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Contents
1 Vector Algebra 1
3 Projectile Motion 5
5 Force Problems 12
8 Work-Energy Theorem I 22
9 Work-Energy Theorem II 24
13 Statics 45
14 Oscillations 47
15 Waves 52
1
1 Vector Algebra
Textbook Reference: Chapter 3 sections 1-6 & Appendix A.
Definition of a Vector
A vector v is determined in terms of its magnitude v = |v| and its direction bv = v/v.
In two-dimensional space, a vector v is written as
v = vx bx + vy by,
where bx = (1, 0) and by = (0, 1) are unit vectors in the directions of increase of x and y,
respectively, and (vx , vy ) denotes its components.
In terms of its components (vx , vy ), the magnitude of the vector v is
q
v = |v| = vx2 + vy2,
The direction unit vector bv can also be represented in terms of the direction angle as
b
v = cos bx + sin by.
Vector Algebra
1
Multiplication of a Vector v by a Scalar
q
| v| = ( vx )2 + ( vy )2 = || |v|
v = ( vx ) bx + ( vy ) by
d
v = (/||) bv
Vector addition w = u + v
w = wx bx + wy by = (ux + vx ) bx + (uy + vy ) by
Vector Kinematics
2
Kinematics is the part of Physics that contains the terminology used to describe the
motion of particles. For this purpose, the first element of the kinematic description of
the motion of a particle involves tracking its position as a function of time. Because the
motion of the particle may involve more than one spatial dimension, a vector representation
is adopted. Hence, the position of a particle at time t is denoted as r(t) or, assuming that
the motion takes place in two dimensions, as
Since the initial position of the particle is often known, we denote the initial position of
the particle as r0 = x0 bx + y0 by = (x0, y0 ). Questions that immediately arise are (a) the
distance covered and (b) the net displacement experienced by the particle in going from the
initial position r0 to the instantaneous position r(t). It turns out that we cannot answer
the first question without known the path taken by the particle between these two points
(i.e., the particle may zigzag its way between the two points making the distance covered
far greater than the distance separating the two points). If the path taken is a straight
line, however, then the distance covered by the particle is simply given by the distance
|r(t) r0 | between the two points
q
|r(t) r0 | = (x(t) x0)2 + (y(t) y0)2 .
The answer to the second question introduces the definition of the net displacement vector
Note that the net displacement experienced by a particle is zero if the particle returns to
its initial point, while the distance covered by the particle along this closed path is not
zero.
Now that we know how to describe the position r(t) of a particle and find its displace-
ment r(t) from an initial position r0 , we are interested in describing how fast the particle
is moving. Here, we need to introduce the concepts of instantaneous velocity v(t) and
3
averaged velocity v(t). The averaged velocity is simply calculated by determining the
net dispacement r(t) experienced by a particle during a given time interval t = t and
calculating the ratio:
4
Motion under Constant Acceleration
When a particle moves under constant acceleration a, its instantaneous velocity v(t) is
defined as
v(t) = v0 + a t = (vx0 + ax t, vy0 + ay t),
where v0 denotes the particles initial velocity, while its instantaneous position r(t) is
defined as
1 1 1
r(t) = r0 + v0 t + a t2 = x0 + vx0 t + ax t2, y0 + vy0 t + ay t2 .
2 2 2
Note that from these definitions we recover v(t) = dr(t)/dt and a = dv(t)/dt = d2 r(t)/dt2.
Note also that the averaged velocity v(t) obeys the equation
1
v(t) = v0 + a t,
2
i.e., the averaged velocity still evolves linearly but now at half the value of the constant
acceleration.
Lastly, we note that the components (x, x0; vx, vx0; ax) and (y, y0; vy , vy0 ; ay ) each in-
dependently satisfy the relation
vx2 = vx0
2
+ 2 ax (x x0) and vy2 = vy0
2
+ 2 ay (y y0 ),
where the time coordinate t has been completely eliminated.
3 Projectile Motion
Textbook Reference: Chapter 3 sections 7-8.
The problem of projectile motion involves the kinematic description of the path of an
object (the projectile) moving in the presence of the constant gravitational acceleration
a = g by, where g = 9.8067... m/s denotes the standard value of g.
The equations of projectile motion are
x(t) = v0 cos t
g 2
y(t) = H + v0 sin t t
2
vy (t) = v0 sin g t
5
where H denotes the initial height at which the projectile was launched (for convenience,
we set the initial horizontal position x0 = 0), v0 denotes the initial launch speed and
denotes the initial launch angle (see Figure below).
