F # , C#, D#, a n d G#. This t a b l e a ls o
shows t h e p u r e and i m p u r e t r a n s p o s i t i o n s o f m o d e s . E asily
f o u n d i s t h e i n t e r v a l b y w h i c h a g i v e n m e lo d y c a n b e t r a n s
p o s e d and r e m a i n p u r e o r become i m p u r e . Unlawful c a s e s a r e
also e a sily d etected . W h a t e v e r i s s a i d a b o u t one v a r i a t i o n
o f a c e r t a i n mode c a n e a s i l y b e a p p l i e d t o t h e o t h e r s .
12. H av ing c o n s i d e r e d t h e v a r i o u s m o d a l v a r i a t i o n s ,
we s h o u l d now c o n s i d e r t h e s p e c i e s o f an y mode w h i c h a r i s e
when d e f i n i t e n u m b e r s a r e s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e i n d e f i n i t e
exponent o f tw o. Thus, by s u b s t i t u t i n g th e s u c c e ss iv e
p o sitiv e in teg ers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, e t c . , f o r n, the sp ec ie s
o f t h e mode 2 n 33 *5 a r e e x p r e s s e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p o n e n t s :
3 3 *5, 2*3 3 * 5, 2 2 *33 5, 2 3 *3 3 *5, 2 4 *3 3 5 , a n d so f o r t h .
A l l s p e c i e s o f a mode h a v e t h e same p u r e and impure v a r i a
t i o n s a s t h e mode i t s e l f , sin ce the v a r i a t i o n s are d e t e r
m i n e d , n o t fr o m t h e pow er o f two w h ic h i s i n t h e mod al
e x p o n e n t , b u t o n l y f r o m t h e i n d e x numb er s 3 and 5 , w h i c h
a re n o t changed i n th e s p e c i e s .
251
13. S p e c i e s o f t h e same mode d i f f e r among t h e m
s e l v e s w ith r e g a r d to th e d e g r e e s of a g r e e a b le n e s s to which
they belong. The s i m p l e r t h e s p e c i e s o f any mode i s , the
s m a l l e r i s t h e number s u b s t i t u t e d f o r n . Thus, th e
s i m p l e s t s p e c i e s o f a ny mode r e s u l t s when n 0 . When n 1 ,
t h e s p e c i e s b e c o m e s more c o m p o s i t e by one d e g r e e . Making
n 2 i n c r e a s e s t h e d e g r e e a g a i n by 1 , a nd so o n . This i s
c l e a r fr o m what h a s b e e n s a i d p r e v i o u s l y a b o u t f i n d i n g t h e
d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s t o w h ic h a ny f i x e d e x p o n e n t b e l o n g s .
14. The number o f s p e c i e s o f a n y mode would a p p e a r
t o b e i n f i n i t e b e c a u s e o f t h e u n l i m i t e d number o f f i x e d
v a lu e s which can be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r n. But s i n c e t h e
s e n s e s do n o t c o m p re h e n d a n i n f i n i t e n um be r, t h e f i x e d
i n t e r v a l between th e h i g h e s t and lo w est au d ib le p i t c h e s
d e t e r m i n e s t h e number o f s p e c i e s i n a n y mode. Any mode
c o m p r e h e n d s i n i t s e l f a g i v e n number o f p r i m i t i v e t o n e s
w h i c h a r e r e p e a t e d i n d i f f e r e n t o c t a v e s by i n c r e a s i n g n .
T h u s , i f t h e same t o n e o c c u r s i n a l l o c t a v e s , f u r t h e r
i n c r e a s e o f n c a n e f f e c t no g r e a t e r d i v e r s i t y .
15. I n o r d e r t h a t t h i s may b e c l e a r e r , it sh o u ld be
n o t e d t h a t t h e p r i m i t i v e t o n e s o f e a c h mode a r e e x p r e s s e d
b y odd n u m b e rs f r o m w hic h t h e d e r i v a t i v e s a r i s e b y m u l t i p l i c a
t i o n by 2 o r i t s p o w e r s . The g r e a t e r t h i s power o f 2 i s ,
t h e more d e r i v a t i v e t o n e s a r i s e fr om a p a r t i c u l a r p r i m i t i v e .
A f i x e d n um be r o f o c t a v e s a r e so f i l l e d by t h e s e t o n e s t h a t
'2 5 2
t h e r e i s room f o r no m o r e , e v e n i f t h e power o f 2 i s
increased fu r th e r . Th e s e t h i n g s w i l l be q u i t e c l e a r f r o m
th e t a b l e s which f o l l o w .
16. A t h i r d v a r i e t y o f a n y mode o r s p e c i e s i s
p r o d u c e d by a c c o m m o d a ti o n t o t h e cxistomary s y s t e m o f t o n e s
in m usical in stru m e n ts . This system u s u a l l y spans f o u r
octaves. The l o w e s t t o n e i s d e s i g n a t e d a s C an d t h e
h ig h e s t as c. I f th e y a re to be p la y e d by i n s t r u m e n t s ,
t h e t o n e s o f any mode a n d s p e c i e s s h o u l d b e c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n
these l im i t s . Thus t h e t o n e s l o w e r t h a n C and h i g h e r t h a n
c c a n n o t b e u s e d a n d m u s t be d i s r e g a r d e d . The g r o u p o f
to n e s c o n ta i n e d w i t h i n th e g iv e n l i m i t s and b e lo n g in g to
a ny s p e c i e s w i l l be c a l l e d t h e s y s t e m o f t h a t s p e c i e s .
17. The same s p e c i e s c a n o f t e n b e i n c l u d e d i n
s e v e r a l ways w i t h i n t h a t f i x e d i n t e r v a l o f t o n e s , d e p e n d i n g
uoon t h e powe r o f 2 b y w h i c h F i s e x p r e s s e d . If F Z l, all
t h e t o n e s w i t h numbers g r e a t e r t h a n 12 m u s t b e r e j e c t e d .
I f F 2 , o n l y t h e t o n e s e x p r e s s e d by numbers b e t w e e n 2 a n d
24 c a n b e u s e d . I f F 4 , t h e numbers l i e b e t w e e n 3 an d 4 8 ,
and i f F Z 8 , t h e l i m i t s a r e 6 and 9 6 . S im ilarly, we c a n
f i n d t h e l i m i t s f o r o t h e r po w e rs o f 2 r e p r e s e n t i n g F .
18. Thus t h e s y s t e m o f e a c h m o d a l s p e c i e s Is defined
by t h e oower o f 2 t a k e n t o i n d i c a t e F. C l e a r l y , t h e same
s p e c i e s may ha v e s e v e r a l s y s t e m s w h i c h c o n s i s t o f v a r i o u s
grouos of to n e s . Su c h a s y s t e m o f t o n e s , w h i c h a r e
253
p o s s e s s e d by a g i v e n s p e c i e s d e t e r m i n e d by a g i v e n mode,
i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d am bitus by m u s ic ia n s . The a m b i t u s
d e t e r m i n e s t h e t o n e s fr o m t h e d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c g e n u s
w h ic h c a n be u s e d i n a g i v e n m e l o d y . M usicians reco g n ize
o n l y one a m b i t u s f o r e a c h mode. However, t h e f o l l o w i n g
t a b l e w i l l show t h a t any mode o r m od a l s p e c i e s a d m i t s o f
s e v e r a l s y s t e m s o r a m b i t u s by w h i c h m u s i c c a n s t i l l b e
w onderfully v a rie g a te d .
19. Therefore, i n o r d e r t o ha v e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e
l o o k a t a l l s p e c i e s a n d s y s t e m s o f e a c h mode, I h a v e a d d e d
t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e i n w h i c h t h e s i x modes d e s c r i b e d a bo ve
a r e a r r a n g e d so t h a t t h e r e a d e r may exami ne e a c h modal
s p e c i e s and i t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g system f o r e ac h exponent
i n d i c a t i n g P. W it h t h e f o u r - o c t a v e l i m i t , th is table
includes a l l s p e c i e s o f e a c h mod$ an d a l l s y s t e m s i n
w h i c h t h e k e y s a r e d e s i g n a t e d by t h e u s u a l s i g n s .
SYSTEMS
Mode
2n *3 3
If F = 4
Species
22 . 33 C :F :c:g :c:g :d :g
23 . 33 C :F :c:f :g;c:g:c:3.:g
2 4 *33 C :F :c:f:g :c:f:g :c:d :g :c
2 5 *33 C :F :c:f:g :c:f:g :c:d :f:g :5 ,
254
prohibited without perm ission.

HOtt
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11(0 iH o |tbO II bO
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llbO lid iid ll- d ho lio II CO lio IbO IU )
tt t% tt II II ft tt ft
lid bo 110 IIU ) IIO IbO ItaO lid IbO I'm
tt tt tO CM * tt ft C/3
CO llbO HO IbO IbO IH ird IbO IVh I'm to IbO id IT5 I 'd S
Further reproduction
ft tt tt . * | ft tt w II *?.
II id IbO I'm I'm u ib o I 'd I 'd I 'd Id 10 IO lo E-i fa Ilio iid
fa tt tt tt pL| * tt C/3 II II
IbO id id id Id 10 10 io o bO bO bO M (I CC (1^0
<M t* tt tt ft* tt CO M ii
M id 10 10 10 H 1C bO bO bo w to <V-l f|<0 IIW ff t- |

t* t% tt tt I* tt H tt tt tt ft 1
10 bO bO to bO ft-t $-t $-1 d d 'd IbO |l o llo
t* tt tt tt I II II II tt tt 1 >
bo <M <M <M d d d d 0 0 0 0 llo id id
tt tt tt II ii 11 ii tt tt it it it
0 O O O O O O O cb 0 O O 11 bO Id I'm I'm
0 tt tt tt II i| tt tt ft t* tt
with permission of the copyright owner.

O O O O O O O O fa fa fa fa Id lo lo IO
tt tt tt 11 H ft ii tt tt ftft I I ft*
fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa Q Q Q Q IO <M Cm <M
tt tt tt tt ) l tt tt % ft tt
0 O O O 0 0 0 0 0 0 O O fa fa fa fa
in in m in m
t d t
CO lO CO CO CO CO to tO to 10 CO CO dCM a/ CM CM Cl} CM
CO to CO CO CO CO co to to CO cO CO d co H CO CO co CO
ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft 0 O ft t
to <* 10 to *1* in to in CO > CO S G CD CM CO
CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM O. CM CM CM
c/3
Reproduced
12
255
if f : 2
3 2 *5 c:a:g:e
2 *32 *5 F :c:a:c:g:a:e:g
F : c : f : a : c : g : a : c : e :g:a
22 *32 , 5
23 *32 *5 F :c:f :a:c:f sg:a:c;!:g:a:c
F :c:f:a:c:f:g:a:c;e:f:g:a:c.
24 *32 *5
If F = 4
32 , 5 C:A:g:e:b
2 *32 *5 C :A :c:g:a:e :g:e:b
22 *32 , 5 C : F : A : c : g : a : c : e ; g : a : ' e : gsb
23 *32 *5 C:F:Asc;f j g : a : c : e : g : a : c : e : g : a : B
24 , 32 *5 C:F:A:c : f : g : a : c : e ; f : g : a : c : e : g : a : B :c
- s e - a
25 *32 *5 C:F:Asc : f : g : a : c : e : f : g : a : c : e : f :g : a : E : c
If F= 8
2 *32 *5 C : G : A : e : g : e : b :b
2 2 *32 *5 C :G:A:c :e :g :a :e :g :b : l : b
23 3 2 5 C :F:G:A:c :e : g : a ; c :e : g : a ;b :e ; g : b
24 *32 , 5 C :F:G:A:c :e : f : g : a : c :e :g :a:b :c :e : g : a : b
23 *3 2 *5 C : F :G : A : c : e : f ; g : a : c ; e : f : g : a : b :c :e : g : a
26 , 3 2 , 5 C :F:G:A:c se : f : g : a :c :e : f : g : a :b :c : e : g
256
I f F = 16
2 2 *32 5 C : E : G : A : e : g :b :e : b : b
2 3 *32 *5 C:E:G:A;c:e : g : a : b : e : g : b :e :b
2 4 *3 2 *5
2 5 32 *5 C :E :F :G :A :c:e:f : g : a : b : c : e ; g : a : b : c : e : g : a : b
2 5 3 2 *5 C :E:F:G :A :c:e :f : g : a : b : c : e : f :g :a :b :c :e : g : a : 5 : c
2 7 *32 , 5 C:EsF:G:A:c :e : f : g : a : b : c :e : ? : g ia : 'B :g :a:b :c.
I f F 32
2 3 *32 *5 G :E :G :A :B :e:g:b:e:b:b
2 4 *32 *5 C : E : G : A : B : c :e : g : a : b : e : g : S : e : b
2 5 *32 *5 C :E :F :G :A :B :c:e:g:a:b:c:e:g:a:b:e:g:b
2 6 *32 *5 C:E:F:G:A:B:c : e : f : g : a : b : c : e : g : a : b : c : e : g : a : b
2 7 *32 *5 C:E:F:G :A :B:c : e : f : g : a : b : c ; e : f : g : a : b : c : e : g : a : b : c
28 , 32 , 5 C :E :F : G : A: B: c :e : f : g : a : b : c : e : f : g : a : b : c : e :g : a :c.
SYSTEMS
Mode
2n , 3 5 2
If F = 4
Species
3 *5 2 C:A :e:c#
2 *3 *5 2 G :A ;c:a:e:c#:e
2 2 , 3 *5 2 C :F :A :c:a:c:e:a:c#:e
2 3 , 3 *5 2 C :F :A :c:f;a:c:e:a;c:c# :e:a
2 4 *3 *5 2 C :F :A :c:f:a:c:e:f:a:c:c# :e:a:c
2 5 *3 *5 2 C :F :A :c:f:a:c:e:f:a:c:c# :e:f:a:c.
257
I f F 8
2 35 2 C :A :eic#:e:c#:g#
2 2 *3*5 2 C :A :c:e:a:c#:e:c#:esg#
2 3 . 3 .5 2 C :F :A :c:e:a:c:c# :e:a:c# :e:g #
2 4 *3*5 2 C :F :A :c:e:f:a:c:c# :e:a:c:c# se:g # sa

2 5 . 3 .5 2 C :F :A :c:e:f:a:c:c# :e:f:a:c:c# :e:g # :a:c
3 6 . 3 .5 2 C :F :A :c:e:f:a:c:c# :e:f:a:c:c# :e:fsg # :ase.
I f F 16
2 2 . 3 .5 2 C :E :A ;c#:e:c#:e:g#:c#:g#
2 3 . 3 .5 2 C :E :A :c:c#:e;a:c#:e:g#:c#:e:g#
2 4 *3*52 CiE:F:A;c:c#:e:a:c:c#:S:g#:a:c#:e:g#
2 5 . 3 .5 2 C :E :F :A :c:c#:e:f:a:c:c#:e:g#:I:c:c#:e;g#:t
26 , 3*52 G :E :F :A :c:c#:e:f :a ;c :c # :e :f : g # : a : c : c # : l : I # : l : c
27 , 3 * 5 2 C :E :F :A :c:c# :e:f:a:c:c# :e:f:g # :a:c:c# je:f:g # :a:c.
If F=32
2 3 *3*5 2 C :C #:E :A :c#:e:g#:c#:e:g#:c#:g#
2 4 *3*52 C :C #:E :A :c:c#:e:g#:a:c#:e;g#:c# :f:g#

2 5 *3*5 2 C :C #:E :F :A :c:c#:e:g#:a:c:c#:e:g#:a:c#:e:g#
2s 352 C; C #: E ; F ; A: c : c # ; e : f : g # : a ; c : c # ; e : g# : a : c : c # -e : f # : a
27.3*5 2 C :C # :E :F :A :cic# :e:f:g # :a:c:c# :e:f:g # :a:c:c#

: ! s g # :1 s!
28-35 2 C :C #:g:F :A :c:c# :e:f:g # :a:c:c# :e:fsg # ;a:c:E #

:f :T :g#:a:c.
258
I f F 64
2 4 *3*5 2 C :C #:E :G #:A :c#:e:g#:c#:e:g#:c#:g#
2 5 *3 5 2 C:C # :E :G # :A ;c :c # :e :g # :a : c # : e : g # : c # : e :g#
2 6 *5*5 2 C : C # : E ; F jG#;A:c : c # : e : g # : a : c : c # : e : g # : a : c # : e : g #
2 7 *3*5 2 C :C #:E :F :G #:A sc;c#:e:f:g#:a:c:c#se :g#;a:c:S #

:e: g # : S
2 *3*5 2 C :C #:E ;F :G # :A :c:c# :e:f:g # :a:c:c# :e:f:g # :a:c
: c # : e : g # : a :8
2 9 , 3 * 52 C :C #:E :F ;G # :A :c:c# :e:f:g # :a:c:c# :e:f:g # :a:c

:c#:e;f:g # :a:c.
SYSTEMS
Mode
2n , 3 3 , 5
If F= 4
Species
3 3 *5 C :A :g:e:d:b
2 *33 , 5 G :A :c : g : a : e : g : d : e :b
22 33 , 5 C:F:A :c :g :a :c :e : g : a : d : e :g :b
2 3 - 3 3 *5 C :F:A :c:f :g :a :c :e :g :a :c :H :e :g :a :b
2 4 3 3 *5 C:F :A :c ; f : g : a : c : e : f : g : a : c : c i : e : g : a : b :c
2 5 *33 *5 C :F:A :c:f : g :a :c :e : f ;g :a :c :d :e :f :g :a :b :c .

I f F 8
2 *33 *5 C :G :A :e:g:d:e:b:d:b
2 2 *3 3 * 5 C :G jA :c:e:g :a:d :e:g :b :d ;i:b
2 3 3 3 *5 C:F :G tA :c:e : g : a : c : d : e : g : a : b :d :e :g:b
2 4 *33 *5 C:F:G :A :cse : f : g : a : c :d :e : g : a : b : c : d : e :g :a :b
2 3 *3 3 * 5 C :F :G ; A : c : e : f :g : a :c : d : e : f :g : a :b : c :d :e : g : a :b : c
g6. 3 3 .5 C : F : G : A : c : e : f : g : a : c : d : e : f ; g : a : b : c : d : e : f : g : a sb :c ,
259
I f F = 16
2 2 , 3 3 *5 C:E G : A : d : e : g : b : d : e : b : d : f # : b
23 33 , 5 C:E G:A:c : d : e : g : a : b : d : e : g : b : d : e : f # : b
2 4 *33 *5 C:E F : G : A : c : d : e : g : a : b : c : d : e : g : a : b : d : e : f # : g :b
2 5 *33 5 C:E F : G : A : c : d : e : f : g : a : b : c : d : e : g : a : b : c : 5 : e : f #
g:I:b
2 6 *33 *5 C:E F : G : A : c : d : e : f : g : a : b : c : d : e : f : g : a : b t c : d : e
f#:gja:b:c
2 7 , 33 *5 C:E F : G : A : c : d : e j f : g : a : b : c : d : e : f : g : a : b : c : H : e
? :f#:g:a:!> ;c .
I f F - 32
2 3 *33 *5 C:D:E;GiA:B:d:e : g : b : d : e : f # : b : d : f # : b
2 4 *33 5 C :D :E :G :A :B :c:d:e:g:a:b:d:e :f# :g :b :d:e :f#:b
2 5 *33 *5 C:D:E:F:G_;A:B:c : d : e : g : a : b : c : d : e : f # : g : a :b i d : e
:f#:g:b
2 6 *33 *5 C : D : E : F : G : A : B : c _ ; d : e ; f : g : a : b : c : d : e : f # : g : a :b!C
: d : e s f # :g : a :"5
2 7 *33 5 C ; D : E ; F : G : A : B : c :d j e _ ; f : g : a : b : c : d : e : f : f # : g : a : b
:c:d :e :f# :g :a:b :c
2 8 , 3 3 *5 C:D :E:F:G :A :B :c:d:e : f j g : a : b ; c : d : e : f : f # : g : a ; b

;c:d :e:f:f# :g :a:b
I f F = 64
2 4 *33 *5 C:D :E:G :A :B:d:e : f # i g : b : d : e :f# :b :d :f# :" b
2 5 *33 5 C :D :E :G :A :B :c:d :e:f# :g :a:b :d :e:f# :g :b :d :e:f# :b

2 6 *33 *5 C :D :E :F :G :A :B :c :d :e ;f# :g :a :b :c:d:e":f#:g:a":b
:d :e:f# :g :b
260
I f F 64 (Continued)
27 *33 , 5 C:D:E:F:G:A:B:c : d j e j f j f # : g : a :b :c :d :e : f # : g
:a:b :c :d:e : f # : g : I ; b
28 . 3 3 . 5
C : D :E :F :G ;A :B ;c:d :e:fj f# :g:a ',b :c : d : e : f : f # : g
:a:b :c : 3 : e : f # : g : a : b :5 ?
2 9 *33 5 C:D:E:F:G:A:B:c :d :e : f : f # : g j a : b :c :d:e : f : f # : g
:a:b:c:d:e:f:f#:g;a:b:c.
I f F - 128
2 5 *33 , 5 C :D :E:F#:G :A :B :d:e:f#:g:b :d se:f#;b :d :f#:b

2 6 33 , 5 C :D :E :F #:G :A :B :c;d:e:f# :g :a ; b : d : e :f#:g:b:d:e:f#:b
2 7 *33 *5 C:D:E:F:F#^G:A:B:c:d:e:f#:g:a:b:c:d:e:f#:g:a
:b:d:e:f#:g:b
28 , 3 3 *5 C:D:E:F:F#:G:A:B2 c : d ; e : f : f # : g : a : b : c : d : e : f #
: g : a : b : c ; c T : i : f # : | : a :b
2 9 *33 *5 C : D : E : F : F # : G : A : B : c : d ; e : f : f # : g : a : b : c : d : e : ? :f#
:g :a:b :c:d ;l:f# :g :a: :5
2 10*33,5 C:D:E:F:F#jGjA:B_:c_sd:e::f#;g:a:b : c : d : e : f : f #
: g : a : b : B ; 3 ; l : f ; f # : g : a ;b ; c .
SYSTEMS
Mode
2n , 3 2 *52
If F = 4
Species
p p
3 5 C :A :g:e:c#:b
2 *3 2 *52 C :A :c :g : a :e :g : c # : e :b
22 . 3 2 . 52
C : F : A:c : g : a ; c :e : g : a : c # : e :g :b
2 3 .32.52
C :F:A :c:f :g :a :c :e :g :a :c :c # :e : |: a : b
2 4 .32.52 C :F:A :c:f ; g : a : c : e : f :g :a ;c :c # : e :g :a :b :c
2 5 *3 2 5 2 C :F :A :c:f:g :a:c:e:f:g :a;c:c# :e:?:g :a:b :c.
II 1)0
CD
CM
Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.