As can be seen from the Figure above, the projectile reaches a maximum height, denoted
ymax , as its vertical velocity vy reaches zero (if 0 < < 90o ) as a result of the fact that the
downward graviational acceleration slows down the upward motion until it stops. From
that moment onward, the vertical component of the projectiles velocity becomes negative
and continues to increase until the projectile hits the ground (at y = 0) after having covered
a horizontal distance D.
6
Maximum Height
The projectile reaches a maximum height ymax after a time Tmax defined as the time
when the vertical component vy (t) vanishes:
v0 sin
vy (Tmax) = 0 = v0 sin g Tmax Tmax = .
g
Using that time, we may now calculate the vertical position of the projectile as
!2
v0 sin g v0 sin (v0 sin )2
ymax = y(Tmax) = H + v0 sin = H + ,
g 2 g 2g
while it has traveled the horizontal distance
v0 sin v2
x(Tmax) = v0 cos = 0 cos sin .
g g
Free Fall
The next phase of the projectile motion after the object starts its descent involves the
projectile falling from a height ymax with zero initial vertical velocity vy max = 0. The
equation of motion for this free-fall phase can be written as
g
y(t) = ymax t2 and vy (t) = g t.
2
The projectile, therefore, hits the ground after a time Tf all has elapsed (since the time it
has reached the maximum height ymax), which is defined as
s
g 2 ymax
y(Tf all) = ymax Tf2all Tf all = .
2 g
At the time when the projectile hits the ground, it has traveled an additional horizontal
distance s
2 ymax
x(Tf all) = v0 cos .
g
7
Special Cases
Two special cases present themselves. The first special case deals with the situation
where the projectile is launched straight up or straight down (i.e., = 90o ) from some
initial height H. The second special case deals with the situation where the projectile is
launched horizontally (i.e., = 0) from some initial height H.
Parabolic Motion
We can eliminate the time coordinate t from the equations of projectile motion in favor
of the horizontal position
x
x(t) = v0 cos t t = ,
v0 cos
which can then be substituted in the equation for the vertical position
g sec2 2
y(x) = H + x tan x,
2 v02
We now enter the realm of the dynamics of particles after having spent some time
discussing the kinematics of particles. The issues discussed in dynamics center on the
causes of motion, which are known as forces.
Newtons First Law of Motion
8
The tendency of a body to maintain its state of rest or of uniform linear motion (i.e.,
constant velocity) is called inertia. The physical measurement of inertia is called mass.
9
Forces as Vectors
When several forces (F1 , F2 , , FN ) are acting on an object of mass m, the net force
is calculated as the vector sum
N
X
Fnet = F1 + F2 + + FN = Fi
i=1
N
! N
!
X X
= Fx i b
x + Fy i b
y
i=1 i=1
Newtons Second Law states that the net acceleration anet experienced by the object is
An object is, therefore, in a state of rest whenever the net force acting on it is Fnet = 0.
We note that the unit of force is the Newton (abbreviated N) and is defined as
m
1 N = 1 kg 1
s2
dv d2 x
F = ma = m = m 2.
dt dt
Hence, we may define the average force
v
F = m
t
10
in terms of the change in velocity v = vf vi experienced during the time interval t.
If the objects mass m is not constant (i.e., dm/dt 6= 0), the Newtons Second Law is
now stated as
d(m v) dv dm
F = = m + v,
dt dt dt
which forms the dynamical basis of rocket propulsion by combining Newtons Second and
Third Laws.
FSO = FOS = mg by
back on the object in the opposite direction but of the same magnitude. The reaction
force on the object is known as the normal force FN , since this force is always directed
perpendicular to the surface.
As an example, we consider the case of an object of mass m resting at the bottom of a
massless elevator suspended by a cable with tension T .
When the elevator is at rest, the tension T in the cable is obviously equal to the weight
mg of the object: T = mg. Because the object is resting at the bottom of the elevator, it
exerts a downward force mg on the bottom floor, which reacts back with the normal force
FN = mg equal to the weight of the object.
11
When the elevator is accelerated upward with net acceleration a, on the one hand, the
tension in the cable must now be greater than the weight of the object: T = m (g+a) > mg.
In turn, because the object is now exerting a force m (g + a) on the bottom of the elevator
greater than its weight, the normal force is now FN = m (g + a). This can easily be seen
from the fact that, in the non-inertial frame of reference of the elevator, the weight of the
object is now perceived to be m (g + a) but since the object is at rest in that frame of
reference, the normal force has to be FN = m (g + a). When the elevator is accelerated
downward (i.e., with acceleration a), on the other hand, the tension T and the normal
force FN are both less than the weight of the object and T = m (g a) = FN .
Hence, we find that the normal force FN for this problem is equal to and opposite to
the tension force T in the cable. In fact, by cutting the cable, we reduce the tension to
zero (and, therefore, the normal force), since the acceleration is now a = g; an object
placed in a free-falling elevator can, thus, be considered as weightless.
5 Force Problems
Textbook Reference: Chapter 4 sections 7-8.
Force problems typically require the calculation of the net acceleration from applications
of Newtons Three Laws of Motion. Such problems are solved by following a four-step
method that focuses on free-body force diagrams.
Atwood Machine
12
As our first example, we consider the simple Atwood machine (see below) composed
of a massless pulley and two objects of mass m1 and m2 connected together through a
massless string.
Assuming that m2 > m1 , our intuition tells us that the system will acquire a net acceleration
a directed as shown in the Figure above (Step I). The questions associated with the Atwood
machine are (a) determine the system acceleration a and (b) determine the tension T in
the string.
In Step II, we draw free-body force diagrams showing only the forces acting directly
on mass m1 and m2 , respectively (see above). Next, in Step III, for each free-body force
diagram, we write down Newtons Second Law and, for the Atwood machine, we find
m1 a = T m1 g, (1)
m2 a = m2 g T. (2)
Since this is a set of two equations for two unknowns (a and T ), we can find a unique
solution for the system acceleration a and the string tension T (Step IV). Note that by
adding the two equations (1) and (2), the tension T drops out, yielding the equation
(m1 + m2 ) a = (m2 m1 ) g, from which we obtain the system acceleration
m2 m1
a = g. (3)
m2 + m1
Next, we substitute this expression into Eq. (1) or (2) to find the string tension
!
m1 (m2 m1)
T = m1 (g + a) = m1 + g
(m2 + m1 )
!
m1 (m2 + m1 ) + m1 (m2 m1 )
= g
(m2 + m1)
2 m1 m2
= g. (4)
m1 + m2
13
Note that if m1 > m2 , then the sign of the acceleration (3) changes (i.e., the motion
changes direction) while the tension (4) stays the same.
Pulling on Boxes
For our second problem, we consider applying a force F on two boxes tied together by
a massless string.
By proceeding with the free-body force method, we quickly arrive at the coupled equa-
tions
m1 a = T, (5)
m2 a = F T (6)
for the unknown system acceleration a and string tension T , which are then solved respec-
tively as
F m1
a = and T = m1 a = F < F. (7)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
14
From the free-body force diagram for object 1, we find Newtons Second Law
m1 a = T m1 g, (8)
where the system acceleration a and the string tension T are unknowns. From the free-body
force diagram for object 2, we find the following parallel and perpendicular components of
Newtons Second Law
m2 a = m2g sin T
, (9)
FN = m2g cos
where FN denotes the normal force provided by the inclined plane. Note that since object
2 is NOT accelerated off the inclined plane, the normal force FN must be equal to the
component m2 g cos of the weight of object 2 perpendicular to the inclined plane.
Once again, we solve for the system acceleration a by adding Eq. (8) with the first
equation in Eq. (9) to obtain
!
m2 sin m1
(m1 + m2) a = (m2 sin m1 ) g a = g. (10)
m2 + m1
The string tension T , on the other hand, is solved from Eqs. (8) and (10)
!
m1 (m2 sin m1 )
T = m1 (g + a) = m1 + g
(m2 + m1 )
!
m1 (m2 + m1) + m1 (m2 sin m1)
= g
(m2 + m1)
m1 m2
= g (1 + sin ). (11)
m1 + m2
15
Note that the simple Atwood machine becomes a special case of this problem associated
with = 2 . In addition, if m1 > m2 sin , then the motion is reversed, with a new system
acceleration !
m1 m2 sin
a = g (if m1 > m2 sin ).
m2 + m1
Until now, we have considered only three different types of forces: forces due to gravity,
normal forces provided by supporting surfaces, and tension forces. In the present Lecture
Notes, we investigate new types of force: forces due to friction and forces due to uniform
circular motion.
when an object is moving, the magnitude of the friction force Ffr is proportional to
the magnitude of the normal force FN (even though Ffr FN ), with the constant of
proportionality called the coefficient of kinetic friction k ,
when the object is stationary, the maximum friction force Fthr is proportional to
the normal force FN , with the constant of proportionality called the coefficient of
static friction s ,
16
As a simple example, we consider the motion of a box of mass m being dragged on a
horizontal surface with coefficients of kinetic friction k and static friction s by an applied
force FA which increases progressively from zero.