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262
I f F 32 (Continued)
25 *32 *52 C#:E F : G : A : B : c : c # : e ; g : g # : a : b : c : c # : e : g : g # : a

b : c # : d # : e : g :g#;b
2 6 . 3 2 .5 2 C#:E F:G:A:B;c : c # : e ; f : g : g # : a : b : c : c # : e : g : g #
a:b:c:c#:d#:e:g:g#:asb
2 7 . 3 2 .5 2 C#:E F:G:A:B :c:c#:e;f : g : g # : a : b : c ; c # : e : f :g
g#:a;b ; c : c # : 3 # : e : g : g # : a :b :c
2B . 3 2 . 5 2 C#:E F : G : A : B : c : c # : e s f : g : g # : a : b : c : c # : e : f : g
g#:a:b:c:c#:d#:e:f:g:g#;I:b;c.
I f F = 64
2 5 *32 *52 C#:E G:G#;B:c#:e:g#:b :c# :d #:g #:b:d # :g #
24 , 32 *52 Cj C# E:G:G#:A:B;c#:e:g:g#:b:c#:d#:e:g#:b
c#:d#:g#:b
25 *32 , 5 2 C:C# E:G :G#:A:B:c:c#:e:g:g#:a:b:c#:S#:e
g:g#:b:c#:3#:e;g#;b
25 *32 , 5 2 C:C# E:F:G:G#:A:B:c:c#:e;g:g#sa:b:c :c#:d#
e:g:g#:a:b:c#:d#;I:i:g#:b
2 7 . 3 2 . 52 G:C# E:F:G:G #:A:B:c:c#:e:f:g:g#:a:b :c :c#:d#
e :g :g # : a : b : c :c # : < I # : e : g : g # : a : b
38 .3 2 .5 2 C:C# E:F:G:G#:A:B:c:c#:e : f : g :g #:a :b :c :c#:d#
esf:g:g#ia:b:c:c#:d#;e:g:g#:a:b:c
3 9 .3 2 .5 2
C:C# E : F : G :G #:A :B :c;c # :e:f:g :g# :a :b :c ;c# :d #
e : f :g:g#ia:b:c:c#;d#:e:?;g:g#:a:b:c.
I f F128
2 4 *32 5 2 C#:E:G:G#:B:c#:d#:e:g#:b:c#:d#:g#:b:d#:g#
2 5 *32 *52 C:C#:E:G:G#:A:B:c#sd#:e:g:g#:b:c#:d#:S:g#

:b;c#:d#:g#:b
If P=128 (Continued)
26 *3 2 , 5 2 C ;C #;F .;G :G #:A *B :c;c#;d#:e:g;g#:a;b:c#:d#:e:g

:g#:b;c#:3#:e:g#;b
2 ? *3 2 *5 2 C :C #:E :F:G :G #:A :B :c:c#:d#:e:g:g#:a:b:c:c#:cl#

:e:g :g # :a:b ;c# :S # :e:g :g # :b
2 8 *3 2 , 5 2 C :G #:E :F :G :G #:A :B :e:c#:d#:e:f:g:g#:a:b:c:c#:d#
;e:g :g # ja:b jc:c#:d#:e:gsg#:a:b
29 . 3 2 .5 2 C :C #:E :F :G :G #:A :B :c:c#sd#:e:f:g:g#:a:b:c:c#:d#
:e:fjg :g # :a:b :c:c# jd # :e:g :g # :I:b :c
210. 32 . 52 C :C #:E :F :G :G #:A :B :c:c#:d#:e:f:g:g#:a:b:c:c#:d#
:e:f:g :g # :a:b :c;c# :d # :!:f;g :g # :a:b :S .
I f F = 256
2 5 *3 2 *5 2 C # :D # :E :G :G # :B :c# :d # :e:g # :b :c# :d # :g # :b :d # :|#

26 . 3 2 . 5 2 G;C?< J D # : E : G : G # : A : B ; c # : d # : e : g : g # : b : c # : d # : e : g #
:b:c# :d # :g # :b
2 7 *3 2 *5 2 C :C #:D #:E :G :G #:A :B :c:c#:d#:e:g:g#:a:b:c#id#

:e:g:g#:b:c#:d#:esg#:b
28 . 3 2 . 5 2 C :C #:D #:E :F :G ;G #:A :B :c:c#:d#:e:g:g#:a:b:c:c#
:d # :e:g:g#:a:b:c#:H #:e:f:g#:b
2 9 *3 2 ' 5 2 C :C #:D #:E :F :G :G #:A :B :c:c#:d#:e;f:g:g#:a:b:c

:c# :d # :e :g :g # :a :b :c :c# :d # :I:g :g # :a :b
2 i o . 3 2 .5 2 C : C # : D # : E : F : G : G # : A : B : c : c # ; d # : e : f : g : g # ; a : b :c
:c # :d # :e :f :g :g # :a :b :c :c # :3 # :e :g :g#:a:^:c
2 1 1 , 3 2 , 52 C :C # : I > # : E : F : G : G # : A : B : c : c # : d # : e : f : g : g # : a :b : c : c #
: d # : e : f : g : g # : a : b : c : 5 # : d # : e : f : g : g # : a : b :c.
SYSTEMS
Mode
2n , 33 *52
If FX4
Species
33 , 52 C :A :g:e:c#:d:b
2 3S *5 2 C :A :c : g : a j e : g : c # : d : I : b
2 2 *3 3 *52 C : F : A : c : g : a :c :e : g : a : 5 # : d : e : g : S
2 3 *33 , 5 2 C : F : A : c : f : g : a :c :e : g ; a : c : c # : d : e : g : a : b
2 4 *33 *5 2 C :F:A :c:f : g : a : c : e : f :g :a :c ;c # : d ;e :g : a :b :c
23 -33 -52 C : F : A : c : f : g : a : c :e : f : g : a : c : 5 # : d : l : f : g : a : b : c .
If F - 8
33 , 52 G :e:c#:d:b:g#
2 *3 3 - 5 2 C :G :A :e :g : c # : d : e :b ; c # ; d ; g # : b
22 , 3 3 ' 5 2 C :G iA :c:e : g : a : c # : d : e : g : b :c # :d :e :g # s b
2 3 *33 , 5 2 C : F : G : A : c :e : g : a : c : c # : d : e : g : a : b : c # : d : e : g : g # : b
2 4 *33 *5 2 C : F : G : A : c :e : f : g : a : c : c # : d : e : g : a : b : c : c # : d : e : g : g #
:a:b
2 5 *3 3 , 5 2 C :F:G :A :c;e:f j:g :a :c :c # :d :e :f :g :a :b :c :c # :d :e

:g:g#:a:b:c
25 33 52 C :F :G :A :c:e:f : g :a :c :c # : d :e :f :g :a :b :c :c # :d :e
:f:g :g # :a:b :c.
265
20. The f o l l o w i n g m a t t e r s c o n c e r n i n g m u s i c a l compo
s i t i o n s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d . In th e f i r s t place, a d e fin ite
s p e c i e s a n d s y s t e m i n a p a r t i c u l a r mode s h o u l d b e c h o s e n
f o r th e c r e a t i o n o f the co m p o sitio n . W ith a s e l e c t e d
s y ste m , a l l th e t o n e s which can o c c u r i n t h i s c o m p o sitio n
a r e f i x e d , so t h a t a s l o n g a s you u s e t h i s s y s t e m , no t o n e s
o t h e r t h a n t h o s e d e s i g n a t e d can be u s e d , u n l e s s t h e i n s t r u
ment c a n p r o d u c e t o n e s l o w e r t h a n C and h i g h e r t h a n s ; b u t
i n t h i s case, o n ly such t o n e s can be u s e d a s a r e c o n t a i n e d
i n the exponent o f th e s p e c i e s . The e x p o n e n t i t s e l f w i l l
give t h i s inform ation.
21. The f i r s t mode i n t h i s t a b l e h a s an e x p o n e n t
o f 2n *3^. S i n c e t h e t o n e e x p r e s s e d by 3^ o r 27 m u s t be
p r e s e n t , no s y s t e m e x i s t s f o r F = 1 o r F = 2 s i n c e t h e t o n e 27
would e x c e e d t h e u p p e r l i m i t c . H e nc e , we b e g i n w i t h F = 4 ,
w i t h 3^ c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 3 . B e s i d e s d , we m us t h a v e a t o n e
i n d i c a t e d b y 1 o r a po wer o f 2 . I n t h i s c a s e , n mus t be a t
l e a s t 2 o r the tone w i l l no t l i e in the s p e c i f i e d i n t e r v a l .

p
Thus t h e f i r s t s y s t e m h a s t h e e x p o n e n t 2 *3 , i f we t a k e
F = 4.
22. When F = 4 t h e mode 2n , 3^ h a s f o u r s y s t e m s , w i t h
e x p o n e n t s o f 2 2 * 3 3 , 2 3 * 3 5 , 2 4 *3 3 ^ a n d 2 3 * 3 3 . T h i s mode
h a s no o t h e r s w h ic h c a n be c o n t a i n e d i n t h e f o u r - o c t a v e
span. Even i f w6 t a k e 2 3* 3^ a s a n e x p o n e n t , t h e t o n e s
w oul d c o r r e s p o n d t o t h o s e o f t h e e x p o n e n t 2 3 * 3 ^ . Thus we
266
w ou ld n o t a c t u a l l y h a v e a d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m . I f F I I 8 , we
a g a i n ha v e f o u r s y s t e m s . This i s a l s o t r u e o f F H 1 6 and
F 3 2 , where a g a i n a l i m i t i s r e a c h e d . In the l a s t system ,
w hi ch h a s a n e x p o n e n t o f 2 ^ * 3 ^ , a l l t h e p r i m i t i v e t o n e s a r e
p r e s e n t i n e a c h o c t a v e a n d t h e r e f o r e a more c o m p o s i t e
system c an n o t be pro d u ced .
23. Thus t h e f i r s t mode, 2n *3^, h a s s i x t e e n s y s t e m s ;
t h e s e c o n d mode, 2n *32 *5, h a s t h i r t y - t h r e e ; and t h e t h i r d
mode, 2n *3*52 , h a s t h i r t y . The f o u r t h mode, 2n - 3 3 *5, v e r y
widely u sed by m u sic ian s to d a y , has t h i r t y - s i x d i f f e r e n t
system s. The f i f t h mode, 2n *3 2 *52 , a l s o w i d e l y u s e d , h a s
fo rty -eig h t. The s i x t h mode, w h ic h i s c o m p o s i t e and i s
a ls o f r e q u e n tly u sed , has s i x t y - s i x d i f f e r e n t system s.
Th e s e s i x m o d e s, t h e n , c o m p r i s e a t o t a l o f 229 d i f f e r e n t
system s,
24. C a r e f u l a n a l y s i s o f t h e forms of a l l o f t h e s e
systems r e v e a l s t h a t each o c ta v e of each system i s d i f f e r e n t l y
c o n s t i t u t e d , w ith the e x c e p tio n of the l a s t s y s t e m of e a c h
mode. The i n d i v i d u a l o c t a v e s o f e a c h o f t h e s e f i n a l
s y s t e m s h a v e an e c u a l number o f t o n e s a n d c o n t a i n a l l t h e
o r i m i t i v e t o n e s o f t h e mode. Some: s y s t e m s h a v e more t o n e s
in t h e i r low est o c ta v e s ; o t h e r s , in t h e i r m iddle o c ta v e s ;
and s t i l l o t h e r s , i n t h e i r u p p e r o c t a v e s . From t h e s e may
be c h o s e n t h e most s u i t a b l e s y s t e m f o r a g i v e n c o m p o s i t i o n .
If it i s d e s i r e d t o p l a c e t h e m a i n p a r t s o f a melo dy i n
267
t h e b a s s , t h e s y s t e m c h o s e n s h o u l d ha v e t h e g r e a t e s t number
o f to n e s In I t s low er o c t a v e s , but i f the g r e a t e s t v a r i e t y
I s d e s i r e d i n th e so p ra n o , t h e u p p e r o c ta v e s should have
t h e g r e a t e s t number o f t o n e s . I f t h e m id d le v o i c e s a r e to
b e e m p h a s i z e d , a s i m i l a r p r o c e d u r e w ou ld a p p l y t o s e l e c t i o n
of a s u ita b le system . Modern c o m p o s e r s , i n f l u e n c e d by
experience r a th e r than th e o ry , seem t o ha ve n o t i c e d t o a
d e g re e t h i s g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e i n modes. Therefore, our
e n u m e r a t i o n w i l l b e o f no l i t t l e h e l p b y e n a b l i n g th em t o
see c l e a r l y t h a t which th e y have p r e v i o u s l y u n d e rs to o d only
vaguely.
CHAPTER X I I I
ON THE PROCESS OP COMPOSITION IN A GIVEN MODE

AND A GIVEN SYSTEM
1. The e x p o n e n t o f a c o m p o s i t i o n i s m o s t o f t e n so
c o m p o s i t e t h a t i t c a n n o t be p e r c e i v e d a t a l l , u n less I t Is
determ ined g r a d u a lly . T h e r e f o r e , s u c h a c o m p o s i t i o n m us t
be d i v i d e d j n t o s e v e r a l p a r t s o f vrhich t h e e x p o n e n t s w i l l
b e s i m p l e r an d more e a s i l y p e r c e i v e d . Before d i s c u s s i n g
c r e a t i o n o f a whole c o m p o s i t i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e x p l a i n
c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e p a r t s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e t h e whole work
when j o i n e d t o g e t h e r . The e x p o n e n t o f s u c h a p a r t i s
n o t h i n g b u t a m u s i c a l mode. Hence, we s h o u l d d i s c u s s th e
m a t t e r o f c o m p o s i t i o n i n a g i v e n mode b e f o r e g o i n g on t o t h e
c r e a t i o n o f a whole w ork . Then we w i l l d i s c u s s th e s u b j e c t
o f j o i n i n g s u c h p a r t s t o g e t h e r t o make t h e who le c o m p o s i t i o n .
2. A l t h o u g h t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e d o c t r i n e o f modes
i n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r was more e x t e n s i v e and a c c u r a t e
t h a n t h e u s u a l t r e a t m e n t , an d a l t h o u g h e a c h mode was d i v i d e d
into i t s s o e c i e s a n d s y s t e m s , t h e c o m p o se r s t i l l h a s t o
c h o o s e a mode f o r h i s c o m p o s i t i o n and a s y s t e m f o r t h a t
mode. We a r e n o t c o n c e r n e d h e r e w i t h v a r i a t i o n s o f m o d e s,
s i n c e t h e y a r e m e r e l y t h e r e s u l t o f t r a n s p o s i t i o n an d s i n c e
t h e m u t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e t o n e s I n any s y s t e m i s n o t
changed. Hence, i n a l l s y ste m s th e b a s e o r th e to n e
e x p r e s s e d by u n i t y w i l l b e t h e key F, o r a n o t h e r t o n e , one o r
more o c t a v e s l o w e r .
269
3. When we h a v e c h o s e n a mode s u i t a b l e t o o u r
p u r p o s e , we m u s t f i n d an a p p r o p r i a t e s p e c i e s a n d s y s t e m .
A lt h o u g h t h i s d e p e n d s on t h e j u d g m e n t o f t h e c o m p o s e r , y e t
in a measure th e purpose i t s e l f d e te rm in e s the system , as
we ha v e a l r e a d y n o t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r . I f one
w i s h e s t o g i v e g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s t o a p a r t i c u l a r o c t a v e , he
w i l l f a v o r a system i n which t h a t o c ta v e h a s t h e g r e a t e s t
number o f t o n e s . A kn ow le dg e o f t h e t a b l e g i v e n e a r l i e r
i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h i s , a n d a d d i t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n would b e
superfluous.
4. F o r a f i x e d s y s t e m o f a g i v e n mode a nd s p e c i e s ,
t h e t a b l e o f s y s t e m s shows a l l t h e t o n e s w h i c h can b e u s e d
in a c o m p o sitio n , and th e to n e s b e lo n g in g to th e p a r t i c u l a r
s y s t e m c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from o t h e r s . I f the p a t t e r n
of our systems i s a p p l i e d to t h e i r works, i t can be s e e n
t h a t a s i m i l a r l i m i t i s c o n s t a n t l y o b s e r v e d by t h e more
s k i l l e d composers. C l e a r l y , the u o p e r v oice i n a composi
t i o n may iase h a r s h e r i n t e r v a l s w h i l e t h e l o w e r v o i c e h a s
s o f t e r i n t e r v a l s , w i t h o u t b e i n g c o n t r a r y t o th e r u l e s o f
harmo ny. C o n s i d e r t h e s y s t e m o f mode 2n *3^* 5, s p e c i e s
2 ^ * 3 ^ * 5 , when F 3 2 . T h i s s y s t e m i s so a r r a n g e d t h a t
ke ys F a n d f a r e i n i t s two l o w e r o c t a v e s a n d f # a n d f # a r e
in i t s two u p p e r o c t a v e s . To t h e u n i n f o r m e d t h i s would
seem t o b e a g r e a t d e f e c t . S i m i l a r l y , many o t h e r a r r a n g e
m e n t s , w h i c h seem p a r a d o x i c a l b u t a g r e e a b l e t o p r a c t i c a l
270
m u s i c i a n s , w i l l be v e r i f i e d b y t h i s t a b l e o f s y s t e m s and
w i l l b e r e c o n c i l e d w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f ha rm o n y . It is
im possible f o r a p iece to p le a se i f i t i s n o t in agreement
w ith o u r p r i n c i p l e s o f harmony.
5. A com position In a s e l e c t e d f ix e d system adm its
of the g r e a t e s t v a r i e t y . Since a com position i s c r e a t e d
by a r r a n g i n g a number o f c o n s o n a n c e s i n a s e r i e s , the o rd e r
and n a t u r e of th e conson an ces p r e s e n t a lm o st i n f i n i t e
p o ssib ilitie s for d iv ersity . The c o n s o n a n c e s may b e c h o s e n
fro m t h e same s p e c i e s o r f r o m d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s , a n d t h e
r e s u l t i n g com p o sitio n i s e i t h e r sim ple o r mixed. We w i l l
d e s i g n a t e a s i m p l e c o m p o s i t i o n a s one w h i c h c o n s i s t s of
c o n s o n a n c e s o f t h e same s p e c i e s o r e x p r e s s e d by t h e same
exoonent. A c o m p o s i t i o n w i l l be m ix e d I f i t s c o n s o n a n c e s
are of various sp ec ie s.
6. F irst, l e t u s c o n s i d e r th e ty p e o f simple composi
t i o n w h ic h c o n s i s t s o n l y o f s i m p l e t o n e s o r o f c o n s o n a n c e s
e x p r e s s e d b y t h e e x p o n e n t 1. Such a c o m p o s i t i o n i s s a i d t o
ha ve one v o i c e s i n c e o n l y one t o n e s o u n d s a t a t i m e . This
t y p e i s o f t e n u s e d i n p i e c e s f o r s e v e r a l v o i c e s when a l l
harmony i s l e f t t o one v o i c e .
7. Such a c o m p o s i t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f s i m p l e t o n e s i s
worked o u t w i t h a l m o s t no d i f f i c u l t y . With any s y s t e m
s e l e c t e d fro m t h e g i v e n t a b l e , a l l t o n e s w h i c h c a n be u s e d
I n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n can b e s e e n a t one g l a n c e . Therefore,
271
anyone c a n mix t h e s e t o n e s o f t h e s e l e c t e d s y s t e m a s he
p l e a s e s a n d f o r m f r o m th em a s u i t a b l e m e l o d y . The o n l y
o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t s h o u l d be made h e r e i s t h a t e x c e s s i v e l y
h a r s h s u c c e s s i o n s o f t o n e s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d when t h e
exponent o f th e c h o se n system i s q u i t e c o m p o site . In the
s i m p l e r s y s t e m s t h e r e a r e no t o n e s w i t h a n u n p l e a s a n t
succession.
8. W it h a s e l e c t e d s y s t e m i t i s good t o e xa m in e
t h o s e t o n a l s u c c e s s i o n s which a r e d i f f i c u l t to p e r c e i v e and
e i t h e r t o a v o i d them o r t o u s e th em f o r moving t h e s p i r i t t o
sadness. Much c h a r m i s a d d e d t o t h e harmony i f s p a r i n g u s e
i s made o f t h o s e t o n e s which b e l o n g t o a g i v e n s y s t e m b u t
are not in th e s im o le r system s. But t h o s e t o n e s w h i c h a r e
i n common w i t h t h o s e o f t h e s i m p l e r s y s t e m s may o c c u r more
often.
9. S i n c e a s e r i e s of c o n s o n a n c e s i n a g i v e n s y s t e m
mus t a r i s e fr om e i t h e r t h e same s p e c i e s o r f r o m d i f f e r e n t
s p e c i e s , t h e n we m u s t f i r s t show how and by w h a t t o n e s a ny
consonance i s t o be e x p r e s s e d i n t h a t s y s t e m . Our e x p o n e n t s
and i n d i c e s i n d i c a t e c o n s o n a n c e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o o t h e r s a nd
the tones c o n s t i t u t i n g these consonances, b u t, f o r a given
s y s t e m one s h o u l d a l s o n o t e w h a t number e x p r e s s e s t h e k e y F .
Hence, f o r fo rm in g a g i v e n consonance w i t h th e most s u i t a b l e
t o n e s , one m u s t c o n s i d e r , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e x p o n e n t and
i n d e x , t h e power o f 2 b y w h i c h F i s i n d i c a t e d I n t h e c h o s e n
system .
272
10. F o r t h i s p u r p o s e I ha v e a d d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g
t a b l e w h i c h shows t h e t o n e s by w hic h any c o n s o n a n c e i s t o
be e x p r e s s e d f o r a g iv e n v a lu e o f F. The f i r s t column
g i v e s t h e e x p o n e n t s and i n d i c e s o f t h e c o n s o n a n c e s . The
o t h e r g i v e s the value o f F f o r a p a r t i c u l a r system and the
form f o r e x p r e s s i n g th e c o n so n a n c e . Thus, i f t h e consonance
2 4 , 3 * 5 { 3 2 ) i s t o be e x p r e s s e d i n t h e s y s t e m f o r F = : 3 2 , t h e
t a b l e shows t h a t i t c o n s i s t s o f t h e t o n e s
D :G :B :d:g:b : d : f # : g : b : d ; f # : b
From t h e s e t o n e s on e may c h o o s e t h o s e s u i t a b l e f o r h i s
ouroose.
CONSONANCES <=n
V ariations
2n ( l ) Forms
Species I f F 1
1 (1) F
2 (1) F:f
22 ( 1 ) Fsfsf
23 ( 1 ) F sfsf:?,
V ariations
2n (3 ) Forms
Species If F = 1
1 (3 ) c
2 (3) c:c
275
If F = 2
1 (3) c
2 (3 ) c :c
2 2 (3 ) c:c:c.
I f F 4
1 (3) C
2 (3 ) G:c
2 2 (3 ) C :c :c
2 3 (3 ) C :c:c:5.
V ariations
2n (5) Forms
Species I f F 1
1 (5) a
2 (5) a :a
I f F=2
1 (5) a
2 (5 ) a:a
22 (5) a:a:a.
If F - 4
1 (5 ) A
2 (5 ) A:a
22 ( 5 ) A :a:a
2 3 (5 ) A :a:a;a<
Variations
2n (32 ) Forms
S p e c ie s If F = 1
1 (32 ) g-
I f F= 2
1 (32 ) g
2 (32 ) S : I*
I f F 4
1 (32). g
2 (32 ) g:g
22(32) gsgsl.
If F - B
1 (32) G
2 (32) G:g
22(32) G:g:g
23(32) Ssgsgsf.
Variations
2 n ( 3 .5 ) Forms
S p e c ie s I f F 2
1 ( 3 .5 )
If F = 4
1 (3*5) e
2 (3*5) e:l.
275
If F= 8
1 (3 * 5 ) e
2 (3*5) e :e
2 2 (3 * 5 ) e:e:e,
If F -1 6
1 (3*5) E
2 (3-5) E :e
22 ( 3 - 5 ) E :e :e
2 5 ( 3 5) E :e :e :e .
V ariations
2^(52) Forms
Species I f F 4
1 ( 52 ) c#.
If F - 8
1 (52) c#
2 (52) c#:c#.
I f F 16
1 (5 2 ) c#
2 (5 2) c#:c#
22 (52 ) c#:c#:c#.
I f F = 32
1 (5 2 ) 04
2 (52 ) C#:c#
22 ( 52 ) C#:c#:c#
23 (52 ) C #:c#:c#:c#.
276
V ariations
?n * ( 3 3 ) Forms
Species I f F 4
1 (35 ) d.
If F=8
1 (33 ) d
2 (33 ) d:d.
I f F 16
1 (33 ) d
2 (33 ) d:d
2 2 (3 3 ) d:d:cL
I f F 32
1 (33 ) D
2 (33 ) D:d
22 (33 ) D :a:d
2 3 (33 ) D :d:d:d.
V ariations
2^(32.5) Forms
Species If F= 4
1 (3 2 5) b.
If F =8
1 (3 2 *5) b
2 ( 3 2 *5) b :b.
277
I f F 16
1 ( 3 2 5) b
2 (3 2 5) b:b
2 ( 3 2 *5) b:b :b.
I f F = 32
1 ( 3 2 *5) B
2 (3 2 *5) B:b
2 ( 3 2 *5) B :b:b
2 ( 3 2 -5) B:b :b : b .
V ariations
2n ( 3 * 5 2 ) Forms
Species I f F 8
1 (3*52) I#.
If F -1 6
1 (3*52) S#
2 (3*52) g#:g#.
I f F = 32
1 (3*52) g#
2 (3* 52) g#:g#
22(3*52) g#:g#:g#.
I f F~ 64
1 (3 *5 2 ) G#
2 (3*52 ) G#:g#
2 2 (3 5 2 ) G#:g#:g#
2 3 ( 3* 52 ) G #:g#:g#:I#.
278
V ariations
2n ( 3 3 ' 5 ) Forms
Species I f F = 16
2 (33 , 5 ) f#.
I f F 32
1 ( 3 3 -5 ) f#
2 ( 3 3 *5) f# :f# .
I f F = 64
1 (33 , 5 ) f#
2 ( 3 3 , 5) f#:f#
2 2 (3 3 *5) f#sf#sf#.
I f F 128
1 (33.5) F#
2 (33.5) F#:f#
22(33-5) F #;f#:f# .
23(33.5) F#sf#jf#:F#.
V ariations
2 n ( 3 =5 ^ ) Forms
Species I f F 32
1 ( 3 2 *52 ) a#.
I f F 64
1 (32 ' 5 2 ) d#
2 ( 3 2 *52 )
279
I f F 128
1 ( 3 2 *52 ) d#
2 (3 2 5 2 ) d#:d#
22 ( 32 . 5 2 ) d#:d#:3#.
I f F 256
1 ( 3 2 *52 ) D#
2 ( 32 52 ) D#:d#
2 2 ( 3 2 *52 ) D #:d#:d#
23 ( j 2 . 52 ) P#:d#:3#:3#.
V ariations
2n ( 3 3 , 52 ) Forms
Spec i e s I f F = 64
1 ( 3 3 52 ) bb.
I f F 128
1 ( 3 3 *52 ) bb
2 ( 3 3 , 52 ) b b :bb .
I f F 256
1 ( 3 3 *5 2 ) bb
2 ( 3 3 *5 2 ) b b ;bb
2 2 ( 3 3 *5 2 ) b b*bb : b b .
I f F : 512
1 (3 3 52 ) Bb
2 (3 3 *52 ) Bb : b b
2 2 ( 3 3 *52 ) Bb :bb :bb