At first, the applied force FA is zero, the box is at rest and, consequently, the force
of friction is absent. As the applied force FA begins to increase (FA 6= 0) but remains
below the threshold value Fthr = s FN , where the normal force in this case is equal to the
weight of the box FN = mg, the object remains at rest although the force of static friction
increases with the applied force.
As the applied force crosses the threshold value FA > Fthr, however, the box experiences
a jerky start and begins to move (see Figure below; Figure 5-3 from Giancoli).
After motion has been initiated, the box is accelerated and, from the free-body force
diagram shown below,
we find that the force of friction is now Ffr = k FN and the system acceleration is
FA
m a = FA k mg a = k g.
m
17
As expected, the system acceleration a is less than the acceleration FA /m produced by the
applied force in the absence of friction. Note that after the motion has been initiated, the
force of kinetic friction is constant (for low velocities) and is less than the threshold value
s mg.
At this point, we may redo the force problems that were solved in the absence of friction
(e.g., motion on an inclined plane); see examples 5-5 to 5-8. For example, we consider the
problem in which an object of mass m1 sliding with kinetic friction on a horizontal surface
while attached to a second object of mass m2 (as shown in the Figure below).
The equations representing Newtons Second Law for this system are
0 = F N m1 g
m1 a = T k F N = T k m1 g
m2 a = m2 g T,
where a is the system acceleration and T is the tension in the massless string. Solving for
the system acceleration, we find
m2 k m1
a = g,
m2 + m1
while the string tension is found to be
m2 g m2 m1
T = m2 (g a) = (m2 + m1) (m2 k m1) = g (1 + k ).
m2 + m1 m2 + m1
Note that, as expected, the system acceleration is reduced by friction while the string
tension is increased.
18
When an object of mass m undergoes uniform circular motion at a constant distance
R from a center of rotation O, the position of the object can be expressed as
r() = R (cos bx + sin by) = R rb(),
where the angle is measured from the x-axis and = d/dt denotes the constant angular
speed. From this expression, we obtain the following expressions for the velocity v = dr/dt
and the acceleration a = dv/dt:
dr b
v = = R ( sin bx + cos by) = R (),
d
dv
a = = R 2 (cos bx + sin by) = R 2 rb().
d
Note that the velocity vector is tangential to the circle (see Figure below) while the accel-
eration is directed inward toward the center of rotation.
This inward acceleration is known as the centripetal acceleration ac , with constant magni-
tude
2 v2
ac = R = v = .
R
Note that, according to Newtons First and Second Laws, an object undergoing uniform
circular motion must be under the influence of an inward centripetal force Fc = m ac .
This centripetal force, however, must have a physical origin through either the force of
gravity (e.g., the uniform circular motion of the Moon around Earth), the force of friction
(e.g., when a car takes a sharp turn on the road), the normal force provided by a surface
(e.g., a roller-coaster ride going through a loop), or the force of tension (e.g., when a rock
tied to a string is whirled along a horizontal or vertical circle).
19
7 Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation
Textbook Reference: Chapter 6 sections 1-6.
(r2 r1 )
F12 = G m1 m2
|r2 r1 |3
is, therefore, inversely proportional to the square of Earths radius RE = 6.38 106 m
and proportional to Earths mass mE = 5.98 1024 kg. Note that, since Jupiter is 317.8
times more massive than Earth and its radius is 11.2 times larger than Earths radius, the
gravitational acceleration at Jupiters surface is gJ = 2.5 gE = 24.8 ms2 .
Orbiting Satellites
20
A satellite of mass mS orbiting the Earth at a distance R from its center will complete its
orbit (assumed to be circular) after a period T ; its orbital speed is, therefore, v = 2R/T ,
which is assumed constant. In order to perform its uniform circular motion, the centripetal
acceleration v 2/R of the satellite must come from the Earths gravitational acceleration
G mE /R2 and, thus, we find the ratio
R3 G mE
2
= = 1.01 1013 m3 s2 .
T 4 2
This law implies that the orbital period T of a satellite increases with the orbital radius
R as R3/2 . A geosynchronous (GS) orbit is in one for which the period is one (Earth) day
TGS = 8.64 104 s, from which we get the geosynchronous radius RGS = 4.22 107 m =
6.6 RE .
R3 G m
2
= = 3.38 1018 m3 s2 .
T 4 2
If we introduce the astronomical unit (AU) defined as the average Earth-Sun distance,
1 AU = 1.50 1011 m, as a unit of distance and the Earths orbital period, 1 y = 3.16 107
s, as unit of time then Keplers Third Law becomes R(AU)3 = T (y)2.
21
8 Work-Energy Theorem I
Textbook Reference: Chapter 7 sections 1-6.
is evaluated as
W = F D = Fx D = F D cos ,
where the scalar (or dot) product of two vectors A = (Ax , Ay ) and B = (Bx , By ) is defined
as
A B = Ax Bx + Ay By = |A| |B| (cos A cos B + sin A sin B )
= |A| |B| cos(A B ).
Note from this definition, the work is positive (cos > 0), negative (cos < 0), or zero
(cos = 0). For example, since a friction force always opposes motion, the work due to a
friction is always negative.
The unit of work is the Joule (abbreviated J) and is defined as 1 J = 1 N m. The net
work done on an object is defined as the sum of the work done by all forces applied on
the object: X
Wnet = Wi .
i
22
If we introduce a path parameterization r() for , with a = r(a ) and b = r(b),
then the work W done by the force is evaluated as a path integral
Z b dr()
W = F(r()) d.
a d
As a special case, we consider the work done by the force F = Fx(x) bx + Fy (x) by in going
from the initial position (a, 0) to the final position (b, 0) by following a path along the
x-axis: Z b
Wab = |F(x)| cos (x) dx
a
i.e., the work Wab done by the varying force is the area under the curve |F(x)| cos (x)
from x = a to x = b.
23
the stiffness of the spring) and x denotes the spring displacement. The spring itself exerts
a force Fsp = Fapp in the opposite direction (Hookes Law):
Fsp (x) = k x,
i.e., the spring opposes its compression or its elongation. The work done by an applied
force F = kx bx to compress a spring (dr = dx bx) by an amount X is, therefore, given
as Z X Z X
k 2
W (X) = ( kx bx) ( dx bx) = kx dx = X .
0 0 2
You can easily convince yourself that the work done by an applied force to elongate a spring
by an amount X is also W = 12 kX 2 .
9 Work-Energy Theorem II
Textbook Reference: Chapter 8 sections 1-8.
24
The work Wab done by a conservative force is independent of the path taken from
an initial point a to a final point b and depends only on conditions at the initial and final
points. These conditions are described in terms of the potential energy U , which is the
energy associated with the position or configuration of an object as it interacts with its
environment.
The work Wab done by a conservative force F is, therefore, defined in terms of the
potential energy difference U = Ub Ua as
Z b
Wab = F dr = U.
a
This definition implies that work must be done against a conservative force in order to
increase the potential energy of an object. Note that since only the difference in potential
energy is associated with work, the choice of where U = 0 is arbitrary and can be chosen
wherever it is most convenient. In one-dimensional problems with conservative forces F (x),
for example, the potential energy U (x) can be written
Z x
U (x) = F (s) ds,
a
25
The work done by gravity is, therefore, calculated as
1 1 G mME h
W = UG (RE ) + UG (RE + h) = G mME = .
RE RE + h RE (RE + h)
26
where U is the sum of all potential energies. From the First Work-Energy Theorem, which
states that the net work done on the object is equal to the change in its kinetic energy,
Wnet = K, we obtain the Energy Conservation Law:
K + U = 0,
which means that the total mechanical energy E = K + U of the object is conserved.
Hence, for example, when an object of mass m is initially at rest at a height h above
ground, its initial kinetic energy is Ki = 0, its initial potential energy is Ui = mgh, and its
initial mechanical energy is Ei = 0 + mgh = mgh. After the object is released, it converts
potential energy into kinetic energy and, just before it hits the ground, its final kinetic
energy is Kf = 12 mvf2 , where vf denotes its final speed, its final potential energy is Uf and
its final mechanical energy is Ef = 12 mvf2 + 0 = 12 mvf2 . By conservation of mechanical
energy, Ef = Ei , we find
1 q
mvf2 = mg h vf = 2 gh,
2
which is what we would obtain by solving the free-fall equations of motion: y = h 12 gt2
and vy = gt.
As a second example, we consider the problem of finding the maximum height H
achieved by an object of mass m placed on a spring of constant k compressed by a distance
X (see Figure below).