2 3 ( 3 3 . 5 2) Bb : b b :bk :bk .
280
CONSONANCES 2 n , 3
V ariations
2 n * 3 ( 1) Forms
Species If F - 1
3(1) F:c
2 -3(1) F :f:c:c
22.3(1) F :f :c :f:c :c
2 3 *3 (1 ) F :f : c : f :c : f : c .
If F = 2
2 3(1) F : c :c
22.3(1) F :c:f;c:c

23 - 3 ( l ) F :c:f:c:f:c:c
2 4 3 (1 ) F : o : f : c : f : c : f :c.
If F = 4
22-3(1) C :F:c:c
23.3(1) C : F : c : f :c :E
24*3(1) C :F :c :f:c :f :c:c
23-3(1) C : F : c : f : c : f : c : f :E.
V ariations
2n 3 ( 3 ) Forms
Spe c i e s I f F 1
3(3) c:g
2 .3(3) c:c:g
22 * 3 ( 3 ) c:c:g :c.
281
If F= 2
3(3) c:g
2 *3(3) c:c:g :g
22 '3 ( 3 ) c:c:g :5 :g
23 *3(3) c:c:g :c:g :c.
If F = 4
3(3) C:g
2 -3(3) C :c:g :g
22 3 ( 3 ) C ;c:g :c:g :g
23-3(3) C :c:g :c:g :c:g
24-3(3) C :c:g :c:g :c:g :c.
I f F 8
2 -3(3) C :G :g
22-3(3) C :G :c:g:g
23-3(3) C :G :c:g :c:g :g
24 .3 (3 ) C :G :c:g :c:g :c:g
2 5 .3 (3 ) C :G :c:g :c:g :c:g :c.
V ariatio n s
2 n *3 ( 5 ) Forms
S pecies I f F 2
3(5) a :e
2 *3(5) a :a:e
>2 .
3(5)
282
If F= 4
3(5) A:e
2 *3 (5 ) A : a : e :e
22 3 ( 5 ) A : a : e : a :e
S3 3 (5 ) A :a:eja;l:a.
I f F 8
2 *3 (5 ) A:e :e
2 2 *3(5 ) A :e:a:e:e
2 3 *3(5 ) A :e:a:e:a:l
2 4 *3 (5 ) A:e :a :e : a :e ;a<
If F -16
2 2 *3(5 ) E:A :e:e
23 *3 ( 5 ) E:A :e:a:e:S
24 3 ( 5) E : A : e :a : e : a : e
2 5 *3(5) E ;A :e:a:e:a:e:a.
V ariations
2n 3 ( 3 2 ) Forms
Species I f F 4
3(32 ) g:d
2 *3(3 2 ) g:g:d
2 2 *3(32 ) g:g:d:g.
283
If F =8
3(32 ) G ;d
2 *3(32 ) G :g :d :d
2 2 3 ( 32 ) G :g :d ig :d
23 *3(32 ) G :g :d :g :d :g .
I f F 16
2 3 (32 ) G :d:d
22 * 3 (3 2 ) G :d :g ;d :d
23 *3(32 ) G :d :g :d :g :d
2 4 *3 ( 3 2 ) G :d :g :d :g :d :g .
If F -3 2
2 2 .3 (3 2 ) D :G :d:d
23 * 3 (3 2 ) D :G :d:g:d:d
24 ,3(32 ) D :G :d :g :d :g :d
2^*3(32 ) D :G :d :g :d :g :d :g .
V ariatio n s
2n * 3 ( 3 5 ) Forms
S pecies If F = 4
3(3*5) e :b
2 *3(3*5; e : e :b .
If F = 8
3(3*5) e :b
2 *3(3*5) o : e : b :b
2 2 .3(3*5) e : e : b : e :b
284
If F - 16
3 (3 * 5 ) E :b
2 *3(3-5) E :e:b:b
22*3(3*5) E :e:b:e:b:B
23 *3 (3 * 5 ) E :e:b :e:b :e:b .
I f F = 32
2 * 3 (3 * 5 ) E:B:b
2 2 *3(3*5) E :B :e:b:b
25 *3(3*5) E :B :e;bje:b:b
2 4 *3 ( 3 * 5 ) E :B :e:b :e:b :e:b .
V ariations
2*1*3(52) Forms
Species If F I 8
3(52) c#:g#
2 *3(52) c#:c#:g#.
I f F 16
3(52) c#:g#
2 *3(52) c#:c#:g#:g#
22.3(52) c#:c#:g#:c#:g#.
I f F 32
3(52 ) C#sg#
2 *3(52 ) C #:c#:g#:g#
2 2 *3(52 ) C #:c#:g#:c#:g#:g^
2 3 *3 (5 2 ) C #:c#:g#:c#:g#:c#:l#.
285
I f F = 64
2 * 3( 52 ) C #:G #:g #
22 *3(52 ) C#:G #:c#:g#:g#
23 *3(52 ) C #:G #:c#:g#:c#;g#:g#
24 *3(52 ) G #:G #;c#:g#:c#:g#:c#:g#.
V ariations
2n * 3 ( 3 2 * 5 ) Forms
Species I f F = 16
3 ( 3 2 , 5) b:f#
2 * 3 ( 3 2 *5) b:b :f#
22 , 3 ( 3 2 * 5 ) b :b :f# :b .
I f F 32
3 ( 3 2 *5) B:f#
2 *3 ( 3 2 *5) B:b
2 2 *3(3 2 5) B :b:f#:b:f#
2 3 *3 (3 2 , 5) B :b :f# :b :f# :b .
If FZ64
2 *3 (3 2 , 5) B :f#:f#
2 2 *3(3 2 , 5) B :f#:b:f#;f#
2 3 *3(3 2 , 5) B :f# :b : f # : b :?#
2 4 * 3 ( 3 2 5) B :f#:b :f# :b : f # : b .
286
If P 128
2 2 3 ( 3 2 *5) F#:B :f#:f#
2 3 * 3 ( 3 2 *5) F #:B :f#:b:f#:f#
2 4 - 3 ( 3 2 *5) F#:B :f#:b:f#:b:f#
2 5 . 3 ( 3 2 5) F # :B :f#:b:f#;b:?#:b.
V ariations
2n * 3 ( 3 * 5 2 ) Forms
Spe c i e s I f F 32
3(3* 5 2 ) g#:3#
2 3(3* 5 2 ) g#:g#:d#
2 2 * 3 (3* 52 ) g#:g#:d#:g#.
I f F 64
3 ( 3 52 ) G#:d#
2 *3(3* 5 2 ) Gjjfsg#:d#:d#
22 , 3 ( 3 * 5 2 ) G#:g#:d#:g#:ci#
2 3 , 3(3* 5 2 ) G # :g#:d#:g#:d#:|#.
I f F 128
2 *3(3*52 ) G#:d#:d#
22 * 3 ( 3 * 5 2 ) G #:d#:g#:d#:d#
23 ' 3 ( 3 5 2 ) G #:d#:g#:3#:g#:d#
24 *3(3*5 2 ) G #;d#:g#:d#:g#:d#:g#.
287
I f F = 256
22 *3(3*52 ) D#:G#:d#;5#
2 S * 3 (3 * 5 2 ) D #:G #:d#:g#:d#:d#
2 4 * 3 (3 * 5 2 ) D #:G #:d#:g#:d#:g#:d#
25 * 3 (3 * 5 2 ) D #:G #:d#;g#:d#:g#:d#:g#.
V ariations
2n 3 (3 2 52 ) Forms
Species I f F - 64
3(32.52) d#:bb
2 3 (32 52 ) d#:d#:b'.
I f F S 128
3(32*52) d#:bb
2 . 3 (3 2 . 5 2 ) d # : d # : b ^ :bb
2 2 . 3 (3 2 . 5 2 ) d # :d # :b b :d#:bb .
I f F 256
3(32.52) D# :bb
2 .3(32.52) D # : d # : b b :b^
2 2 *3 (? 2 . 52 ) D # : d # : b b : d # : b b :bb
2 ^ . 3 ( 3 2 *52 ) D#: d # : b b ; d # : b b : d # : b ^ .
I f F 512
2 *3(32 , 52 ) D#;Bb :b b
2 2 3 ( 3 2 , 5 2 ) D#:Bb : d # : b b :b b
2 3 *3(3 2 5 2 ) D#:Bb : d # : b b : d # : b b : b b
2 4 *3 (3 2 , 5 2 ) D#':Bb : d # : b b : d # : b b : d # : b ^ .
288
CONSONANCES 2n '5
V ariations
2n *5 (1 ) Forms
Species If F=1
5(1) F :a
2 -5(1) F :f:a;I
22.5(1) F :f:f:a:a
23*5(1) F :f:f:a:f:a.
I f F 2
2 *5(1) F :a:a
2 2.5(1) F :f:a:a;a
23-5(1) F :f:a:f:a;a
24.5(1) F : f : a ; f : a : f :a.
If F = 4
22.5(1) F :A :a:a
23.5(1) F :A :f:a:a:a
24.5(1) F :A :f:a:f:a:a
25.5(1) F :A :f:a:f:a:f:a.
V ariations
2n * 5 ( 3 ) Forms
Species If F=2
5(3) c :e
2 *5(3) c :c : I
22 *5(3) c :c ; c : e .
289
If F = 4
5(3) Cse
2 *5 (3 ) C:c:e:e
2 2 *5 (3 ) C ;c:c:e:e
2 3 *5 ( 3 ) C :c:c:e:c:e.
I f F 8
2 *5(3) C :e:e
2 2 *5 ( 3 ) C :c:e:e:e
23*5(3) C :c:e:c:e:e
2 4* 5 ( 3) C : c : e : c : e : c :I
I f F 16
22 * 5 ( 3 ) C :E:e:e
23*5(3) C :E :c:e:e:l
24*5(3) C : E : c : e : c : e :e
25 *5 (3 ) C : E : c :e :c :e
V ariations
2n *5 ( 5 ) Forms
Species If F - 4
5(5) A :c #
2 * 5 (5 ) A:a : c #
22 *5(5) A :a:a:c#
23 *5(5) A :a:a;c#:a.
290
I f F 8
2 *5 (5 ) A :c#:c#
22 , 5(5) A :a:c#:c#
2 3 *5 (5 ) A :a:c#:a:c#
2^*5(5) A :a:c#:a:c#:a.
I f F 16
2 2 , 5{ 5) A :c#:c#:c#
2^*5(5) A :c#:a:c#:c#
2^*5(5) A :c#:a:c#:a:c#
2^*5(5) A :c#:a:c#:a:c#:a.
I f F 32
23*5(5) C#:A :c#:c#:5#
2^*5(5) C #:A :c#:a:c#:c#
2 5 *5 (5 ) C #:A :c#:a:c#:a:c#
2 6 *5 (5 ) C # :A :c#:a;c#;a:c#;t.
V ariations
2n 5 ( 3 2 ) Forms
Species I f F 4
5(32 ) gib
2 *5(32 ) g;g:b
2 2 5 ( 32 ) g :g ;g :l,
291
If F= 8
5(32 ) Gib
2 *5(32 ) G : g : b :b
22 , 5 (32 ) G ig:g:b:b
2 3 *5(32 ) G ;g:g:b:g;b
If F=16
2 *5(32 ) G:b:b
22 5 ( 3 2 ) G : g : b : b :b
2 3 5 (3 2 ) G :g:b:g:b:b
2 4 *5(3 2 ) G:g:b : g : b : g : b .
I f F 32
22 * 5 ( 3 2 ) G :B :b :b
2 3 . 5 (32 ) G : B : g : b : b :b
24 * 5 ( 3 2 ) G :B :g:b:g:b:b
23 - 5 ( 3 2 ) G : B : g : b : g : b :g:T.
V ariations
2*5(3*5) Forms
Species If F= 8
5(3*5) e:g#
2 *5(3*5) e:e:g#
2 2 *5(3 *5) e : e : e :#.
I f F =16
5 ( 3 5) E:g#
2 *5(3*5) E :e;g#:l#
2 2 *5(3 *5) E :e:e:g#:g#