Here, we take the gravitational and elastic potential energies to be both zero at the mouth
of the barrel (see Figure above). Moreover, we note that the initial and final kinetic energies
are both zero. The initial potential energy is the sum of the initial gravitational energy
Ugi = mgX (i.e., the initial position is below the zero-potential line) and the initial
elastic potential energy USi = 12 kX 2 , so that
k 2
Ui = Ugi + USi = mg X + X .
2
27
The final potential energy, however, is only gravitational with
Uf = Ugf = mg H,
Lastly, an object of mass m and moving with velocity v may escape the attraction of a
gravitational center of mass M if its mechanical energy is positive
m G mM
E = |v|2 > 0.
2 r
By conservation of energy, an object at the surface of a massive object of mass M and
radius R will be able to escape (at infinity) if its radial velocity exceeds the escape velocity
s
2 GM
vesc = .
R
For example, the escape velocity for a rocket leaving the surface of Earth is 11.2 km/s while
it is 2.4 km/s if the rocket were to leave the surface of the Moon (i.e., 4.7 times smaller).
Hence, the kinetic energy needed for the rocket to leave Earth will be about (4.7)2 ' 22
times larger than the kinetic energy needed to leave the surface of the Moon.
which is always negative since friction opposes motion. By defining the work done by non-
conservative forces as WNC = Wapp + Wfr, the net work done on an object by conservative
and non-conservative forces is
28
so that the First Work-Energy Theorem, Wnet = K, now yields the Second Work-
Energy Theorem
In sliding down the inclined plane, the object decreases its gravitational potential energy,
U = mg L sin , where h = L sin denotes the drop in height. Next, since the initial
kinetic energy is zero and its final kinetic energy is Kf = 12 mvf2 , we find K = 12 mvf2 ,
while the work due to friction is Wfr = Ffr L = k mgL cos . Hence, the Second
Work-Energy Theorem implies that
1
mvf2 mg L sin = k mgL cos ,
2
and, for example, the final velocity is
q
vf = 2 gL (sin k cos ),
which is less than 2 gh because of frictional effects.
Another statement of the energy conservation law is based on the definition Q = Wfr
for the thermal energy produced as a result of friction so that, in the absence of applied
forces (Wapp = 0), the generalized energy conservation law becomes
K + U + Q = 0.
29
Hence, when an object is initially moving on a rough horizontal surface (with U = 0)
and comes to rest as a result of friction, the mechanical energy is dissipated in the form of
heat Q = K > 0, with both object and surface exhibiting increases in thermal energy
(see Chapter 19 for further details).
Lastly, we note that, in the absence of conservative forces, the net work done on an
object of mass m is proportional to the net acceleration a and the total displacement D
covered by the object, Wnet = m a D, and the Second Work-Energy Theorem yields
vf2 = vi2 + 2 a D.
Power
The instantaneous power associated with a process able to do work is defined as the
rate at which work is performed, i.e.,
dW
P = ,
dt
which also defines the rate at which energy is transformed. The unit of power is the Watt
(W), defined as
1 W = 1 J s1 .
A horsepower (hp) is defined as 1 hp = 746 W. For example, when a 1,000 kg autmobile
accelerates from 0 m/s to 30 m/s (108 km/h) in 3 seconds, the change in kinetic energy
is K = 450 kJ and the engine must develop a minimum average power of 150 kW (or
approximately 200 hp); the inclusion of air resistance and other dissipative effects raises
this value.
30
of mass m2 while, in return, the object of mass m2 exerts a force F21 on the object of
mass m1.
The two objects are initially at rest. When the spring is released, the two objects move
apart from each other with opposing velocities v1 (to the right) and v2 (to the left). These
final velocities are obtained as a result of the respective (averaged) forces experienced by
the objects
v2 v1
F12 = m2 = m1 = F21 ,
t t
where we have made use of Newtons Second and Third Laws of motion. Since the time
intervals t over which the two objects interact with each other are identical, Newtons
Third Law implies that
(m1 v1 + m2 v2) = 0,
which means that the quantity
X X
P = pi = mi vi
i i
is conserved throughout the process. The vector quantity P is called the total linear
momentum (or total momentum), and Newtons Second Law is now expressed as
X X dpi dP
Fnet = Fi = = .
i i dt dt
Hence, if the (external) net force acting on a system of particles is zero, then the total
momentum of the system is conserved; this is the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
31
where the collision begins at time ti and ends at time tf = ti + t and J21 denotes the
impulse received from particle 2. The impulse is clearly defined as the area under the
force-versus-time curve (see Figure below).
From this definition, we may easily extract an average force of impact F defined as
p
F = .
t
For example, when a 1 kg ball hits a vertical wall with velocity vi = (10 m/s) bx and comes
to rest on the wall in a time of 0.01 sec, the wall has exerted an average force of impact of
1 kg (0 m/s 10 m/s)
F = b
x = (1, 000 N) bx.
0.01 s
If the ball bounces back with velocity vf = (10 m/s) bx, however, the average force of
impact is now F = (2, 000 N) bx. Note that the ball exerts a force of impact on the wall
of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction.
For a given change in momentum p, we find that the relation
p = F t
implies that a short collision time is associated with a large force of impact while a long
collision time is associated with a small force of impact.
32
An elastic collision is one in which the total kinetic energy of the colliding particles is
also conserved:
K = K1 + K2 = K10 + K20 = K 0 .
An inelastic collision is one in which only momentum is conserved. All collisions in which
particles stick to each other after the collision are inelastic. For example, when a particle
of mass m1 moving at speed v collides with a second particle of mass m2 (initially at rest)
and the two particles remain together after the collision, the conservation of momentum
dictates that
m1 v = (m1 + m2) v 0,
where v 0 is the speed of the two-particle system of combined mass m1 + m2 . The kinetic
energy before the collision is K = 12 m1v 2 while the kinetic energy after the collision is
2
1 1 m1 v m1
K = (m1 + m2) v 0 2 = (m1 + m2)
0
= K.
2 2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Hence, since K 0 < K, kinetic energy was lost in the course of the sticking collision; most
likely the energy was converted into thermal energy, sound energy, and other forms of
energy.
33
Conservation of momentum implies that
m1 v1 m2 v2 = m1 v10 + m2 v20 ,
or, introducing the mass ratio = m1/m2 and the velocity changes v1 = v10 v1 < 0
and v2 = v20 ( v2 ) > 0, we find
v10 = v1 v1
v2 = v1
v20 = v2 v1
2 (v1 + v2)
v1 = .
(1 + )
v1 (1 + ) + 2 (v1 + v2 ) v1 (1 ) + 2 v2
v10 = v1 v1 = =
(1 + ) (1 + )
v2 (1 + ) + 2 (v1 + v2 ) 2 v1 + v2 ( 1)
v20 = v2 v1 = =
(1 + ) (1 + )
By restoring masses, we find
and, hence, object 1 rebounds only if m2 > m1. If m2 = m1 , however, we find v10 = 0
(object 1 is at rest after the collision) and v20 = v1.
Note that an explicit solution for the problem of elastic collisions in one dimension
was obtained: given the mass ratio = m1 /m2 and the velocities v1 and v2 before the
34
collision, the velocities v10 and v20 could be determined uniquely. This is because we had
two unknowns (in one dimension) and two equations (the conservation laws of momentum
and kinetic energy).
The momenta of particles 1 and 2 after the collision are also expressed
p01 = p01 (cos 10 bx + sin 10 yb)
p02 = p02 (cos 20 bx + sin 20 by) ,
where the angles 10 and 20 are also measured from the x-axis (see Figure above). Conser-
vation of momentum is now simultaneously applied in the x- and y-directions:
p1 + p2 cos 2 = p01 cos 10 + p02 cos 20
35
p2 sin 2 = p01 sin 10 + p02 sin 20
p21 p22 p0 2 p0 2
+ = 1 + 2 .
2m1 2m2 2m1 2m2
Once again, the four unknowns (p01 , 10 ; p02 , 20 ) cannot be solved uniquely from the initial
conditions (p1 ; p2 , 2) and the mass ratio = m1 /m2 unless one of the unknowns is
measured experimentally (e.g., the deflection angle 10 ).
36
Up until now, we have considered the kinematics and dynamics of point objects, i.e., we
considered the motion of the center of mass of objects. We now consider the kinematics and
dynamics of finite objects (for which the mass of an object is distributed arbitrarily around
its center of mass). One new feature associated with this generalization is that, in the course
of its motion, an object may rotate about an instantaneous axis of rotation, which may or
may not go through the center of mass. The Table below shows the correspondence between
linear motion associated with translation and angular motion associated with rotation.
Consider, for example, a disk of radius R rotating about an axis of rotation (which goes
through its center of mass).