2 3 . 5 ( 3 *5) E :e:e:g#:e:g#.
292
I f F 32
2 5(3-5) E:g#:g#
22.5(3.5) E:e : g # : # : ! #
23*5(3.5) E:e sg # :e :g # :g #
24.5(3*5) E:e : g # : e : g # : e : g # .
I f F 64
2 2 .5(3.5) E:G#:g#:g#
23 .5 (3 .5 ) E :G #:e:g#:g#:g#
24.5(3.5) E :G #:e:g#:e:g#:g#
2 5 .5 (3 .5 ) E :G #:e;g#:e:g#:e:g#.
V ariations
2n.5(33 ) Forms
Species If F=16
5(33) d :f#
2 *5(33 ) d:d:F #
22 * 5 ( 3 3 ) d:d :d :f# .
If F ~32
5(33 ) D:f#
2 *5(33 ) D :d:f#:f#
22 5 (3 3 ) D :d :d :f# :f#
23 * 5 ( 3 3 ) D :d:d:f#:d:F #.
293
I f F 64
2 -5(33 ) D :f#:f#
22 *5(33 ) D :d :f# :f# :f#
23 *5(33 ) D : d : f # : d : f # :?#
24 5(33 ) D :d:f#:d:f#:d:?#.
If F=I28
22 *5(33 ) D :F#:f#:F#
2 3 *5 (3 3 ) D :F #:d:f#:f#:f#
2 4 *5 (3 3 ) D ;F #:d:f# :d :f# :f#
25 5 ( 3 3 ) D :F #:d:f#:d:f#:d:f#.
V ariations
2 n * 5 ( 3 2 , 5) Forns
Species If F 32
5 ( 3 2 , 5) B:d#
2 5 ( 3 2 *5 ) B :b : 3 #
22 , 5 ( 3 2 *5) B :b :b
23 , 5 ( 3 2 , 5) B :b:b;d#:b.
I f F 64
2 *5 ( 32 *5) B :d#:d#
2 2 * 5 ( 3 2 *5) B :b:d#:d#
23 , 5 ( 3 2 , 5 } B :b:d#:b:d#
24 *5 ( 3 2 *5) B:b : d # : b : d # : b .
294
I f F Z 128
2 2 *5(3 2 5) B :d#:d#:t#
2 3 5 ( 3 2 *5) B :d#:b:d#:d#
2 4 * 5 ( 3 2 5) B :d#:b:d#:b:d#
2 5 - 5 ( 3 2 *5) B :d#:b:d#:b;d#:b.
I f F - 256
2 3 , 5 ( 3 2 *5) D#:B:d#:d#:3#
2 4 ' 5 ( 3 2 *5) D #:B :d#:b:d#:5#
25 , 5 ( 3 2 , 5) D #:3;d#;b:d#:b:d#
2 6 * 5 ( 3 2 *5) D#:B:d#:b :d # ;b :d # :b .
V ariations
2n * 5 ( 3 3 5) Forms
Species I f F 64
5 ( 3 3 *5) f #st)!:>
2 * 5 (3 3 , 5) F #:f#:bb
22 5 ( 3 3 * 5) F #:f#:f#:bb.
I f F Z 128
5 ( 3 3 *5) F#:bb
2 *5 (3 3 " 5) F # :f # :b b :bb
22 , 5 ( 3 3 , 5 J F#;f#:f#:bîb^
2 3 * 5 ( 3 3 *5) F # :f# :f# :b b: f # : lb.
295
I f F S 256
2 * 5 ( 3 3 5) F # : b b :b^
2 2 *5 (3 3 *5) F # : f # : b b :b^:b^
23 . 5 (33 . 5 ) F # : f # : b to: f # : b b : b b
2 4 * 5 ( 3 3 *5) F # : f # : b b : f # : b b :? # :i)b.
I f F 512
2 2 *5 (3 3 *5) F#:Bb : b b :b b
23 *5(33 , 5 ) F # : B b : f # : b b : b b :b b
2 4 *5 ( 3 3 *5) F#:Bb: f # i b b : f # : b b :bb
2 5 5 ( 3 3 *5) F # : B b : f # :b b : f # : b b : f # :b b .
CONSONANCES 2n *32
V ariations
2n *3 2 ( l ) Forms
Species If F = 1
3 2 (1) F : c sg
2 *3 2 ( 1 ) F :f:c:5 :g
2 2 *3 2 (1) F :f;c;f;c;g ;c
2 3 *3 2 ( 1 ) F :f:c;f:c:f:g :c.
If F = 2
2 *3 2 ( 1 ) F :c:c:g :g
2 2 *3 2 (1 ) F :c :f :c:g:c:g
2 3 *3 2 ( 1 ) F :c:f:c:f:g :c:g :c
2 4 *32 ( 1 ) F :c:f:c:f:g :3 :f:g :c.
/
296
If F=4
2 2 3 2 ( 1 ) C sF :c:g:c:g:g
2 3>3 2 (1 ) C :F jc:f :g:c:g:c:g
24 ' 3 2 (1) G: F : c : f : g ; c : f : g : c : g : c
25 , 32 ( 1 ) C : F : c ; f ; g : c : f : g : c : f : g : c .
I f F 8
2 3 *32 (1 ) C :F :G :c:g:c:g:g
2 4 -3 2 < l ) C :F :G :c:f:g:c:g:c:g
2 5 *3 2 ( 1 ) C :F :G :c:f:g :c:f:g :c:g :c
26 - 3 2 ( l ) C :F :G :c zf : g : c : f : g : c : ? : g : c .
V ariations
2n *3 2 ( 3 ) Forms
Species I f F4
3 2 (3 ) C sg ;3
2 *32(3) C : c :g : g : 3
22.3 2 (3 ) G :c :g : c : g : 3 : g
23*32(3) C :c;g :c:g :c:d :l.
If F =8
2 3 2 (3 ) G :G :g:d:S
2232(3 ) C :G :c:g:d:g:H
23.32(3) G ;G ;c:g :c:d :g :d :f
24 *3 2 ( 3 ) C :G :c:g :c:d :g :c:d :g .
297
I f F = 16
2 2 , 3 2 (3) C : G : d : g : d :d
2 3 *3 2 ( 3 ) C : G : c : d : g :ct:g:cl
2 4 3 2 (3 ) C : G : c : d : g : c :3:g:H:g
2 5 *3 2 ( 3 ) C : G : c : d : g :c :d:g:c:d;g.
I f F 32
2 3 *3 2 ( 3 ) C : D s G : d : g :d:d
24 32 (3) C ; D : G : c : d :g:d ;g:d
2 5 *3 2 ( 3 ) G : D : G : c : d :g:c:d:g:cT:g
2 6 *32 ( 3 ) C :D :G :c :d :g:c:d:g:5:d:g.
V ariatio n s
2 *1 . 3 2 ( 5 ) Forms
Species If F4
32 (5) A:e :B
2 3 2 ( 5 ) A: a : : 1 :B
22 * 3 2 {5} A : a : e : a : e :b
23 -32 (5) A : a : e : a :e I : b .
If F = 8
2 32 (5 ) A : e :e:B :B
2 2 *3 2 ( 5 ) A : e : a : e :b :e:b
2 3 *3 2 ( 5 ) A : e : a : e ; a :B: e :b
2 4 *3 2 ( 5 ) ; A : e : a : e : a : b : e : a :b .
298
I f F = 16
2 2 *3 2 ( 5 ) E : A : e : b : e :b
2 3 *3 2 ( 5 ) E sA :e:a:b :e:b :e:l)
2 4 3 2 ( 5 ) E:A :e :a :b : e : a : b : e : B
2 5 3 2 (5) E : A : e : a :b : e : a :b : e : a : b .
I f F 32
23#3 2 (5) E : A : B : e : b : e :b :b
2 4 3 2 ( 5 ) E :A :B :e:a:b ;e:b :e:b
2 5 3 2 ( 5 ) E : A : B : e : a : b : e : a :b : e : b
26 -3 2 (5) E :A :B :e:a:b : e : a : b : e : a : b .
2n - 3 2 (3*5) Forms
Species I f F 16
32(3*5) E :b :f#
2 .32(3*5) E : e : b :b : ? #
2 2 .3 2 (3 .5 ) E : e : b : e :b : f # : b
2 3 * 32(3.5) E : e : b : e :b : e : f # : E .
I f F 32
2 *32 (3*5) E :B :b :f# :f#
22 , 3 2 (3 * 5 ) E :B :e:b :f# :b :f#
2 3 *3 2 ( 3 * 5 ) E :B :c:b :e:f# :b :f# :b
24 , 32 ( 3 * 5 ) E :B :e:b :e:f# :b :e:f#
29S
I f F 64
22 * 3 2 ( 3 5 ) E :B :f#:b:f#:f#
23 , 3 2 (3* 5 ) E :B :e:f#:b:f#:b:f#
24 , 3 2 (3* 5 ) E:B:e : f # s b : e : f # : b : f # : b
25 3 2 ( 3 * 5 ) E :B :e:f#:b : e :f# :b :e :f# :b .
I f F S 128
23 * 3 2 ( 3 * 5 ) E :F #:B :f#:b:f#:f#
24 *32 ( 3 * 5 ) E:F #:B :e:f#:b:f#:B :f#
23 3 2 ( 3 * 5 ) E :F #:B :e:f#:b:e:f#:b:f#:b
26 * 3 2 ( 3 * 5 ) E : F # : B : e : f # : b :e : f # : b : e : f # : b .
V ariations
2n 3 2 ( 5 2 ) Forms
Species I f F 32
3 2 ( 52 ) C #:g#:l#
2 * 3 2 ( 52 ) C#:c#:g#:g#:S#
22 *32 ( 5 2 ) C#:c#:g#:c#:g#:d#:g#
23 3 2 ( 52 ) C ^:c#:g#:c#:g#:c#:3#:g#.
I f F 64
2 3 2 ( 52 ) C #:G#:g#:d#:l#
22 32 ( 52 ) C#:G #:c:g#:d#:g#:I#
23 -32 (52 ) C#:G #:c#:g#:c#:d#:g#:d#:g#
24 , 3 2 (5 2 ) C#:G7^ : c # : g # : c # s 3 # : g # : c # : d # : g # .
300
I f F 12 8
22 3 2 ( 52 ) C # ; G# : d # : g # : d # : d#
23 *3 2 (5 2 ) C#:G #:c#:d#:g#:d#:g#:3#
24 * 32 ( 52 ) C #:G #:c#:d#:g#:c#:d#:g#:d#:g#
2s * 3 2 ( 52 ) C #:G #:c#:d#:g#:c#:d#:g#:c#:d#:g#.
I f F = 256
23 3 2 ( 5 2 ) C # ; D # :G # :d # :g # : d # : d #
2 4 3 2 ( S2 } C#:D#:G #:c#:d#:g#:d#:g#:d#
2 5 *3 2 ( 5 2 ) C #:D #:G #:c#:d#:g#:c#:d#:g#;3#:g#
2 6 * 3 2 ( 52 ) C #sD #:G #:c#:d#:g#:c#:d#:g#:c#:3#:g#.
V ariatio n s
2n *3 2 ( 3 * 5 2 ) Forms
S pecies If F=64
3 2 ( 3 52 )
2 *3 2 ( 3 * 5 2 ) 0 # :g # :S # :d # :b b
22 , 32 (3*52 ) G#:g # :d#:g # ;3#:bb
2 3 *3 2 ( 3 * 5 2 ) G #:g#:d#:g#:d#:g#jB ^.
I f F 12 8
2 32 ( 3 52 ) G # :d # : d # :b :b^
2 2 *3 2 ( 3 * 5 2 ) G#: d # : g # : ct# :b b : d#
2 3 *3 2 ( 3 * 5 2 ) G # :d #:g#;d #:g#:b ^ :5#:b ^
2 4 *3 2 ( 3 5 2 ) G # :d # :g # :d # :g # :b b :5 # :g # ;b b .
301
I f F = 256
2 2 *3 2 (3 * 5 2 } D#: G# id# :bb : d# :bb
2 3 *32 ( 3 * 5 2 ) D#:G#:d#:g#:bk :d#:b^:d#:b^
2 4 *32 ( 3 * 5 2 ) D#; G#: d # : g# : b ^ : dp : g # b ^ : I # :T>^
2 5 *3 2 { 3* 5 2 ) D#:G#:d# :g#:b& s g # : b ^ ; 3 # :g# .
I f F 512
2 3 *3 2 ( 3 * 5 2 ) D#: G#: : d# ib*3 : d# :b^
2 4 *32 (3 * 5 2 ) D#: G # : B 1* : d # : g # :b >: d# : d# :!>*>
2 5 *3 2 ( 3 * 5 2 ) D #:G # : B b ; d # : g # : b ^ :d # : g # f & b :3#:Bfe>
2 6 *3 2 {3*52 ) D#:G#:Bk>j d # : g # : b i> :d#:g#:T>k :d#:g#:T>*\
CONSONANCES 2n 35
V ariations
2n - 3* 5 ( 1) Forms
Species If F = 1
3*5(1) F : c :a
2 * 3 * 5 (1 ) F :f:c:a:c:a
m " SI S *
2 2 *3 *5 (1) F :f:c:f:a;c:a:c
- a
2 3 * 3* 5 (1) F :f :c:f :a :c :f: :c .
I f F 2
3*5(1) c :a ;1
2 -3-5(1) F :c:a:c:a:e
22 - 3 * 5 ( l ) F :c : f :a :c :a :c :e :5
2 3 *3*5(1 ) F :c:f :a :c:f :a:c:e:a:c
2 4 * 3 5 ( 1 ) F scjfsa jcifsa jcsfififjc.
302
If F= 4
3*5(1) C:A:e
2 *3*5(1) C :A :c:a:esf
22 * 3 * 5 ( 1 ) C :F:A :c:a:cse:a:e
23 * 3 * 5 ( 1 ) C :F :A :c:f:a:c;e:a:c:e:a
24 * 3 * 5 ( 1 ) C :F :A :c :f:a :c :e :f:a :c :e:a:c
25.3*5(1) C:F:A:c : f :a :c :e : f :a :c : l : f : a : l .
I f F 8
2 *3*5(1) C :A :e se
2 2.3*5(1) C :A :c:e:a:e:e
23*3*5(1) C :F :A :c:e:a:c:e:a;e
24.3 * 5 (1 ) C :F:A :c:e;f : a : c : e : a : c : e : I
25.3*5(1) C :F:A :c:e:f : a : c s e : f :a:c:'e:a:c.
I f F 16
22. 3 * 5 ( 1 ) C:E:A:e je
23.3*5(1) C: E : A s c : e : a :e :e
24. 3 * 5 ( 1 ) C :E :F :A :c:e:asc:e:a:e
25-3*5(1) C :E :F :A :c:e:f:a:c:e:ajc:e:a.
V ariations
2 n *3 *5(3) Forms
Species I f F 2
3 *5(3) c:g:e
mm m
2 *3*5(3) c:c:g:e:g
2 2 *3 *5(3) c :c:g:c;e:g.
303
If F= 4
3 * 5 (3 ) C :g:e:b
2 *3*5(3) C :c:g :e:g :e:b
22. 3 . 5 (3 ) C :c:g:c:e:g:e:g;b
23.3*5(3) C :c:g ;c:e:g :5 :e:g :b .
If F= 8
3*5(3) G :e:b
2 *3*5(3) C :G :e:g;e;b;b
22. 3 . 5 (3 ) C :G :c:e:g :e:g :b :e:b
23.3*5(3) C :G :c:e:g :c:e:g :b :e:g ;b
24.3*5(3) C:G:c : e : g : c : e : g i b : c : e : g : b .
If F =16
2 *3*5(3) E?G :e:b:b
2 2 . 3 . 5 (3 ) C :E :G se:g:b:e:b
23.3*5(3) CiE:G:c : e : g : b : e ; g : B : e : b
24.3*5(3) C :E :G ;c:e:g :b :c:e:g :b :l:g :l
2 5 .3.5(3) C : E : G : c :e : g : b : 5 :e : g : b : c : e : g : b .
If F=32
2 2 * 3 * 5 (3 ) E:G :B :e:b:b
2* 3 * 5 ( 3 ) C jE iG iB iejgibjejbsS
24 *3*5(3) 0 :E jG :3:c:e:g:b:e:g:b:e:b
2 * 3 * 5 ( 3 ) C :E :G :B :c:e:g:b :c :e :g :b :e :g :b .
304
V ariations
2n * 3 * 5 ( 5 ) Poms
Species If F= 4
3*5(5) A tetc#
2 *3*5(5) A :a:e:c#:e
22 * 3 * 5 ( 5 ) A :a::a:c#:e
23 * 3 * 5 ( 5 ) A tatetatc# :eta.
If F=8
3*5(5) e :c # :|#
2 *3*5(5) A te:c#re:c#:g#
22 *3 *5 (5 ) A te :a : c # : e : c # : e : g #
23 * 3 * 5 (5 ) A te : a t c # : e : a t c # t e t g #
24 * 3 * 5 ( 5 ) A tetatc# :e:a:c# :e:g # :a.
If F =16
3*5(5) E :c#tg#
2 * 3 * 5 (5 ) E tc#tetc#tg#:g#
22 * 3 * 5 ( 5 ) EtA tc^te tc # te tg # :c # :g #
23 3 5 (5) E : A : c # : e t a t c # : e : g # : c # : e tg #
24 * 3 * 5 ( 5 ) E:A tc#:e ta ;c # te tg # : a :5 # :e tg #
25 *3 *5(5 ) E tA tc # te ;a tc # te :g # ta :c # :e tg#ta.
I f F 32
2 *3 5(5) C #tEtc#tg#:g#
22 .3 .5(5) C #:E tc#te:g#:c#:g#tg#
2 3 *3 *5( 5) C #tE :A tc#te:g#:c#:etg#rc#tg#
2 4 *3 *5(5) C #tE tA tc#te:g#:a:c#:e:g#tc#tetg#
2 3 *3 *5(5) C#tE:A :c#:e t g # t a : c # : e t g # t d t c # t e t g #
I
305
If F~64
2 2 * 3 * 5 (5 ) C#:E:G #:c#:g#:g#
23 , 3*5(5) C #:E :G #:c#:e:g#:c#:g#:g#
24 , 3 * 5 ( 5 ) C #:E :G #:A :c#:e:g#:c#:e:g#:c#:g#
2 5 * 3 *5 (5 ) C #:E :G #:A :c#:e:g#:a:c#:e:g#;c#:e:g#.
V ariations
2n * 3* 5( 32 ) Forms
Species I f F 4
3 5 ( 32 ) g:d:b
2 3 5 ( 32 ) g:g:d:b
2 2 *3*5(32 ) g:g:d:g:b.
I f F 8
3*5(32 ) G:3?b
2 *3 * 5 ( 3 2 ) G :g:d:b:d:b
22 *3 *5 ( 3 2 ) G:g : d : g : b : d : b
23 *3 *5 ( 3 2 ) G ;g:d :g :b :d :g :b .
I f F = 16
35(32 ) d :b :f#
2 3* 5 ( 3 2 ) G :d:b :d:b :?#
2 2 3 5 ( 32 ) G : d ; g :b : d : b : d : f # : b
23 * 3 5 ( 3 2 ) G : d : g : b : d : g : b :3.:f#:b
24 * 3 * 5 (3 2 ) G :d :g :b :d:g:b:d:f#:gib.
I f P 32
3*5(32 ) D :B:f#
2 * 3 * 5 (3 2 ) D :B :d:b:f#:f#
22 - 3 - 5 ( 3 2 ) D :G :B :d:b:d:f#:b:f#
23 * 3 5 ( 3 2 ) D :G :B :d:g:b:d;f#:b:d:f#:b
2^ 3 5 ( 32 ) D :G :B :d:g:b:d:f#:g:b :d :f# :b
2^ 3 5 ( 3 2 ) D :G :B :d:g:b:d;f#;g:b:d:f#:g:b.
I f F 64
2 3 5 ( 32 ) D :B :f#:F#
22 *3 *5(3 2 ) D :B ;d:f#:b : f # : f #
23- 3 - 5 (3 2 ) D ;G :B :d:f#:b:d:f#:b:f#
2^ 3 5 ( 3 2 ) D :G :B :d :f# ;g :b :d :f# :b :d :f# :b
25-3-5(32) D :G :B :d:f#:g:b:d:f#:g;b:d:f#:b.
I f F 128
22 , 3 * 5 ( 3 2 ) D :F#:B :f#:f#
23 3 5 ( 3 2 ) D :F #:B :d:f#:b:f#:f#
24 * 3 * 5 ( 3 2 ) D :F#:G :B :d:f#:b:d:f#:b:f#
25 * 3 * 5 ( 3 2 ) D :F # :G :B :d:f#:g:b:d:f#:b:d:f#:b,
V ariations
2 n , 3 *5(3*5) Forms
Species I f F8
3 *5(3 *5) e :b :g#
2 -3-5(3-5) e : e :b : g # : b
2 2 - 3 -5(3 -5) e:e:b:e:g#:b.
307
I f F 16
3*5(3*5 E : b :g#
2 *3 * 5 (3 * 5 E :e:b:g#:b:g#
22 3 * 5 (3 5 E:e:b :e:g#:b :g#:b

2 3 * 3*5(3 *5 E : e :b :e : g # :b :e :g # : b .
I f F 32
3* 5(3* 5 B :g#:d#
2 *3* 5 (3 5 E :B :g#:b:g#:d#
22 3*5(3 *5 E :B :e:g # :b :g # :b :d # :g #
23 3 5 ( 3 5 E : B : e :g#:b :e :g#:b :3#:g#:b
24 *3 * 5 (3 5 E : B : e :g # :b :e :g # sb :d # :e :g # :b .
I f F 64
2 3* 5( 3 5 G #:B :g#:d#:d#
2^*3*5(3*5 E:G#:B:g#:b:d#;g#:d#
2 3 *3 * 5 ( 3* 5 E:G#:B:e:g#:b:d#:g#:b:<f#:g#
24 *3 *5 (3 * 5 E :G #:B :e:g#:b:d#:e:g#:b:d#:g#:b
2 5 *3* 5( 3*5 E :G #:B :e:g# :b :d #:e:g#:b :d # :e:g #:b .
I f F = 128
2^*3* 5 ( 3 * 5 G#;B:d#:g#:d#:d#
2 3 *3* 5( 3*5 E:G #:B:d#:g#:b:d#:g#:3#

2 4 *3 5 ( 3 * 5 E:G #:B:d#:e:g#:b:d#:g#:b:d#:g#
25 * 3 5 (3 5 E :G # :B :d #:e:g#:b :d #:e:g#:b :d #:g#:b .
I f F 256
2 3 *3 *5(3 *5 D#:G#:B:d#:g#:d#:3#
24>3 * 5 ( 3 * 5 D#:E:G#:B:d#:g#:b:d#:g#:I#
2 5 *3*5(3*5 D #:E :G #:B :d#:e:g#:b:5#:g#:b:d#:g#.
308
V ariations
2n *3 5 ( 3 2 *5) Forms
Species If F=32
3 * 5 ( 3 2 *5; B :f#:d#
2 * 3 * 5 ( 3 2 *5 B :b:f#:d#:f#
2 2 *3*5{32 *5 B :b :f# :b :d # :f#
2 3 * 3 * 5 ( 3 2 *5 B : b : f # : b ; d # : ! # : b ,
I f F 64
3* 5 ( 3 2 , 5 f#:d#:b
2 * 3 * 5 ( 3 2 *5 B :f#:d#:f#:d#:bb
2 2 * 3 * 5 ( 3 2 *5 B ;f#:b :d # :f# :d # :f# :b b
2 3 - 3 * 5 ( 3 2 *5 B :f# :b :d # :f# :b :d # :f# :b b
2 4 * 3 5 ( 3 2 5 B : f # : b : d# : f # : b : d # : f # :b b s b .
I f F 128
3*5(32 , 5 F#:d#:b
2 * 3 * 5 ( 3 2 *5 F # : d # : f # : d # : b b :f>b
22 3 5 ( 3 2 5 F # : B : d # : f # : d # : f # : b fc: t # : b -
2 3 * 3 * 5 ( 3 2 *5 F # ;B :d # :f# :b :d # :f# :b b :d#:f#:b^
2 4 3 * 5 ( 3 2 5 F # : B : d # i f # : b : d # : f # : b b ;b : d # : f # : b ^
2 5 . 3 *5 ( 3 2 5 F # : B : d # : f # : b : d # : f # : b b : b : d # : f # : b b :b,
i
309
I f F = 256
2 .3-5(32.5) D # : F # : d # : b b :bb
2 2 . 3 -5 (3 2 . 5 ) D #:F#:d#:f#:bb :d#:b^:b^
2 3 . 3 . 5 (3 2 . 5 ) D #:F#:B :d#:f#:bb : d # : f # : b M # : b b
24.3.5(32.5) D # ; F # ; B Jd # : f # : b b : b : d # : f # : b i>: d # : f # : b t
25.3.5(32.5) D # :F # :B :d # :f# :b b :b :d # :f# ;b k :b:d#:f#:!>k.
If 512
2 2 .3 .5 (3 2 .5 ) D # :F # :B b : d # : b b :bb
2 3 . 3 . 5 (3 2 . 5 ) D # : F # : Bb : d # ; f # : b b : d # : b b : b b
24.3.5(32.5) D#:F#:Bb : B : d # : f # : b b : d # : f # ; b b : I # : b b
2 3 . 3 . 5 (3 2 . 5 ) D#:F#:Bb ; 3 : d # : f # : b b : b : d # : f # : b b : 3 # : f # : b b .
CONSONANCES 2n *52
V ariations
2n *52 ( 1 ) Forms
Spo c i e s I f F 4
2 2.5s (1) F :A :a:a:c#
23.52(1) F :A :f:a:a:c# :a.
If F= 8
23 * 52 ( 1 ) F :A :a:c#:a:c#.
V ariations
2n ' 5 2 ( 3 ) Forms
Species I f F 8
2 *52 ( 3 ) C: e : :g #
22'52 (3) C :c:e:e:e:g #

23-52(3) C :c:e:c:e
310
I f F 16
2 2 *52 (3 ) C ;E:ese:g#:l#
23<52 (3 ) C :E :c:e:e:g#:e:g#.
I f F 32
23 52 ( 3 ) C :E :e:g # :e :g#:g#.
V ariations
2n *5 2 (32 ) Forms
S p ecies I f F 32
22 52 ( 3 2 ) G ;B :b:b:d#
23-52(32) G :3:g:b:b:d#:b.
I f F = 64
23.52(32) G ;B :b:d#:b:3#.
V ariations
2n *52 (33 ) Forms
Species I f F r 64
2 *5 2 (33 ) D :f#sf#sbk
22 52 ( 3 3 ) D :d:f#:f#:f#:bb
2 3 *5 2 ( 3 3 ) D :d :f# :d :f# :f# :lb .
I f F 128
2 2 *5 2 ( 3 3 ) D : F # : f # : f # : b b :b b
2 3 - 5 2 ( 3 3)
D :F #:d:f#:f#:b^:F#:b^.
I f F 256
2 3 ' 5 2(3 3 ) D: F # : f # j b 1: f # ;b b : b b .
311
CONSONANCES 2 n 3 3
V ariations
2n *3 3 ( l ) Poms
Species If P = 4
22 *3 3 ( 1 ) C :F :c:g :c:g :d :g
23 *3 3 ( 1 ) C :F :c:f:g :c:g :c:a:g
24 *33 ( 1 ) C :F :c:f:g :c:f:g :c:5 :g :c
2 5 *3 3 (1 ) C :F :c:f:g :c:f:g :c:d :f:g :c
If F 8
23 3 3 {1) C :F :G :c:g:c:cl:g:d:g
24 ' 33 ( 1 ) C :F :G :c:f:g:c:5:g:c:d:g
2 5 *3 3 ( 1 ) C :F :G :c:f:g :c:d :f:g :c:3 :g :c.
I f F 16
24 *33 ( 1 ) C :F :G :c:d :g :c:d :g :5 :g
2 5 *3 3 ( 1 ) C :F :G :c:d:f;g:c:d:g:c:d:g.
I f F 32
2 5 *3 3 ( 1 ) C :D :F :G :c:d:g:c:d:g:d:g.
V ariations
2n 3^ ( 5 ) Forms
Species I f F 16
22 *33 ( 5 ) E : A : e :b : e :b : f # : b
23 *3 3 ( 5 ) E i A : e : a :b :e :b :e : f # : b
24 *3 3 ( 5) E : A : e : a : b : e :o :b : e : f # : b
25 33 (5 ) E;A:e : a ; b : e : a : b :e : f # : a : b .
312
I f F = 32
2 3 *33 ( 5 ) E :A :B :e:b:e:f#:b:f#:b
2 4 *33 {5) E :A :B :e:a:b:e:f#:b:e:f#:b
2 5 *33 ( 5 ) E :A :B ;e:a:b :e:f# :a:b :e;f# ;b .
I f F 64
24 33 ( 5 ) E :A :B :e:f# :b :e:f# :b :f# :b
23 33 {5) E : A : B : e : f # : a : b :e : f # : b :e : f 7f :b
I f F - 128
2 3 *33 (5) E :F #:A :B :e:f#:b:e :f# :b :f# :b .
V ariations
2n 33 (52 ) Forms
Species I f F = 64
2 *33(52) C #:G #:g#:d#:d#:b

22 . 33 ( 5 2 ) C #:G #:c#:g#:d#:g#:I#:b
2 3 . 3 3 ( 52 ) C #:G #:c#:g#:c#:d#:g#:3#:g#:b
24-53(52) C #:G #:c#:g#:c#:d#:g#:c#:S#:g#:b .
I f F 128
2 2 .53 ( 52) C #:G #:d#:g#:d#:b^:5#:b
23*3 3 ( 5 2 ) C # : G # : c # : d # : g # : d # : g # : b '3 i&tfib0

2 4 .33 (5 2 ) C # : G # : c # ; d # : g # : c # : d # : g # : b il>: 3 # : g # : b
2 5 . 33(5 2 ) C # :G # :c # :d # :g # :c # :d # :g # :b b : c # : 3 # : g # : b b.
If F=256
2 3 *3 3 ( 5 2 ) C#:D#:G#;d#:g#:bb;d#:b* : d # : b b
24 , 35 ( 5 2 ) C #:D #:G #;c#:d#:g#:bb :d # ;g # :b b :d # :b b
25 , 3 5 ( 5 2 ) C #:D #:G #:c#jd#:g#:bb :c # :d # :g # :b b :d # :g # :b b.
313
I f F 3 512
24 *3 3 (5 2 ) C#:D#:G#:B*) s d # i g # : b ^ : d # : b b :d # :B ^
25 *3 3 (52 ) C # :D #; G #: B b : c # : d # : g # : b ^ : d # : g # : b b :d#:b*) .
CONSONANCES 2n *32 *5
V ariations
2n 3 2 5 (1 ) Forms
Species If F=1
3 2 *5 ( 1 ) F : c : a :g
2 3 2 * 5 ( 1) F :f:c:a:c:g :a
2 2 *32 5 ( 1) F :f :c :f :a:c:gsa:c
23.32.5(1) F :f:c :f:a :c:f:g :a :c.
If F = 2
32 *5(1) c:a:g :e
2 32 5(1) F :c:a:c:g :a:e:g
22 , 32 , 5 (1 ) F :c:f:a:c:g :a:c:e:g :a
23 3 2 * 5 ( 1 ) F :c:f:a:csf:g :a:c:e:g :a:c.
If F= 4
3 2 *5 (1) C : A : g : e :b
2 *3 2 , 5 ( 1 ) C : A : c : g : a : s : g : e :b
22 , 3 2 * 5 ( 1) G :F :A :c:g :a:c:erg :a:e:g:b
2 3 *3 2 , 5 (1) C :F :A :c:f:g :a:c:e:g :a:c:e;g :a:b .
I f F 8
2 22-5(1) C :G :A :e:g:e:b:b
22 * 32 5 ( 1 ) C ;G ;A ;c : e :g : a :e : g : b : ! :b
2s * 32 * 5 ( 1 ) C : F : G : A : c :e : g : a : c : e : g : a : b : e : g : b .
314
I f F 16
22 *3 2 *5 (1 ) C :E : G : A : e : g : b :e :b :b
23 *3 2 * 5 ( 1 ) C;E:G:A:c : e : g : a : b : e : g : b : e : b .
I f F = 32
23 3 2 5 ( 1 ) C:E:G:A:B : e : g : b s e : b : b .
V ariations
2n *3 2 5 ( 3 ) Forms
Species I f F 4
3 2 *5 ( 3 ) C: g : e : d : b
2 *3 2 *5 (3 ) C : c : g ; e : g : d : e :b
22 3 2 5 ( 3 ) C :c:g:c:e :g :d :e:g :b
23.32.5(3) G :c:g:c:e :g :csd :e:g :B .
If F - 8
32.5(3) G:e :d:î
2 *32.5(3) C : G : e : g : d : e :b : d : b
2 2 *3 2 , 5 ( 3 ) G :G ic:e:g : d :e :g : b : d : e ; b
2 3 *32 5 ( 3 ) C :G :c:e:g : c : d : e :g :b :d :e :g :b .
I f F - 16
32 *5(3) E :d:b :f#
2 *32 * 5 ( 3 ) E :G :d :e :b :d :b :?#
2 2 *3 2 * 5 ( 3 ) C :E:G :d:e : g : b : d : e : b : d : f # : b
23 3 2 5 ( 3 ) C :E:G :c:d :e :g :b : d : e : g : b : d ; e : f # : b .
315
I f F 32
2 *3 2 * 5 ( 3 ) D :E :B :d:b:f#:f#
2 2 *3 2 5 ( 3 ) D :E :G :B :d:e:b:d:f#:b :f#
2 3 *3 2 * 5 ( 3 ) C : D : E : G : B : d ; e :g :b : d : e : f # : b : d : f # : b .
I f F 64
2 2 *3 2 * 5 ( 3 ) D :E :B :d:f#:b:f#:f#
2 3 *3 2 *5(3) D sE :G :B :d:e:f#:b:d:f#:b:f#.
I f F - 128
2 3 *3 2 * 5 ( 3 ) D :E :F # :B :d;f#:b:f#:f#.
V ariations
2n 32 5 ( 5 ) Forms
Species If F= 4
3 2 *5 ( 5 ) A :e:c#sb
2 *3^*5(5} A : a : e : c # : :b
2 2 *3 2 5 ( 5 ) A : a : e : a : c # : e :b
23 3 2 * 5 ( 5 ) A :a:e:a:c#:e:a:b.
If F = 8
32 * 5 ( 5) e:c# :b :l#
2 *3 2 *5 (5 ) A :e :c# :e:b e#:g#:b
2 2 *3 2 *5 (5 ) A:e : a : c # : e : b : c # : e : g # : b
23 3 2 , 5 ( 5 ) A: e : a : c # : e : a : b : c # : e : g# ; b .
316
If P =16
32 * 5 ( 5 ) K :c#:b:g#
2 * 32 * 5 (5) E : c # : e :b : c # : g # : b : f #
22 , 32 * 5 ( 5 ) E :A :c # :e :b :c # :e :g#:b :c # :g # :b
23 , 32 * 5 ( 5 ) E : A : c # : e : a :b :c?)f :e : g # : b : c # ; e : g # : b .
I f F = 32
32 ' 5(5) C#:B:g#:d#
2 *3 2 * 5 ( 5 ) C #:E:B :c#:g#:b:g#:d#
22 *3 2 * 5 ( 5 ) C #:E :B :c#:e:g#:b:c#:g#:B :d#:g#
23 3 2 * 5 ( 5 ) C # :E :A :B :c#:e:g#:b:c#:e:g#:b:c#:d#:0.
I f F - 64
*z25 ( 5 ) C#:G#:B:g#:d#:S#
22 3 2 * 5 ( 5 ) C #:E :G #:B :c#:g#:b:d#:g#:d#
2 3 *3 2 * 5 ( 5 ) C #:E :G #:B :c#:e:g#:b:c#:d#:g#:b:d#:g#.
If P=128
22 *3 2 *5 (5 ) C #:G #:B :d#:g#:d#:5#
23 *3 2 *5 (5 ) C # : E : G#: B : c # :d # : g # :b : d # : g # :d#
I f F 256
2 3 *3 2 * 5 ( 5 ) C #:D #:G #:B :d#:g#:d#:d#.
317
V ariations
2n *32 * 5 ( 3 * 5 ) Poms
S pecies I f F - 16
32 * 5 ( 3 * 5 ) E :b:g#:f#
2 3 2 * 5 (3 * 5) E :e:b:g#:b:f#:g#
22 - 3 2 * 5 ( 3 * 5 ) E : e : b :e : g # : b : f # : g # : b
23 - 3 2 * 5 ( 3 * 5 ) E : e : b : e : g# : b : e : f # : g# : b .
I f F 32
3 2 5 (3 5) B:g#:f#:cl#
2 32 * 5(3* 5) E :B :g#:b:f#:g#:3#:f#
2 2 . 3 2 . 5 (3 . 5 ) E :B :e:g#:b:f#:g#:b:d#:f#:g#
23-32.5(3*5) E : B : e : g # : b :e : f # : g # : b : d # : ? # : g # : b .
I f F 64
3 2 * 5 ( 3 *5) G #:f#:d#:b
2 * 3 2 * 5 ( 3 *5) G#: B: f # : g # : d # : f # : d# ilo*3
2 2 .3 2 .5 (3 .5 ) E :G #:B :f#:g#:b:d#:f#:g#:d#:f#:b^
23.32.5(3*5) E :G #:B :e:f#:g#:b:d#:f#:g#:b :d #:f#:g#:b^.
If F=128
2 *32 * 5( 3 *5) F # : G # : d # : f # : d # : b ^ :*A
2 2 *3 2 *5 (3 -5) F # : G # : B : d # : f # : g # : d # : f # : b ^ i d #:*)6
2 3 *3 2 * 5 ( 3 *5) E :F #:G #:B :d#:f#:g#:b:d#:f#:g#:bb :d#:f#:bb
If F -256
2 2 *3 2 * 5 ( 3 * 5 ) D # : F # : G # : d # : f # : b k i d #:*)*3 ib *6
23 *3 2 * 5 ( 3 * 5 ) D # :F # :G # i B : d # : f # : g # : b b : d # : f # : b b id#:*)*3 .
If F~512
2 5 *32 ' 5 ( 3 * 5 ) D # :F # :G # :B b : d # : f # : b b : d # : b b : b b .
318
CONSONANCES 2 n * 3 * 5 2
V ariations
2n *3*5 2 ( l ) Forms
, Species If F= 4
3*52 (1) C: A: e : c #
2 *3*5 2 ( 1 ) C: A : c : a : e : c # : f .
If F 8
2 *3*5 2 ( 1 ) C :A :e:c#:e:c#:g#.
V ariations
2n *3*5 2 ( 3 ) Forms
Species I f F 8
3*52(3) G :e:b:g#
2 *3*52(3) C :G :e:g:e :b :g # :b .
If F = I6
2 *3*52(3) E :G :e:b:g#:b:g#.
V ariations
2n 3 5 2 ( 3 2 ) Forms
Species I f F 32
3 52 ( 3 2 ) D :B :f#:d#
2 *3*52(32) D :B :d:b:f#:d#:f#.
I f F 64
2 *3*52(32 ) D :B :f#:d#:f#:d#:b.
319
CONSONANCES 2 n * 3 3 *5
V ariations
2 n , 33 * 5 ( l ) F o ib s
Species If F = 4
3 3 *5 (1 ) C :A :g :e : d : b
2 *3 3 , 5 ( 1 ) C :A :c:g:a:e:g:3:e:b.
If F = 8
2 3 3 *5 (1 ) C :G :A :e:g:5:e:b:3:b.
V ariations
2n *33 , 5 ( 5 ) Forms
Species I f F = 16
33 ' 5 (5 ) E :c#:b:g#:f#
2 *33.5(5) E : c # : e : b : c # : g # : b : f # :g#.
I f F - 32
33 * 5 ( 5 ) C # : B : g # : f # : d 7f
2 3 3 * 5 (5) C #:E :B :c#:g#:b:f#:g#:d#:f#.
I f F - 64
2 3 3 5 (5) C #:G #:B :f#:g#:d#:f#:d#:b .
320
11, T h u s , f r o m t h i s t a b l e a l l c o n s o n a n c e s w h i c h do
n o t go b e y o n d t h e t w e l f t h d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s c a n b e
ex p re ssed i n a g iven system. I h a v e o m i t t e d , more c o m p o s i t e
c o n s o n a n c e s s i n c e c o m p o s e r s r a r e l y u s e th e m a n d s i n c e t h e
harmony i s more d i s t u r b e d t h a n p e r f e c t e d b y t h e m . In the
c o n s o n a n c e s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s t a b l e , t h e r e i s so much
d i v e r s i t y an d t h e r e a r e so many k i n d s o f d i s s o n a n c e s , a s
t h e m u s i c i a n s c a l l th e m , t h a t i t would b e s u p e r f l u o u s a n d
h a r m f u l t o t h e harm ony t o u s e o t h e r more c o m p o s i t e c o n
sonances.
12. T h i s t a b l e may seem t o be d e f e c t i v e s i n c e o n l y
odd numbers a r e u s e d f o r t h e i n d i c e s j o i n e d t o t h e e x p o n e n t s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , c o n s o n a n c e s h a v i n g e v e n numbers f o r i n d i c e s
can be e x p r e s s e d w i t h t h e a i d o f t h i s t a b l e . C onsider a
c o n s o n a n c e E(2i.) f o r a s y s t e m F = 2n , where E i s the
e x p o n e n t an d i_ i s a n odd num be r. Now f i n d t h e f o r m o f t h e
c o n s o n a n c e E(i_) f o r t h e s y s t e m F - 2 n a n d t r a n s p o s e a l l t h e
to n e s an o c ta v e h i g h e r , o r , w ith an e q u i v a l e n t r e s u l t , t a k e
t h e for m o f t h e c o n s o n a n c e E(i_) f o r t h e s y s t e m F = 2 n - ^ .
13. S im ilarly, i f t h e consonance t o be e x p re s s e d i s
E(4i_) an d i f F = 2n , t h e n we may e i t h e r f i n d t h e c o n s o n a n c e
E(i_) f o r F 2n i n t h e t a b l e and t r a n s p o s e e a c h t o n e two
o c t a v e s h i g h e r o r t a k e t h e c o n s o n a n c e E ( i J f o r F 2n ~^ .
I n g e n e r a l , we may f i n d t h e fo r m o f a c o n s o n a n c e E(2mi )
w i t h t h e a i d o f o u r t a b l e by f i n d i n g t h e c o n s o n a n c e E(i_)
321
f o r F ~ 2 n m. I f F = 2 n m c a n n o t b e f o u n d I n t h e t a b l e , t h e n
we t a k e t h e c o n s o n a n c e E(i_) f o r t h e s y s t e m F 2n an d t r a n s
p o s e e a c h torie m o c t a v e s h i g h e r .
14. T h e r e f o r e , when a c o n s o n a n c e t o b e e x p r e s s e d
h a s a n e v e n number a s i t s index, t h e n t h e i n d e x may b e
d i v i d e d b y t h e pow e r o f 2 p r o d u c i n g a n o dd number a s
quotient. Then t h e v a l u e of F i n t h e c h o s e n s y s t e m may be
d i v i d e d b y t h e same p o w e r o f 2 , a n d , f o r t h a t s y s t e m , th e
c o n s o n a n c e may be e x p r e s s e d w i t h a n odd i n d e x r e s u l t i n g fr o m
th e even in d e x . C o n sid e r, f o r example, th e consonance
23 *3*5(12) f o r F = 3 2 . D i v i d e 12 a n d 32 b y 4 and r e p l a c e
them b y 3 and 8 . The d e s i r e d c o n s o n a n c e w i l l b e f o u n d i n
the t a b l e by lo o k in g f o r th e consonance 23.3*5(3) under
F 8 . I t s tones are
C :G :c:e:g :c:e:g :b :e:g :b .
15. However, i f t h e r e i s no c o r r e s o o n d e n c e i n t h e
t a b l e betw een th e v a lu e of F f o r t h e system in which th e
com position is u n d ertak en and the exponent p lu s index of
t h e c o n so n a n c e , th e n t h a t consonance c an n o t be e x p r e s s e d
a t a l l b e c a u s e o f t h e t o n e s w h i c h a r e t o o low f o r t h e
instrum ents. I n o r d e r t o e x o r e s s i t a s a consonance which
is a t le a st sim ilar, it i s n e c e s s a r y to m u l t i p l y the in d e x
b y 2 o r b y a pow e r o f 2 so t h a t t h e q u o t i e n t may be fo u n d
i n th e t a b l e i f th e v a l u e o f F from t h e chosen system i s
d i v i d e d b y t h i s same po w e r o f 2 . F or example, i f F - 6 4 ,
322
t h e c o n s o n a n c e 2 3 * 3 *5(1 ) c a n n o t h e e x p r e s s e d b y t h e u s u a l
tones. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , we c a n s u b s t i t u t e t h e c o n s o n a n c e
23 *3*5(4), which, i f r e f e r r e d t o t h e system F = 16, a g r e e s
w i t h 23 , 3 * 5 ( 1 ) a n d h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g t o n e s :
C :E :A :c:e:a:e:e.
16. H a v in g d i s c u s s e d f o r m a t i o n o f c o n s o n a n c e s , we
w i l l now p r o c e e d t o t h e p r o c e s s o f c o m p o s i n g i n a g i v e n
system. The e x p o n e n t o f a s y s t e m n o t o n l y d e t e r m i n e s a l l
th e sim ple to n e s i n t h a t system , but a l s o d e f i n e s a l l the
consonances b e lo n g in g to t h a t system. A consonance belongs
to a system i f t h e o roduct o f i t s exponent and index i s a
f a c t o r of th e exponent of th e system. Therefore, i t is a
simple m a t t e r t o d e te rm in e a l l the consonances in a g iven
system.
17. F irs t of a ll, we s h o u l d d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r i t i s
s u i t a b l e t o u s e one k i n d o r s e v e r a l k i n d s o f c o n s o n a n c e s ,
so t h a t a l l t h e c o n s o n a n c e s i n a g i v e n s y s t e m may be
e n u m e r a t e d more e a s i l y . We w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e s e t e n g e n e r a
of consonances:
I. 2*1 VI. 2n ,5 2
II. 2n *3 V II. 2n . 3 3
III. 2n *5 V III. 2n , 3 2 , 5
2n . 32
IV. IX. 2n , 3 5 2
V. 2n -3 * 5 X. 2n *33 *5
323
The two r e m a i n i n g g e n e r a o f c o n s o n a n c e s , 2***32*52 a nd
2n . 3 3 . 5 2 j a r e e x c l u d e d s i n c e they r e o r e s e n t only consonances
w h ic h e x c e e d t h e t w e l f t h d e g r e e .
18. H a vin g c h o s e n one o r more o f t h e s e g e n e r a , we
s h o u l d f i n d o u t how many s p e c i e s a n d v a r i a t i o n s o f them a r e
c o n tain ed in the exponent o f the system. The s p e c i e s o f
e a c h k i n d a r e d e t e r m i n e d by s u b s t i t u t i n g d e f i n i t e num be rs
f o r n i n 2n ; t h e v a r i a t i o n s a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e i n d i c e s
joined w ith th e exponents. To e n u m e r a t e t h e c o n s o n a n c e s ,
we f i r s t d i v i d e t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e s y s t e m by t h e e x o o n e n t s
of th e i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i e s and f i n d a l l th e d i v i s o r s o f th e
quotients. Then we s u c c e s s i v e l y s u b s t i t u t e t h e s e d i v i s o r s
fo r the in d ic e s .
19. In c o m p o s itio n s of s e v e r a l v o i c e s , composers
mos t f r e q u e n t l y u s e t h e f i f t h g e n u s , w hic h h a s an e x p o n e n t
o f 2n 3 * 5 , s i n c e I t h a s n o t o n l y a l l h a r m o n i c t r i a d s b u t
also sev e ra l so -c a lle d dissonances. Besides th e se d isso n a n c es
t h e y a l s o o f t e n u s e c o n s o n a n c e s fr om g e n e r a IV, V I I I , a n d X
a s d i s s o n a n c e s , b u t t h e y h a r d l y e v e r u s e g e n e r a V I, V I I , a n d
IX. only the sim o le r g e n e ra , I , I I , and I I I , are s e r v i c e
a b l e f o r c o m p o s i t i o n s o f two o r t h r e e v o i c e s , s i n c e t h e
c o n s o n a n c e s o f o t h e r g e n e r a , f o r t h e m os t p a r t , have t o o
many t o n e s .
324
20. F o r example, l e t us c o n s i d e r th e system w ith an
e x p o n e n t o f 2 3 *33 *5 an d F 8 . The f o l l o w i n g s p e c i e s and
v a r i a t i o n s o f th e consonances of th e f i f t h genus a re
contained in t h i s exponent:
3*5(1) 3*5(3) 3* 5 ( 3 2 )
3*5(2) 3 * 5 ( 2 *3) 3 * 5 ( 2 *32 )
3*5(22 ) 3 * 5 ( 2 2 *3) 3 * 5 ( 2 2 *32 )
3*5(23 ) 3 * 5 ( 2 3 *3) 3 * 5 ( 2 3 *32 )
3*5(24 ) 3 5 ( 2 4 3) 3* 5 (2 4 *32 )
3*5(25 ) 3* 5 ( 2 3 *3) 3 * 5 ( 2 5 *32 )
2 * 3 *5 (1 ) 2 *3*5(3) 2 * 3 * 5 (3 2 )
2 * 3 * 5 (2 ) 2 * 3* 5(2 *3) 2 *3*5(2 32 )
2 *3*5(22 ) 2 *3 *5 ( 2 2 *3) 2 *3 *5( 2 2 *32 )
2 * 3*5(2 3 ) 2 * 3 * 5 ( 2 3 *3) 2 * 3 * 5 ( 2 3 *32 )
2 *3*5(24 ) 2 * 3 * 5 ( 2 4 *3) 2 * 3 * 5 (2 4 *32 )
2 2 *3 *5 ( 1 ) 22 *3*5(3) 2 2 *3 *5( 32 )
22 , 3 '5 (2 ) 2 2 *3*5(2 *3) 2 2 * 3 * 5 (2 *3 2 )

2 2 *3 * 5 ( 2 2 ) 2 2 *3* 5 ( 2 2 * 3 ) 2 2 ' 3 * 5 ( 2 2 *32 )
2 2 *3*5(23 ) 2 2 *3 * 5 ( 2 3 *3) 2 2 *3 * 5 (2 3 *32 )
2 3 *3 * 5 ( 1 ) 2 3 *3* 5( 3) 2 3 *3*5{32 )
2 3 *3*5(2) 2 3 *3*5(2 *3) 2 3 *3*5(2 *32 )
2 3 *3 *5( 22 ) 2 3 * 3 * 5 (2 2 *3) 2 3 . 3 * 5 ( 2 2 *32 )
2 4 *3*5(1) 2 4 *3 *5 (3 ) 2 4 * 3 * 5 (3 2 )
2 4 *3 *5 (2 ) 2 4 *3*5 ( 2 *3) 2 4 *3*5(2 *32 )
2 5 *3* 5 ( 1 ) 2 5 *3* 5( 3) 2 3 *3 * 5 ( 3 2 )
325
21. Prom t h e f o u r t h g e n u s i n t h i s s y s t e m we h a v e
t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s o n a n c e s , w h i c h c a n be u s e d a s d i s s o n a n c e s
by c o m p o s e r s :
3 2 (1 ) 3 2 (3 ) 32 (5) 3 2 (3 . 5 )
3 2 (2) 3 2 (2 *3) 3 2 (2 *5) 3 2 (2 - 3 * 5 )
32 (22 ) 32 (22 -3) 3 2 ( 2 2 5 ) 3 2 (2 2 - 3 - 5 )
3 2 ( 23 ) 32 ( 2 3 - 5 ) 32 ( 2 3 5 ) 3 2 ( 2 3 - 3* 5 )
32(24) 32 (24-3) 3 2 ( 24 5 ) 3 2 ( 2 4 -3* 5)
32 (25 ) 3 2 ( 2 5 3) 3 2 ( 2 5 *5) 32 ( 2 5 . 3 . 5 )
2 *32 ( 1 ) 2 3 2 (3 ) 2 *3 2 (5 ) 2 *3 2 (3 *5)
2 32 (2) 2 32 (2 *3) 2 *3 2 (2 - 5 ) 2 32 (2 . 3 . 5 )
2 -52(22) 2 32 (22*3) 2 o2 2 2 . 5 ) 2 . 3 2 (2 2 . 3 . 5 )
2 -32(23) 2 .3 2 (23.3) 2 -32 (2 3 .5 ) 2 -32(23-3.5)
2 -32(24) 2 *32(24.3) 2 -32(24.5) 2 .3 2(24-3.5)
2 2 .3 2 (x) 22.32(3) 22-32(5) 22 32 (3 . 5 )
22-32(2) 22. 32(2 .3) 2 2 * 3 2 (2 - 5 ) 22 32 (2 - 3 * 5 )

22-32(22) 2 2.32(22.3) 22-32(22-5) 22 - 3 2 ( 2 2 - 3 * 5 )
2 2 -3 2 (23) 22*32(23.3) 22 -32 ( 2 3 . 5 ) 2 2 - 32 ( 23 - 3 . 5 )
23-32(1) 23.32(3) 23 3 2 (5 ) 2 3 - 3 2 (3 . 5 )
2 3 ' 3 2 (2 ) 2 5 *32 (2 *3) 8 3 - 3 2 (2 *5) 2 3 .32(2 .3 . 5 )

2 3 3 2 ( 2 2 ) 2 3 *3 2 ( 2 2 -3) 23 .3 2(2 2 .5 ) 23-32(22.3.5)
24 -32(!) 2 4 -32 (3) 24 .32 (5 ) 24.32(3.5)
2 4 *32 ( 2 ) 2 4 .3 2 (2-3) 24.32(2-5) 24 .3 2 (2 .3 .5 )
2 5 -3 2 ( l ) 2 5 . 3 2 (3) 25.32(5) 25.32(3.5)
326
22. The s e v e n t h , e i g h t h , a n d t e n t h g e n e r a f u r n i s h
the fo llo w in g consonances
VII V III
33 (1) 33 (5 ) 32 ' 5 1) 32 5 3)
33 {2) 33 (2 5 ) 32 5 2) 32 5 2 -3
33 ( 2 2 ) 33 ( 2 2 *5) 32 5 22 ) 32 5 22 3
33 ( 23 ) 3 3 (23 , 5) 32 5 23 ) S2 5 2 3 *3
33 ( 2 4 ) 33 ( 2 4 5) 32 5 24 ) 32 5 24 *3
33 (25 ) 33 ( 2 5 *5) 32 5 23 ) 32 5 25 *3
2 *33 (1 ) 2 *33 (5 ) 2 3 2 5 1) 2 *32 5 3)
2 33 (2 ) 2 33 (2 5) 2 3 2 5 2) 2 32 5 2 *3
2 *33 (22 ) 2 33 ( 22 *5) 2 32 5 22 ) 2 *32 5 2 2 *3
2 *33 (23 ) 2 33 ( 23 *5) 2 3 2 5 23 ) 2 32 5 23 , 3
2 33 (24 ) 2 *3 3 (24 *5) 2 3 2 5 24 ) 2 *32 5 24 *3
22 *33 (1) 22 33 (5) 22 32 5 1) 22 *32 5 3)
22 32 5 2) 22 . 32 5 2 *3
22 *33 (2) 22 ' 3 3 (2 5)
22 *33 ( 22 ) 22 *33 ( 22 * 5) 22 32 5 22 ) 22 , 32 5 22 *3
22 33 ( 23 ) 22 33 ( 23 * 5) 22 32 5 23 ) 22 -32 5 23 , 3
23 *35 ( 1 ) 23 33 (5 ) 2 3 32 5 1) 23 32 5 3)
23 *33 (2 ) 23 *33 (2 *5) 2 3 32 5 2) 23 , 32 5 2. *3
23 *33 (22 ) 2 3 *33 (22 *5) 2 3 32 5 22 ) 2 3 , 32 5 22 *3
2 4 *3S (1) 2 4 *33 (5)
2 4 *33 ( 2 ) 2 4 *33 (2 *5)
25 -33 ( l ) 2 5 *33 (5)
327
33 *5 (1 ) 2 33.5(1)
33 5 ( 2 ) 2 33.5(2)
33 '5 ( 2 2 ) 2 3 3 *5(2 2 )
33 *5 (23 ) 2 33-5(23)
3 3 *5 (2 4 ) 2 3 3 . 5 (24 )
33 * 5 ( 2 5 )
23. I f we now t a k e fr om t h e t a b l e o f c o n s o n a n c e s
a s many c o n s o n a n c e s f o r F - 8 a s c a n b e e x p r e s s e d , we w i l l
have t h e f o l l o w i n g s u p p l y o f c o n s o n a n c e s and d i s s o n a n c e s :
3* 5 ( 2 ) C A:e
3* 5(22 ) c a :e
3* 5(23 ) F c :a
3* 5(2* ) f c :a
2 .3*5(1) C A:e :e
2 .3*5(2) C A:c :a : e :e
2 - 3 . 5(22 ) F c : a : c : a :e
2 *3*5(23) F f : c : a : c :a
2 *3-5(24) f f :c:a
22 3* 5 ( 1 ) C A :c :e :a :e :I
22 *3 * 5 ( 2 ) C F :A :c:a:c:e:a:e
22 *3* 5( 22 ) F c sf :a : c :a : c :e :a
22.3*5(23) F f :c:f :a:c:a:c
23.3*5(1) C F :A :c;e:a:c:e:a:e
328
2 3 *3*5(2) C : P : A : c : ' f : a ; c : e : a : c : e j a
23 *3*5(22 ) F :c:f:a:c:f:a:c:e:a:c
24 *3 *5(1 ) C :F :A :c:e:f:a:c:e:a:c:e:a
24 * 3 * 5 ( 2 ) G :F :A :c:f:a:c:e:f:a:c:e:a:c
2 3 * 3 * 5 (1 ) C :F :A :c:e:f:a:c:e:f:a:c:e:a:c
3*5(3) G:e :b
3*5(2*3) C :g :e :b
3 *5 ( 22 3) c:g :l
2 *3*5(3) C :G :e : g : e :b :b
2 *3*5(2*3) C :c : g : e : g : e :b
2 * 3 * 5 (22 *3) c:c:g :eig
22 3 5 (3 ) C :G :c :e :g :e :g :b :e :b
22 3* 5 (2 *3) C:c : g : c : e :g : e :g :b
22 * 3*5 (2 2 *3) c:c:g :c:e:g
23 3 5 (3 ) C :G :c:e:g :c:e:g :b :e:g :b
23 *3*5(2 *3) C : c : g : c : e : g : c : e :g:"b
24 * 3 * 5 ( 3 ) C :G :c:e:g:c:e:g:b:c:e:g:b
3 * 5 (32 ) G:d:b
3*5(2*32 ) g :d:b
2 *3*5(32 ) G :g :d :b :d:b
2 * 3 * 5 ( 2 * 32 ) g:g:3 :b
22 * 3 * 5 ( 3 2 ) G :g:d:g:b:d:b
22 *3 5 ( 2 * 3 2 ) g :g :3 :g :b
23 , 3 5 ( 3 2 ) G :g:d:g:b:d:g:b
329
32 (23 ) F:c:g
2 *32 (22 ) F : c :c : g : g
2 *32 ( 23 ) F :f :c:c:g
22 , 3 2 (2 ) C :F :c:g:c:g:g
22 32 ( 22 ) F :c:f:c:g :5 :g
22 *32 ( 2 3 ) F :f:c:f:c:g :c
23 *32 (1 ) C :F :G :c:g:c:g:g
23 ' 3 2 (2 ) C : F : c : f :g:cT;g:c:g
23 *32 ( 22 ) F : c : f :c : f :g : c : g : c
24 32 (1 ) C :F:G :c:f :g :^ :g :c :g
24 32 ( 2 ) C:F :c : f : g : c : f : g : c : g
25 *32 (1 ) C :F :G :c:f:g :c:f:g :c
32 ( 2 3 ) C:g :d
2 *32 (3 ) C :G :c:g:d:d
2 32 (2 3) C :c:g:g:d
22 - 3 2 (3) C :G :c:g:d:g:d
2 2 - 3 2 (2 *3 ) C :c:g :c:g :d :g
2 3-32 (3) C:G:c : g : c : d : g : d : g
23 32 ( 2 3 ) C : c : g : c : g :c :d :g
24 *32 ( 3 ) C :G :c:g:c:d:g:c:d:g
32(2*5) A :e :B
2 32 ( 5 ) A :e : e : b :b
2 32 (2 5) A : a : e : e :b
I
330
2 2 *32 (5) A:e : a : e ;b : e :b
2 2 3 2 ( 2 *5) A :a:e:a:e:b
2 3 *32 (5 ) A:e : a : e : a ; b : e : b
2 3 *32 ( 2 5) A :a:e:a:e:a:b
2 4 *32 (5 ) A :e:a;e:a:b :e:a:b
2 2 -33 (2 ) C :F :c;g:c:g:d:g
2 3 33 ( 1 ) C :F :0 :c:g :c:d :g :3 :|
2 3 , 3 3 (2 ) C :F :c:f:g :c:g :c:d :g
2 4 *33 (1 ) C :F :G :c:f:g:c:d:g:c:d:g
24 - 3 3 (2 ) C :F :c:f:g :c:f:g :c:d :f:c
2 5 3 3 (1 ) C :F :G :c:f:g :c:d :f:g :c:d :g :c
32 * 5 ( 2 ) C : A : g : e :b
32 * 5 (2 ) c :a rg:I
32 * 5 ( 2 ) F:c :a:g
2 *32 , 5 ( 1 ) C :G :A :e : g : e :b :b
2 *32 *5 (2 ) C :A :c:g:a:e:g:e:b
2 *32 , 5 ( 2 2 ) F :c;a:c:g :a:e:g
2 32 * 5 ( 2 3 ) F :f :c :a :c:g :a
22 32 5 ( 1 ) C: G: A: c : e : g : a : e :g :b :e :b
22 *32 * 5 ( 2 ) C :F :A :c:g :a:c:e:g :a:e:g :b
22 *32 * 5 ( 2 2 ) F :c:f:a:c:g :a:c:e:g :a
22 *32 * 5 ( 2 3 ) F :f :c:f :a:c :g :a:c
25 -32 * 5 ( l ) C :F :G :A :c :e :g :a :c :e :g :a :b :|:b
2 3 32 * 5 ( 2 ) C :F :A :c:f:g :a:c:e:g :a:c:e:g :a:b
2 3 *32 >5(22 ) F :c:f:a:c:f:g :a:c:e:g :a:5
331
32 * 5 ( 3 ) G :e:d:b
32 *5 (2 *3 ) C :g:e:d:b
2 *32 " 5 ( 3 ) C :G :e:g:d:e:b:d:b
2 32 -5 (2 * 3 ) C :c:g :e:g :d :l:b
22 *32 * 5 ( 3 ) C : G : c :e : g : d : e : g : b : d : e :b
2 2 *32 *5(2* 3) C :c:g:c:e:g :d :e:g :b
2 3 ' 3 2 *5(3) C :G :c :e : g : c : d : e :g :b : d : e :g :b
23 32 5 ( 2 3 ) C :c:g :c:e:g :c:3 :e:g :b
33 * 5 ( 2 ) C :A :g:e:d:b
2 33 *5(1) G:G:A:e : g : d : e : b : d : b
2 *33 *5 ( 2 ) C : A : c : g : a : e : g !: d : e : b .
24. Note t h e huge s u p p l y o f c o n s o n a n c e s and
dissonances ( a s m u s i c i a n s c a l l them) w h ic h c a n b e u s e d i n
j u s t t h i s one s y s t e m . The number o f c o n s o n a n c e s becom es
much l a r g e r i f t h e c o n s o n a n c e s o f t h e f i r s t t h r e e g e n e r a ,
o m itte d i n our en u m eratio n , a r e added. O bviously, a
trem endous v a r i e t y of c o m p o s i tio n s are p o s s i b l e i n o n ly
one sy ste m . T h e r e w i l l b e g r e a t e r v a r i e t y i n more c o m p o s i t e
s y s t e m s , w h i c h , o f c o u r s e , h a v e more c o m p o s i t e e x p o n e n t s .
T h i s w i l l b e a p p a r e n t when t h e r e m a i n i n g s y s t e m s a r e
o b t a i n e d i n t h e same m a n n e r .
25. A f t e r such an en u m eratio n of th e consonances
and d i s s o n a n c e s i n a g i v e n sy ste m , i t w i l l n o t be d i f f i c u l t
t o produce a c o m p o sitio n by i n t e r m i x i n g con sonances and
332
dissonances a t w ill.. The a g r e e a b l e n e s s w i l l b e m a i n t a i n e d
a t t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l i f one a v o i d s e x c e s s i v e l y h a r s h
s u c c e s s io n s of co n so n an ces s u c c e s s i o n s w i t h .exponents
alm ost as com posite as t h a t of th e system i t s e l f . Such
s u c c e s s i o n s s h o u l d be a v o i d e d i n t h o s e s y s t e m s w i t h q u i t e
composite e x p o n e n ts .
26. S i n c e m u s ic e s p e c i a l l y d e l i g n t s w i t h v a r i e t y ,
i t w i l l u s u a l l y be advantageous to in te r c h a n g e th e con
sonances and n o t to p la c e i n s\ic c e ss io n s e v e r a l r e l a t e d
o n e s , such a s th o s e which have ex p o n e n ts and i n d i c e s
d i f f e r i n g o n l y b y pow ers o f 2 . T h i s can b e a c h i e v e d by
a v o i d i n g t h r e e o r more c o n s e c u t i v e c o n s o n a n c e s where t h e
e x p o n e n t o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n d i f f e r s g r e a t l y from t h e
exponent of th e system. The v e r y n a t u r e o f t h e s y s t e m
requires th is , f o r u n l e s s t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e whole s y s t e m
i s c o n ta i n e d i n any p a r t of th e c o m p o sitio n , the com position
may e a s i l y a p p e a r t o ha v e l a p s e d i n t o a s i m p l e r s y s t e m .
27. A l t h o u g h t h i s i s t r u e o f any p a r t o f a c o m p o s i
t i o n , a s e x p l a i n e d a b o v e , s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be
g i v e n t o t h e f i r s t p a r t i n o r d e r t h a t t h e h e a r e r may
promptly re c o g n iz e th e exponent of t h e system from i t .
T h e r e f o r e , a t t h e b e g in n in g t h e r e shou ld be a s e r i e s o f
c o n s o n a n c e s w i t h a j o i n t e x p o n e n t whic h w i l l e x h a u s t t h e
exponent of th e system. T h e s e same r u l e s s h o u l d a l s o b e
333
o b s e r v e d f o r t h e l a s t p a r t o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n so t h a t t h e
e nd i t s e l f w i l l make c l e a r i n w h a t s y s t e m t h e c o m p o s i t i o n
has been c r e a t e d .
28. G e n e r a l l y , m o d e rn c o m p o s e rs c a r e f u l l y o b s e r v e
t h i s r u le in t h e i r works. They a r r a n g e t h e i r f i n a l
c a d e n c e s so t h a t f r o m th em one may e a s i l y p e r c e i v e t h e
e x p o n e n t o f t h e wh ol e s y s t e m u s e d i n t h e l a s t p a r t . To
make t h i s c l e a r e r , i t w i l l h e lp to c o n s id e r a f i n a l cadence,
e m b e l l i s h e d i n t h e u s u a l way, i n t h e s y s t e m p r e v i o u s l y
d i s c u s s e d whe re t h e e x p o n e n t i s 25*33*5 and F 8 .
M u s i c i a n s w ou ld c a l l t h i s C m a j o r . I t i s evident th a t i f
t h e t o n e f_ were n o t p r e s e n t i n t h e s e c o n d c o n s o n a n c e t h e
exponents o f th e se t h r e e s u c c e s s iv e consonances
5 7
4 3
w ou ld be 2 3 3 2 ( 2 * 3 ) : 2 2 - 3 * 5 ( 3 2 ) : 2 3 * 3 * 5 ( 2 * 3 ) . Since a l l of
t h e i n d i c e s a r e d i v i s i b l e by 3 , t h e common e x p o n e n t o f
4 2
t h e s e c o n s o n a n c e s t a k e n t o g e t h e r w o u ld b e 2 3 * 5 , which
c e r t a i n l y i s much s i m p l e r t h a n 2 3 *3 3 5, t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e
system. For t h i s re a s o n and a g r e e a b le t o th e g iv e n r u l e ,
t h e t o n e _ w i t h e x p o n e n t 2 ^ i s a d d e d so t h a t t h e e x p o n e n t
o f t h e w h o le c a d e n c e b e co m e s 2 3 , 3 ^ * 5 . The c a d e n c e t h u s
c o n v e y s t h e w h o le n a t u r e and c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s y s t e m .
334
29. Y e t t h i s f r e e d o m o f t h e c o m p o s e r s m i g h t seem
t o o a u d a c i o u s a n d c o n t r a r y t o t h e la w s o f harmony a s t h e y
now s t a n d , s in c e th e a d d i t i o n of f to th e m iddle con-

C *Z
s o n a n c e makes i t s e x p o n e n t 2 *3 *5, t h u s c l a s s i f y i n g i t
u n d e r t h e s i x t e e n t h d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s , w h i c h can
h a r d l y be e n d u r e d . 1 However, t h e r e i s a n o t h e r e x o l a n a t i o n
for a ll th is. I t r e s t s uoon a n o th e r fo u n d a tio n w hich i s
u s u a l l y o b s e r v e d by composers w i t h r e s p e c t to d i s s o n a n c e s
a n d w h i c h we h a v e n o t y e t d i s c u s s e d . Thus f a r we h a v e
t r e a t e d only the p r i n c i p a l consonances, c o n s id e rin g each
i n d i v i d u a l l y , and we h a v e n o t t o u c h e d up o n t h e s u b o r d i n a t e
consonances.
30. T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n a r i . s e s c h i e f l y fr o m t h e n a t u r e
o f t h e m e a s u r e o f w h i c h some o a r t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d p r i n c i p a l ,
o th ers, subordinate. The l a t t e r a r e f i l l e d w i t h t h e s u b
o r d i n a t e c o n s o n a n c e s w h ic h c a n h a v e h i g h e r d e g r e e s o f
a g re e a b le n e s s th a n the p r i n c i p a l consonances w ithout
damage t o t h e h a rm o n y , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e y a r e u s e d w i t h
sy ste m , and t h e i r d e g re e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s sh o u ld n o t be
c o n s i d e r e d so much a s t h e i r r o l e i n t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e
p r i n c i p a l consonances.
^ o m e m a jo r and m in o r t r i a d s i n E u l e r s genus have

degrees exceeding t h i s . See A p p e n d ix B.
335
31. A c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n two t o n e s o f p r i n c i p a l
c o n s o n a n c e s i s made by t h e i n t e r p o l a t i o n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e s .
F o r e x a m p l e , f i s i n s e r t e d b e t w e e n and e and t h e two
c o n s o n a n c e s a r e now c o n n e c t e d , a s i n t h e g i v e n e x a m p l e .
Such i n s e r t i o n s o f t o n e s w h i c h do n o t p r o p e r l y b e l o n g t o
t h e c o n s o n a n c e s a r e made f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n
a nd a r e t h e r e f o r e b e a r a b l e . Tone s n o t c o n t a i n e d i n t h e
consonances a re a l s o u sed f r e a u e n t l y in t h e s m a lle r note
v a l u e s w i t h o u t d i s t u r b i n g t h e ha rm o n y .
32. Although th e use of such tones p e r t a i n s t o
f l o r i d and c o n n e c t e d c o m p o s i t i o n , y e t we s h o u l d n o t e t h a t
t h e y s h o u l d b e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e s y s t e m and shoui.d be u s e d
on weak b e a t s . The r e a s o n why t h e s e t o n e s do n o t d i s t u r b
t h e harmony l i e s i n t h e f a c t s t h a t t h e y a r e c o n t a i n e d i n
t h e s y s t e m and t h a t t h e y c o n v ey t h e i d e a o f t h e s y s t e m t o
t h e l i s t e n e r more f u l l y t h a n t h e c o n s o n a n c e s a l o n e c a n do .
The r u l e s w h i c h s h o u l d b e o b s e r v e d i n h a n d l i n g t h e s e t o n e s
h a v e b e e n c o p i o u s l y s e t f o r t h by m u s i c i a n s .
CHAPTER XIV
ON CHANGE OF MODES AND SYSTEMS
1. However m a n i f o l d t h e v a r i e t y t o be f o u n d i n a
s in g le system , i t is in e v ita b le t h a t d is ta s te w ill replace
p l e a s u r e i f one s y s t e m i s r e t a i n e d t o o l o n g . Since music
r e q u i r e s v a r i e t y an d a g r e e a b l e n e s s i n t o n e s a n d c o n s o n a n c e s ,
th e obje c t of h e a r i n g must be changed o f t e n . The e x p o n e n t
o f a system i s r e p r e s e n t e d t o th e h e a r i n g th ro u g h comoosi-
t i o n a s t r e a t e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r , end t h e s y s t e m
s h o u l d be c h a n g e d a s s o o n a s t h e e a r h a s s u f f i c i e n t l y
re c o g n ize d the ex ponent.
2. T h i s ' c h a n g e can b e e f f e c t e d i n many w a y s . In
t h e f i r 3 t p l a c e , w i t h mode a nd s p e c i e s f i x e d , the system
i t s e l f adm its d iv e rs e changes. The c h a n g e w i l l b e made more
p e r c e p tib l e i f th e r e i s a t r a n s i t i o n to a n o th e r sp e c ie s of
t h e mode o r e v e n t o a n o t h e r mode; s u ch c h a n g e s can b e
a c q u i r e d i n a b u n d a n c e fr o m t h e p r e v i o u s l y g i v e n t a b l e s o f
modes and s y s t e m s . M o r e o v e r , t h e modes t h e m s e l v e s an d
t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i e s and s y s t e m s a d m i t many v a r i a t i o n s
n o t shown i n t h e t a b l e . T he s e v a r i a t i o n s a r i s e i f t h e
i n d i c e s a r e co m bi ne d w i t h t h e e x p o n e n t s . I n t h i s way t h e
g r e a t e s t v a r i e t y i s i n j e c t e d in to m usic.
3. J u s t as comparison of v a r io u s consonances i s
a ccom olished by use o f exponents and i n d i c e s , so a l s o t h e
same mode a s s u m e s v a r i o u s f o r m s by j o i n i n g v a r i o u s i n d i c e s .
337
T h e s e f o r m s do n o t a p p e a r i n t h e t a b l e o f C h a p t e r X I I
wh ere u n i t y i s u s e d c o n s i s t e n t l y a s t h e I n d e x . In t h i s
c h a p t e r , where we p r o p o s e t o compare t h e v a r i o u s modes and
s y s t e m s a n d t o show how t o go fr om one t o a n o t h e r , we w i l l
c o n n e c t an i n d e x t o t h e e x p o n e n t o f e a c h mode and s y s t e m .
4. I n o r d e r t h a t I t may be c l e a r how c o m p o s i t i o n I s
accom plished i n a system I n which t h e ex p onent i s jo in e d
w i t h t h e i n d e x , we w i l l b e g i n w i t h i n d i c e s w h i c h a r e p o w e rs
of 2. T h e r e f o r e , l e t E ( 2 n ) be t h e e x p o n e n t o f t h e system
f o r w h ic h P = 2m. I t i s c l e a r t h a t c o m p o s i t i o n c a n be done
i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e e x p o n e n t E , a nd t h e n i t s h o u l d be
made n o c t a v e s h i g h e r . The s e v e r a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h i s
p r o c e s s may be o f f s e t by d o i n g t h e c o m p o s i t i o n i n t h e
s y s t e m o f e x p o n e n t E f o r t h e v a l u e F = 2m ril. This a ls o w i l l
belong to the g iv e n system .
5. I f the i n d e x I s n o t a p o w e r of 2 , b u t i s a n y
o t h e r number , c o m p o s i t i o n i n t h e s y s t e m w i t h e x p o n e n t E < ) ,
f o r t h e c a s e F 2m, i s done by c om posi ng i n t h e system of
e x p o n e n t E an d t h e n r a i s i n g e a c h t o n e by a n i n t e r v a l o f 1 : j j .
Since t h i s p r o c e s s u s u a l l y r e s u l t s i n to n e s which a re too
h i g h , t h e power o f 2 n e a r e s t t o may b e t a k e n . If this
pow e r I s d e s i g n a t e d a s 2^ , the c o m p o s i tio n w i l l be i n the
s y s t e m o f e x p o n e n t E( 2k ) a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r e v i o u s c a s e ,
a n d t h u s t h e whole c o m p o s i t i o n w i l l b e t r a n s p o s e d b y t h e
I n t e r v a l 2k : p . I n t h i s way, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e s i n t h e
338
p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r , a m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n c a n b e composed
i n a n y s y s t e m whose e x p o n e n t i s jo in e d w ith an index.
6. I f a work o f m u s i c c o n s i s t s o f s e v e r a l p a r t s ,
e a c h o f w h ic h i s i n a p a r t i c u l a r s y s t e m , t h e n t h e f i r s t
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d be t h e w h o le w o r k s e x p o n e n t , w h ic h
i s t h e l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e e x p o n e n t s o f a l l t h e
system s u s e d . C onversely, i f th e exponent i s chosen a t
w i l l , t h e sy stem s th e m s e lv e s and t h e i r ex p o n en ts a r e
d e r i v e d i n t h e same m a n n e r b y w h ic h t h e e x p o n e n t s o f
i n d i v i d u a l consonances a re d e riv e d from th e exnonent o f a
system.
7. H a v in g a r b i t r a r i l y c h o s e n a n e x p o n e n t t o
r e p r e s e n t t h e whole m u s i c a l w o r k , one m us t a l s o c h o o s e a
power o f 2 t o r e p r e s e n t t h e t o n e F , wh ich s h o u l d r e m a i n
fix ed in a l l system s. However, s u c h a m u s i c a l work may
h a v e s y s t e m s i n w h i c h F i s d e s i g n a t e d by a s m a l l e r power
of 2. T h i s h a p p e n s on a c c o u n t o f t h e i n d i c e s j o i n e d w i t h
th e e x o o n en ts o f th e s y ste m s , which, i f the in d ic e s are
e q u a l , a r e r e d u c e d t o s y s t e m s i n w h i c h s m a l l e r pow er s o f 2
e x p re ss th e to n e F. T h e s e t h i n g s a r e c l e a r fr om t h e
p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d p r o c e s s o f c o m p o si n g i n s y s t e m s whose
exponents are jo in ed w ith in d ic e s .
8. B e f o r e d e f i n i n g t h e s y s t e m s whic h a r e c o n t a i n e d
i n t h e e x p o n e n t o f a m u s i c a l w o rk , i t see ms a p p r o p r i a t e t o
l i s t t h e modes c o n t a i n e d i n t h a t e x p o n e n t . We s h o u l d
339
e x a m i n e n o t o n l y t h e modes a s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e e x D o n e n t s ,
b u t a l s o e a c h m o d e ' s i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n s , w h ic h a r e
d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e i n d i c e s . From t h e modes w i l l be
d e r i v e d s p e c i e s w hich, from the g i v e n v a lu e o f F, f u r n i s h
s y s t e m s , any o f w h i c h may b e u s e d to b e g i n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n
according to the r u l e s alread y developed.
9. I f we e x c e p t t h e s i m p l e r o n e s , t h e modes c a n b e
e x o r e s s e d p r i n c i p a l l y by t h e two e x p o n e n t s 2n , 33 *5 and
2n . j 2 . g 2 > ip^g m0(}e wi t h e x p o n e n t 2n , 33 *52 c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d ^
as a com posite of t h e s e two. M usicians d e s ig n a te the f i r s t ,
2n *3 3 *5, a s t h e m a j o r mode and t h e s e c o n d , 2n , 32 *52 , a s t h e
m i n o r mode. C om poser s u s e t h e s e two a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y i n
t h e i r works. E a c h o f t h e s e modes a d m i t s many v a r i a t i o n s by
jo in in g in d ic e s to exponents. T he s e v a r i a t i o n s ha v e b e e n
g i v e n S D e c i a l names by m u s i c i a n s , a s may be s e e n i n t h e
follow ing ta b le :
M ajo r Modes
2n , 3 S , 5 ( 2 m) C M a jo r
2 n *33 *5(2m*3) G M a jo r
2n *33 *5(2m*5) E M a jo r
2n *33 *5(2m , 3 2 ) D Major
2 n *3 3 *5(2m 3 5) B M a jo r
2n *3 3 , 5 ( 2 m*33 ) A M a jo r
2n *33 , 5 ( 2 m , 3 2 * 5 ) F# Majo r
2 r u 3 3 5 ( 2 m*34 ) E Major
2 n *3 3 , 5 ( 2 n!*3 3 *5) C# M aj or
2 n . 3 3 , 5 ( 2^ . 3 4 . 5 ) G# M ajo r
340
Minor Modes
2n - 3 2 *5 2 (2m) A M in o r
2n * 3 2 *5 2 (2 3) E Minor
2n *3 2 *5 2 (2m*32 ) B M ino r
2n *3 2 , 5 2 (2m*33 ) F# M in o r
2n *3 2 *5 2 (2ra*34 ) C# Mi nor
2n *3 2 *52 (2in' 3 5 ) G# M i n o r .
10. We ha v e l i s t e d h e r e o n l y t h o s e v a r i a t i o n s w h i c h
a r e c o n t a i n e d - i n t h e e x p o n e n t 2n , 3'', , 52 , w h i c h , a s we h a v e
o b s e r v e d , c a n be e x p r e s s e d by t h e c u r r e n t d i a t o n i c - c h r o m a t i c
g e n u s w i t h o u t d i s c e r n i b l e d e t r i m e n t t o t h e h a rm o n y . W.e
a s s i g n e d t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r names t o t h o s e m o d a l v a r i a t i o n s
b e c a u s e m o s t o f t h e s y s t e m s o f e a c h o f t h o s e modes i n c l u d e
t h o s e v e r y t o n e s w h ic h a r e c o n s i d e r e d by m u s i c i a n s t o
c o n s t i t u t e t h e a m b i t u s o f th e modes l i s t e d a b o v e . I f one
c o n s i d e r s many o f t h e s y s t e m s o f t h e mode 2n *3 3 *5(2m) i n
t h e g i v e n t a b l e , ! he w i l l s e e t h a t i n the m i s c o n t a i n e d t h e
a m b i t u s o f mode C m a j o r a s d e s i g n a t e d b y m u s i c i a n s . He
w i l l a l s o n o t e t h a t t h e mode 2n 3 2 *5 2 (2in) c o n t a i n s t h e
a m b i t u s o f mode A m i n o r .
11. I n o r d e r t o show w h a t k i n d s o f v a r i a t i o n s o f
t h e s e two modes may b e u s e d i n a n y m u s i c a l w o r k , l e t u s
I s e e S e c tio n 19, C h an ter X II. Hone o f t h e s o e c i e s

o f t h e mode 2n *3 2 *5 2 p r o d u c e s a D, t h e f o u r t h d e g r e e o f t h e
A m inor s c a l e .
341
c o n s i d e r t h e e x p o n e n t s w h i c h c a n b e a p p l i e d t o a whole
m u s i c a l w ork . As we h a v e a l r e a d y shown, t h e s e e x p o n e n t s
s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 2n * 3 ^* 5^, t h e e x p o n e n t o f th e d i a t o n i c -
c h ro m atic system ta k e n i n the b ro ad ersen se. Thus,
2 ^ * 3 3 *5^ w i l l b e t h e s i m p l e s t exp o n en tfrom which composi
t i o n s w i t h mo da l v a r i a t i o n s c a n b e c r e a t e d . I t includes
th e f o l l o w i n g f o u r modes:
2n *33 5 ( 2 m ) C M ajo r
2 n , 33 , 5 ( 2 m , 5) E Major
2n * 3 2 , 5 ^ ( 2 m) A Minor
2 n . 3 2 . 52 ( 2m . 3 ) E M in o r.
S u b s t i t u t i o n of s u c c e s s iv e i n t e g e r s f o r n and m w ill
p r o d u c e a l l t h e s p e c i e s o f t h e s e modes and t h e i r v a r i a t i o n s .
The sum m + n may n o t e x c e e d k .
12. The g r e a t e s t v a r i e t y i n c o m p o s i t i o n s o f t h i s
g e n u s may b e a c h i e v e d b y a l t e r n a t i n g t h e s y s t e m s w i t h e a c h
o t h e r so t h a t i t h a r d l y seems n e c e s s a r y t o demand c o m p o s i
t i o n s o f more c o m o o s l t e e x p o n e n t s . Not o n l y i s s u f f i c i e n t
v a r i e t y c o n tain ed in t h i s e x p o n en t, b u t the d i a t o n i c -
chrom atic genus i s p e r f e c t l y s u i t a b l e f o r such co m p o sition s
w ith composite e x p o n e n ts . Modern c o m p o s e r s o f t e n u s e
a l t e r n a t i o n o f t h e s e modes. Common t r a n s i t i o n s a r e f r o m
mode E m a j o r t o E m i n o r t o C m a j o r t o A m i n o r a n d th e
re v e rse s of th e se .
342
13. T h i s genus o f m u s ic a l works, which i s th e
s i m p l e s t and t h u s d e s e r v e s t o be c o n s id e r e d th e most
p e r f e c t , i s f o l l o w e d b y t h e g e n u s w i t h e x p o n e n t 2 ^* 3 ^ * 5 2 ,
i n w h i c h a r e i n c l u d e d a l l c h a n g e s o f modes a n d s y s t e m s
commonly u s e d b y c o m p o s e r s . Thus a l m o s t a l l m u s i c a l w o rk s
may b e c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s e x p o n e n t , i f , of c o u rs e , they are
su ita b ly transposed. I f one w i s h e s t o e x am i n e m u s i c a l
w o rk s b y t h i s p a t t e r n , he s h o u l d n o t c o n s i d e r t h e m o d a l
c h a n g e s i n t h e m s e l v e s , b u t he s h o u l d compare t h e i r m u t u a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e m u t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e modes
dism issed h e re .
14. The e x p o n e n t 2 ^ * 3 ^ * 5 ^ i n c l u d e s i n i t s e l f t h e .
f o l l o w i n g sev e n v a r i a t i o n s o f m a jo r and m inor modes:
2n *33 *5 (2 m) C M aj or
2n , 3 3 , 5 ( 2 m 3 ) G Major
2 n *33 , 5 ( 2 m*5) E Major
2n , 33 *5 (2 m*3, 5 ) B Major
2n *3 2 *5 2 (2m) A M ino r
2 n>3 2 , 52 (2E1* 3 ) E Minor
2n *32 *5 2 (2m 3 2 ) B Minor
when on e c o n t e m p l a t e s t h e g r e a t r i c h n e s s o f s p e c i e s an d
s y s t e m s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e s e m o de s, he w i l l n o t o n l y wo nd e r
at the very g re a t v a r i e t y in t h i s g e n u s , b u t he w i l l also
r e c o g n i z e t h a t o t h e r c h a n g e s o f modes a r e n e v e r u s e d by
c o m p o s e r s , so t h a t i t w o u ld be u n n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r more
com posite e x p o n e n ts .
343
15. I n l i s t i n g t h e v a r i o u s modes a n d s y s t e m s w h i c h
c a n be u s e d i n co m posi ng a c o m p l e t e c o m p o s i t i o n , we s h o u l d
show w ha t k i n d s o f modes c a n m o s t s u i t a b l y be ch an g e d among
t h e m s e l v e s a n d how t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m one mode t o a n o t h e r
s h o u l d be m a d e . J u s t a s we c a n n o t i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y c o n n e c t
a l l c o n s o n a n c e s i n t h e same mode, b u t o n l y t h o s e w h ic h a r e
\
r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t h e r and p r o d u c e p l e a s i n g s u c c e s s i o n s , so
a l s o e a c h t r a n s i t i o n i n a c o m p o s i t i o n fr o m one mode t o
a n o th e r should be p le a s in g .
16. H e n c e , i t f o l l o w s t h a t two modes i n s u c c e s s i o n
s h o u l d h a v e one o r more c o n s o n a n c e s i n common. V/hen s u c h
a common c o n s o n a n c e i s f o u n d , i t may s e r v e a s t h e i n t e r
m e d i a t e p o i n t b e t w e e n t h e two m o d e s , so t h a t t h e l i s t e n e r
i s n o t a w a re o f a l e a p o r u n p l e a s a n t ga o i n t h e m u s i c .
M o r e o v e r , when a p a u s e o c c u r s i n t h e m us ic o r when a n
i m p o r t a n t d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n e n d s , a new mode c a n
begin* In such a c a s e , t h e pau se i s c o n s i d e r e d to f i l l the
p l a c e o f t h e common c o n s o n a n c e .
17. S i n c e c o m p o s e r s ha ve shown g r e a t p r e f e r e n c e f o r
t h e h a r m o n i c t r i a d s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e e x p o n e n t 2n *3*5 a n d
s i n c e a c o m p o s i t i o n c o n s i s t s o f t h e i r s u c c e s s i o n s , we
s h o u l d c o n s i d e r wh at modes h a v e s u c h common c o n s o n a n c e s an d
what modes c a n b e e n t e r e d fr om a g i v e n mode. F o r the sake
b r e v i t y we w i l l o m i t f r o m t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n oowers o f 2 i n
b o th e x o o n e n ts and i n d i c e s , s i n c e s u c h powers c h a n g e o n l y
the sp e c ie s.
344
2n *33 *5(2m) C M a jo r
Harmonic t r i a d s
3*5(1):3*5(3):3*5(32 )
2n , 33 , 5 ( 2 m*3) G M a j o r
3*5(3):3*5(32 ):3*5(33 )
2n *33 , 5 ( 2 in*5) E M a j o r
H a n no nl c t r i a d s
3 * 5 ( 5 ) : 3 * 5 ( 3 * 5 ) : 3 * 5 ( 3 2 *5)
2n *3 3 *5(2m*3*5) B M ajo r
Ham onlc t r i a d s
3 * 5 ( 3 * 5 ) : 3 * 5 ( 3 2 * 5 ) : 3 * 5 ( 3 3 *5)
2n *32 *5 2 (2ra) A Minor
H am onlc t r i a d s
3 * 5 ( 1 ) : 3 * 5 ( 3 ) : 3 * 5 ( 5 ) :3*5(3*5)
2n , 3 2 *52 (2m*3) E Mi nor
3 * 5 ( 3 ) : 3 *5 ( 3 2 ) : 3 * 5 ( 3 * 5 ) : 3 * 5 ( 3 2 *5)
2n - 3 2 *52 (2ra*32 ) B Minor
H am onlc t r i a d s
3*5(32 ) : 3 '5 ( 3 3 ):3 * 5 (3 2 *5 ):3*5(33 *5).
18. From t h e p r e c e d i n g i t i s c l e a r t h a t i t is easy
t o go f r o m C m a j o r t o G m a j o r o r t h e r e v e r s e , since these
modes ha v e two comm.on t r i a d s : 3 * 5 ( 3 ) and 3 * 5 ( 3 2 ) . T ransi
t i o n c a n n o t be made f r o m C m a j o r t o e i t h e r E m a j o r o r
B m a j o r , s i n c e t h e r e i s no common c o n s o n a n c e . I t is easy
t o go f r o m C m a j o r t o A m i n o r s i n c e t h e r e a r e two common
consonances, 3*5(1) and 3 * 5 (3 ) . I t i s e a s y t o go f r o m
C m a j o r t o E m i n o r s i n c e t h e r e a r e two common t r i a d s ,
3 * 5 ( 3 ) an d 3 * 5 ( 3 2 ) . A t r a n s i t i o n fr om G m a j o r t o B m i n o r
i s more d i f f i c u l t s i n c e t h e s e modes ha v e o n l y one common
c o n s o n a n c e , 3*5 ( 3 2 ) .
19. S im ilarly, i t i s obvious t h a t a t r a n s i t i o n
c a n n o t be made f r o m 0 m a j o r t o E m a j o r o r B m a j o r , since
t h e r e i s no common c o n s o n a n c e ' , A t r a n s i t i o n from C m a jo r
t o A m i n o r would be d i f f i c u l t s i n c e t h e r e i s o n l y one
common c o n s o n a n c e , 3 * 5 ( 3 ) , b u t i t i s e a s y t o go fro m G m a j o r
t o E o r B m i n o r b e c a u s e o f two common c o n s o n a n c e s . F o r the
same r e a s o n , i t i s e a s y t o go f r o m E m a j o r t o B m a j o r , A
m i n o r , o r E m i n o r , b u t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o go fr o m E m a j o r
t o B m i n o r b e c a u s e t h e r e i s o n l y one common c o n s o n a n c e .
20. I t is quite d i f f i c u l t to go f r o m B m a j o r t o
A m i n o r , n o t o n l y b e c a u s e o f t h e s i n g l e common c o n s o n a n c e ,
b u t a l s o b e c a u s e of t h e e x c e s s i v e d i f f e r e n c e of th e sy ste m s .
(An e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s w i l l be g i v e n n r e s e n t l y . ) However,
a t r a n s i t i o n fr om B m a j o r t o E o r B m i n o r c a n b e made more
346
e a s i l y b e c a u s e o f two common c o n s o n a n c e s . T r a n s i t i o n fro m
A m i n o r t o E m i n o r i s e a s y b u t c a n n o t b e made fr o m A m i n o r
to B m inor. I t i s e a s y t o go fro m E m i n o r t o B m i n o r .
T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s may b e summed up i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e :
C m ajor G m ajor E m ajor B m ajor
C m ajor m easy none none

G m ajor easy ---- none non e
E m ajor none none ----------- easy
B m ajor none none easy
A m inor easy d ifficu lt easy d ifficu lt
E minor easy easy easy easy
B m inor d ifficu lt easy d ifficu lt easy
A minor E m inor B m inor
C major easy easy -

d ifficu lt
G m ajor d ifficu lt easy easy
E m ajor easy easy d ifficu lt
B m ajor d ifficu lt easy easy
A minor ----------- easy none
E m inor easy ----------- easy
B m inor none easy -----------
Obviously , I t i s e a s y t o go fr o m E m i n o r t o any o f t h e
o t h e r modes.
nr
347 .
21. T h u s , when two modes h a v e common v a r i a t i o n s o f
c o n s o n a n c e s o f t h e same g e n u s , we h a v e a b a s i s f o r s a f e
ju d g m e n t c o n c e r n i n g t r a n s i t i o n f r o m one mode t o t h e o t h e r .
However, I f I t h a p p e n s t h a t two modes h a v e no common s p e c i e s
e v e n t h o u g h t h e y may ha ve common k i n d s o f c o n s o n a n c e s , t h e n
d e c i s i o n s h o u l d n o t b e made a s a b o v e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , we
s h o u l d c o n s i d e r n o t o n l y t h e modes i n g e n e r a l , a s we h a v e
done h e r e , b u t a l s o t h e i r s p e c i e s a n d s y s t e m s i n o r d e r t h a t
i t may be c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e r e a r e common c o n s o n a n c e s . By
d o i n g t h i s , we may c o n c l u d e w h a t k i n d o f t r a n s i t i o n may be
a d m i t t e d ancl how i t c a n b e m ad e,
22. I f one b e a r s a l l t h e s e t h i n g s i n mind and
e x a m i n e s t h e p r o c e s s o f c o m p o s i n g a n d t h e w o r k s o f m od ern
c o m p o s e r s , t h e more he c o m p a r e s , t h e more a g r e e m e n t h e w i l l
find. I do n o t d o u b t t h a t my t h e o r y o f m u s i c , a u g m e n t e d
b y t r u e t h e o r y now unknown, w i l l f u r n i s h e x p e r t a r t i s t s
means o f a d v a n c i n g t h i s s c i e n c e ^ t o a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f
oerfection.
2 An e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y d i c t i o n a r y d e f i n e s m u s i c a s
"the sc ie n c e o f sound, c o n sid e re d as capable of producing
m e l o d y , o r h a r m o n y . " See H u t t o n , C h a r l e s , A M a t h e m a t i c a l
a n d P h i l o s o p h i c a l D i c t i o n a r y , V o l . I I , p . 13 5.
348
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349
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1926.
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17 3 9 .
F i n k e l , B. F . , " L e o n h a r d E u l e r , " The A m e ri c a n M a t h e m a t i c a l

M o n t h l y , IV ( 1 8 9 7 ) , 297-3 027
F o k k e r , A. D . , " E x p e r i e n c e s m u s i c a l e s a v e c l e s g e n r e s
m u s i c a u x de L e o n h a r d E u l e r c o n t e n a n t l e s e p t i e m e
harm onioue," in I n t e r n a t i o n a l e G e s e l l s c h a f t f u r
M u s ik w is s e n s c h a ft, K o n g r e s s b e r ic h t, pp. 113-115,
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H e l m h o l t z , Hermann L. F . , On t h e S e n s a t i o n s o f Tone a s a
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350
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H u t t o n , C h a r l e s , A M a t h e m a t i c a l and P h i l o s o p h i c a l
D i c t i o n a r y , Jh J o h n s o n , London^ l 7 5 .
J e a n s , S i r James, S c ie n c e and M usic, U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,

Cambridge, 1937.
Lang, P a u l H e n r y , Mu s i c i n W e s t e r n C i v i l i z a t i o n , W. W..
N o r t o n & Company, I n c . , New Y o r k , 1941.
L a s l e y , J . vV., " M a t h e m a t i c s a n d t h e S c i e n c e s , " i n

M a t h e m a t i c s ; Our G r e a t H e r i t a g e , p . 1 7 6 , e d i t e d b y
W i l l i a m L. S c h a a f , H a r p e r & B r o s . , New Y o r k , 1948.
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P u b l i s h i n g C o . , New Y o r k , 19 55 .
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U n i v e r s i t y o f Oklahoma P r e s s , Norman, 19 5 4 .
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1908.
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L t d . , Lond on, I 9 l 7 .
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351
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L e o n h a r d E u l e r s , " C o m m e n t a r i l M at-hematlcl H e l v e t i c l ,
XX ( 1 9 4 7 ) , 2 8 8 .
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o f M a t h e m a t i c s , p p . 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 , e d i t e d b y James R.
Newman, Simon an d S c h u s t e r , New Y o r k , 1956 ,
Van d e r P o l , B a l t h . , "Music & E l e m e n t a r y T h e o r y o f N u m b e r s ,"

The Music R e v i e w , V I I ( 1 9 4 6 ) , 1 - 2 5 .
W a r r a c k , Guy, "Music & M a t h e m a t i c s , " Music an d L e t t e r s ,

XXVI ( 1 9 4 5 ) , 2 1 - 2 7 .
Zahm, J . A . , Sound a n d M u s i c , A. C. McCurg & C o . , C h i c a g o ,

19 00 .
352
APPENDIX
353
APPENDIX A
EULER'S NOTEBOOK SKETCH ( 1 7 2 6 ) FOR A PROPOSED

TREATMENT OP MUSICAL COMPOSITION1
E u l e r was a b o u t n i n e t e e n y e a r s o f a ge when he made
th e o u t l i n e which f o l l o w s .
THEORETICAL SYSTEMS OF MUSIC
Section I.
On C o m p o s i t i o n f o r One V o i c e
Chapter 1. On t h e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f T o n e s .
Chapter 2. On t h e F i n a l a n d M id d le S e c t i o n s o f
M elodies.
C hapter 3. On t h e D i v i s i o n o f a Melody i n t o M a j o r ,
M i n o r , a n d N e u t r a l Modes.
Chapter 4. On a Melody i n a P a r t i c u l a r Key.
Chapter 5. On a M aj o r Melody i n a P a r t i c u l a r Key.
Chapter 6 . On a Minor Melody i n a P a r t i c u l a r Key.
C hapter 7. On a N e u t r a l Melody i n Any Key.
Chapter 8 . On D i g r e s s i o n t o O t h e r M e l o d i e s from a
M a j o r Melody.
C hapter 9. On D i g r e s s i o n fr om a Minor Melody.
C h a n t e r 1 0 , On D i g r e s s i o n fr o m a N e u t r a l Melody.
1E u l e r , Ope ra Omnia, S e r i e s I I I , V o l . 1 , pp. X-XI.

)
354
S e c t i o n IX.
On C o m p o s i t i o n f o r More Than One V o i c e
C hanter 1. On t h e D i s t r i b u t i o n of Harmonies.
Chapter 2. On t h e C o n se c u tio n o f Harmonies.
Chapter 3. On t h e F i n a l a nd M i d d l e S e c t i o n s o f
C o m p o s i t i o n s f o r More t h a n One V o i c e .
C hapter 4. On C o m p o s i t i o n i n a P a r t i c u l a r M a j o r Key.
Chapters 5 - 1 1 . No T i t l e s
Section I I I .
On C e r t a i n T y p e s o f C o m p o s i t i o n
C hapter 1 . On M e a s u r e s a n d T h e i r D i v i s i o n .
C hapter 2 . On C o m p o s i t i o n f o r Two V o i c e s .
C hapter 3. On C o r a o o s i t i o n f o r T h r e e V o i c e s .
C hapter 4. On t h e S a r a b a n d .
C hapter 5. On C o u r a n t e s .
C hapter 6 . Oh t h e Min uet a n d t h e S a l t a r e l l o .
C h a p te r 7. On t h e C h i c a a n d t h e P a s s e p i e d .
C hapter 8 . On P i e c e s C a l l e d A l l e g r o .
C h a p te r 9. On P i e c e s C a l l e d A d a g i o . On C o m p o s i t i o n
f o r Four V oices.
C h a p t e r 1 0 . On t h e A ll e m a nd e P i e c e s .
C h a p t e r 1 1 . On t h e German A l l e m a n d e ,
C h a n t e r 1 2 . On t h e C o n t r e d a n s e a n d t h e M a r c h . '
Chanter On ComDOsition f o r F i v e V o i c e s .
555
Section I I I . (Continued)
Chapter On Mixed Works, Such a s O v e r t u r e s ,

Toccatas, e tc .
Chapter On V a r i a t i o n s .
Chapter On t h e Fugue a nd C a p r i c c i o .
Chapter On t h e C h a c o n n e .
C hapter On t h e P r e l u d e .
The l a s t s i x c h a p t e r s were n o t g i v e n n u m b e r s .
356
APPENDIX B
A COMPARISON OP THE DEGREES OP AGREEABLENESS OP

MAJOR AND MINOR TRIADS IN EULER S
DIATONIC-CHROMATIC GENUS
The p u r p o s e h e r e i s t o a s s i g n d e g r e e s o f a g r e e a b l e
n e s s t o t h e t w e l v e p o s s i b l e m a j o r an d m i n o r t r i a d s i n
E u l e r ' s g e n u s a nd t o compare t h e r e s u l t s . Ro ot p o s i t i o n
i s assumed, w ith th e lo w e r and u p p e r t o n e s a f i f t h a p a r t .
The m a j o r t r i a d s w i t h F , G, A, G, E, a nd B a s r o o t s
h a v e t o n e s i n t h e r a t i o 4 : 5 : 6 an d w o u ld be a s s i g n e d t o t h e -
n in th degree of a g re ea b le n ess. Those b a s e d on C#, D#,
a n d G# h a v e t h e r a t i o 5 0 : 6 4 : 7 5 a n d b e l o n g t o t h e s e v e n t e e n t h
degree. Th ose b a s e d on P# an d D h a v e t h e r a t i o 1 0 8 : 1 3 5 : 1 6 0
and b e lo n g t o t h e s i x t e e n t h degree;' The m ajor t r i a d ,
675:864:1024, i s a ss ig n e d to th e t w e n t y - f i f t h degree!
The m i n o r t r i a d s w i t h C#, D#, E, G#, A, and B ha ve
t o n e s i n t h e r a t i o 1 0 : 1 2 : 1 5 a nd b e l o n g t o t h e n i n t h d e g r e e .
(Thus t h e m a j o r and m i n o r t r i a d s w i t h r o o t A, f o r example.,
w oul d h a v e t h e same d e g r e e o f a g r e e a b l e n e s s . ) Those b a s e d
o n C, F , a n d G ha v e t h e r a t i o 6 4 : 7 5 : 9 6 an d b e l o n g t o t h e
seventeenth degree. Th os e b a s e d on D and F# h a v e t h e r a t i o
27:32:40 and belo n g to th e s i x t e e n t h d e g re e. The B m inor
t r i a d , 675:800:1024, belongs to th e t w e n t y - f i f t h d eg ree, as
does the B^ m a jo r t r i a d ,
E u l e r s g e n u s i s a v a r i a n t o f j u s t i n t o n a t i o n and
i s t h u s s u b j e c t t o t h e many d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h a t s y s t e m .
357
APPENDIX C
AN ANALYSIS OF EULER'S CONTINUED FRACTION

FOR APPROXIMATING THE RATIO OF
THE OCTAVE TO THE FIFTH
The f r a c t i o n . 3 0 1 0 3 0 0 / . 1 7 6 0 9 1 3 I n S e c t i o n 3 8 ,
C h a p t e r IV, I s a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e d e s i r e d r a t i o .
The c o n t i n u e d f r a c t i o n c a n h e d e r i v e d f r o m i t in the
f o l l o w i n g way:
3 0 1 0 3 0 0 / 1 7 6 0 9 1 3 = 1 + 1 2 4 9 3 8 7 /1 7 6 0 9 1 3
1760913/1249387 =1+511526/1249387
1249387/511526=2+226335/511526
5 1 1 5 2 6 / 2 2 6 3 3 5 = 2 + 5 8 8 5 6 /2 2 6 3 3 5
2 2 6 3 3 5 / 5 8 8 5 6 = 3 + 4 9 7 6 7 /5 8 8 5 6

e
Thus 3 0 1 0 3 0 0 / 1 7 6 0 9 1 3 i s e x p r e s s e d a s
2+ -!
3+
I f t h e a b o v e p r o c e s s were c o n t i n u e d , t h e f r a c t i o n wo ul d
eventually term inate.
I n g e n e r a l , t h e a p p r o x i m a t i n g r a t i o s a r e f o u n d fr o m
t h e f r a c t i o n b y s t a r t i n g on t h e l e f t a n d m o v in g s u c c e s s i v e l y
to the r i g h t . For example,
/ + f - 3
This y i e l d s the f i r s t r a t i o , 2 :1 .
358
I - jL
i +* | -H 3
This y i e l d s th e second r a t i o , 3s2, T h i s p r o c e s s i s con'
tin u ed .
359
GLOSSARY
D u p le x S u p e r b I n a r t i e n t R a t i o A r a t i o i n which, t h e
a n te c e d e n t exceeds tw ice th e consequent by 2 , a s
8:3, 12:5.
E x p o n e n t - - The l e a s t common m u l t i p l e o f t h e nu mb er s
r e p r e s e n t i n g the to n e s of a p a r t i c u l a r g ro u p , s u ch
a s a c h o r d , a p h r a s e , o r a who le c o m p o s i t i o n .
Harmonic T r i a d - - M a jo r o r m i n o r t r i a d .
I n d e x - - A number r e l a t i n g one c o n s o n a n c e t o a n o t h e r .
M ultiple S u p e rp a rtie n t R atio A r a t i o i n w hic h t h e
a n te c e d e n t exceeds a m u ltip le of the conseouent,
as 13:5, 11:4, 8 :3 .
P r i n c i p a l T r i a d - - Harmonic t r i a d i n r o o t p o s i t i o n .
S e s q u i a l t e r a l R a t i o A s u o e r o a r t i c u l a r r a t i o i n which
t h e a n t e c e d e n t e x c e e d s t h e c o n s e q u e n t b y one h a l f
of the consequent, as 3 :2 , 6 :4 , 9:6 .
S e s q u i t e r t i a l R a t i o - - A s u o e r p a r t i c u l a r r a t i o i n which t h e
a n t e c e d e n t e x c e e d s t h e c o n s e q u e n t by a t h i r d o f t h e
consequent, as 4 :3 , a :6 , 12:8.
S u b o r d i n a t e T r i a d - - Harmonic t r i a d n o t -in r o o t p o s i t i o n .
S u p e rp a rtic u la r R atio - - A r a t i o i n which th e a n t e c e d e n t
e x c e e d s t h e c o n s e q u e n t by a number w hi c h i s a f a c t o r
of th e consequent, as 4 :3 , 6 :4 , 9:6 .
360
S u p e ro a rtie n t Ratio - - A r a t i o i n which th e a n t e c e d e n t
e x c e e d s t h e c o n s e q u e n t b y an a l i q u a n t p a r t o f t h e
consequent, as 5 :3 , 7:4, 9:5.
System A s e l e c t i o n of to n e s i n c l u d e d w i t h i n t h e f o u r
o c tav e range which E u le r a s c r i b e s to i n s tr u m e n ts .
BIOGRAPHICAL DATA
Date o f B irth : June 29, 1920
Place of B i r t h : H o o k i n s v i l l e , K e n tu c k y
Undergraduate Study: W e s t e r n K e n tu c k y S t a t e C o l l e g e
19 38 -4 2
A.B. i n Music E d u c a t i o n
Graduate Study: E a s t m a n S c h o o l o f Music 1943 (Summer)

S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y of Iowa 19 50 -5 2
M.A. i n Music T h e o ry
I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y 19 54-5 6
D octor of P h ilo so p h y '
P ro fe ssio n a l Experience: Faculty, B e th e l C o lle g e 1952-54
A ssistant, Indiana U n iv ersity

1955-56
F a c u l t y , D ru ry C o l l e g e
1956 - p r e s e n t

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LEONHARD EULER'S TENT AMEN NOVAE THE OKI AE MUSICAE:

A TRANSLATION AND COMMENTARY

CHARLES SAMUEL SMITH

Subm itted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of th e re q u ire m e n ts

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION

I. LEONHARD EULER . . ............................................................... 2

II. THE TENTAMEN NOVAE THEORIAE MUSICAE .................... 6

PART TWO: ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF THE

I , , __ ON SOUND AND HEARING......................................................... 24

II. ON AGREEABLENESS AND THE PRINCIPLES OFHARMONY 65

III. ON MUSIC IN G E N E R A L .................................................... 87

IV. ON CONSONANCES....................................... 101

V I. ON SERIES OF CONSONANCES.............................................. 140

V II. ON THE CURRENT NAMES OF VARIOUSINTERVALS . . 152

V III. ON MUSICAL G E N E R A ...................................................................164

IX. ON THE DIATONIC-CHROMATIC G E N U S .................................186

X. ON SOME MORE COMPOSITE MUSICAL GENERA . . . . 207

XI. ON CONSONANCES IN THE DIATONIC-CHROMATIC GENUS 224

X II. ON MODES AND SYSTEMS IN THE DIATONIC-CHROMATIC

X III. ON THE PROCESS OF COMPOSITION IN A GIVEN MODE

XIV. ON CHANGE OF MODESANDSYSTEMS............................................. 336

BIB LIO GR A PH Y .................................................... ........................................348

S w i t z e r l a n d , w h i c h was t h e home o f t h e B e r n o u l l i s , a famous

u nder Jean B e rn o u lli a t th e U n iv e rs ity of B asel. He a l s o

s tu d ie d th e o lo g y , o r i e n t a l lan g u ag es, m e d ic in e, astronom y,

Academy. The Te nta m e n n o v a e t h e o r l a e m u s i c a e was p u b l i s h e d

during t h i s s ta y in S t. P etersburg. I n 1735 he s u f f e r e d t h e

, commented a b o u t t h i s l o s s , " J ' a u r a i mo ins de d i s t r a c t i o n s . " 1

A l t h o u g h E u l e r ' s m o s t i m p o r t a n t work was done i n

p u r e m a t h e m a t i c s , he was a man o f wide c u l t u r e . He was

science, and he was a n e x c e l l e n t c l a s s i c a l s c h o l a r w i t h

t h a t he c o u l d r e o e a t V i r g i l ' s A e n e l d from memory an d c o u l d

w h i c h he u s e d , " b u t such l i n e s from V i r g i l a s , 'The a n c h o r

d rops, the rushing keel i s staid ,' a l w a y s s u g g e s t e d t o him

of E u ler, " th e most p r o l i f i c o f m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . T h i s

c o n tin u in g p r o j e c t has produced about f i f t y l a r g e volumes.

S e r i e s I , m ath em atics; S e r i e s I I , m echanics and astronom y;

Series I I I , o h y s ic s and m is c e lla n e o u s w orks;5 and

Turnbull d e sc rib e s E u ler, th e m a th e m a tic ia n ,th u s :

^ P i n k e l , B. P . , " L e o n h a r d E u l e r , " The A m e ri c a n

E u l e r i n th e problems of p h y s i c s - - b u t only because

His m a th e m a tic a l achievem ents a re c o n c is e ly e x p re ss e d

i n the s ta t e m e n t t h a t "mathematics th ro u g h the c a l c u l u s as

^ L a s l e y , J . W., " M a t h e m a t i c s and t h e S c i e n c e s , " i n

THE TENTAMEN NOVAE THEORIAE MUSICAE

O rig in a l and Subsequent E d itio n s

tre a tise on m u s i c o f L e o n h a r d E u l e r (1707-1783), g en erally

r e c o g n i z e d a s one o f t h e t r u l y g r e a t m athem aticians o f a l l

tim e. Th e e x t e n t of E u l e r s accom plishm ents i n m athem atics

by such w r i t e r s as H elm holtz, R iem ann, L ang, S hirlaw ,

Jeans, P ole, B ukofzer, Van d e r P o l , a n d ma n y o t h e r s . The

a t t e m p t i s made t o d e s c r i b e its co n ten ts. It i s th e purpose

of th is study to o ro v id e a w ider a c c e ss to E u l e r 's ideas

by means o f a f a i t h f u l , in te g r a l E nglish tr a n s la tio n of

the Tentam en.

The T e n t a m e n w a s f i r s t published in 1739 in

S t. P etersb urg, R ussia, w h e r e E u l e r was a p r o f e s s o r a t the

I n 1752 L o r e n z C h r i s t o o h Iviizler^ b e g a n a German

i n lb65 i n P a r i s . The t r a n s l a t o r i s an on ym ou s. A rchibald^

e d i t o r was E d u a r d B e r n o u l l i . The p r e s e n t t r a n s l a t i o n was

found in s e v e r a l l i b r a r i e s i n t h e United S t a t e s and a r e

e x i s t i n g number o f c o p i e s seems t o s u p p o r t P o l e ' s s t a t e m e n t

^ A r c h i b a l d , R. C . , " M a t h e m a t i c i a n s a n d M u s i c , " The

as 2^35, w here srl2 and n s 4 , Thus, s - n + l = 9.