To simplify our analysis, we, henceforth, focus our attention on rigid bodies, i.e., bodies
for which the distribution of mass is constant. By choosing an arbitrary reference axis
from which we measure the instantaneous angular position (t), we can determine the
instantaneous angular velocity (t) = d(t)/dt; angular-velocity units are either rad/s or
rpm (revolutions per minute), where 1 rpm = (2 rad)/(60 s). As a result of the disks
rotation, an arbitrary point inside the disk, at a distance r from the axis of rotation, is
moving with instantaneous tangential velocity v(t) = r (t). Note here that denotes the
magnitude of the angular-velocity vector directed along the axis of rotation (call it the
z-axis) and that the tangential velocity is defined as
dr d d
v = = r (cos bx + sin by) = r ( sin bx + cos by)
dt dt dt
= ( bz) r = r.
37
where we have introduced the vector product defined for two arbitrary 3D vectors A
and B as
Next, the instantaneous acceleration vector experienced by our arbitrary point is now
calculated as
dv d
a = = r + v = r + ( r) ,
dt dt
where
d d
= = b
z = bz
dt dt
denotes the angular acceleration vector (also directed along the axis of rotation). Note that
the acceleration vector has two components: a tangential component atan and a radial com-
ponent ar . The tangential acceleration atan = r is produced by the angular acceleration
while the radial acceleration
ar = ( r) = 2 r
Work-Energy Theorem v 2 = 2 a x 2 = 2
38
Rolling Motion: Translation versus Rotation
When an object is rolling without slipping on a rough surface (with a finite coefficient
of static friction), the translation velocity v of the center of mass (CM) and the angular
velocity are simply related as v = R, where R is the distance between the center of
mass and the point of contact O with the surface (see Figure below).
The point of contact O may then be viewed as the instantaneous axis of rotation.
39
Torque is a vector quantity (directed along the axis of rotation) defined as
= R F,
and, thus, the force F must be at right angle with respect to R. The perpendicular distance
from the axis of rotation to the line along which the force acts is called the lever arm and
the magnitude of the torque vector is written as
= R F = R F sin ,
where is the angle betwen the vectors F and R. Note that the SI unit for torque is N m
(not J).
As a simple example, we consider the case of an object of mass m attached by a massless
rod of length R to an axis perpendicular to the rod. When a force F is applied to the object
(both perpendicular to the rod and the axis), the applied torque = F R. Since the force F
generates a tangential acceleration a = F/m, which in turn, is associated with the angular
acceleration = a/R, we find
= ma R = mR2 .
The Second Law of Rotational Motion, therefore, states that the angular acceleration is
directly proportional to the applied torque and inversely proportional to the rotational
inertia mR2 of the object. This rotational inertia, called moment of inertia and denoted as
I, is the analog of mass for translational motion.
Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia of a discrete distribution of particles {(m1, r1), , (mN , rN )}
being rotated about the z-axis is calculated as
N
X
I = mn x2n + yn2 .
n=1
40
For a general continous mass distribution, where an infinitesimal amount of mass dm(r) at
point r is expressed in terms of the mass density (r) and the infinitesimal volume element
d as dm(r) = (r) d , the moment of inertia of an object rotated about an arbitrary axis
is Z Z
I = R2 dm(r) = (r) R2 (r) d,
V
where R (r) is the perpendicular distance from point r to the axis of rotation (see Figure
below).
For example, the moment of inertia of a uniform disk of mass m, radius R, and thickness
h being rotated about its axis of symmetry (going through its center of mass) is
Z R Z 2 Z h
m 1
Icm = r dr d dz r2 = mR2 ,
0 0 0 R2 h 2
where = m/( R2 h) denotes the uniform density of the disk.
Note that the moment of inertia depends on the distribution of mass about the axis
of rotation and, consequently, an object will have a different moment of inertia if the axis
of rotation is moved from one place to another. For example, we consider the moment of
inertia of a system composed of two particles of mass m1 and m2 located on the x-axis at
x1 and x2 respectively. Let us first calculate the moment of inertia about the z-axis (i.e.,
about x = 0):
I = m1 x21 + m2 x22.
41
Next, we move the axis of rotation to the position of the center of mass (see Figure above)
m1 m2
X = x1 + x2 ,
M M
where M = m1 + m2 denotes the total mass of the system, so that the moment of inertia
is now
Icm = m1 (x1 X)2 + m2 (x2 X)2 = I M X 2 .
This result leads to the Parallel-Axis Theorem: Id = Icm + M d2 . Hence, if we move the
axis of rotation in the case of the disk discussed above by a distance d from the center of
mass (see Figure below),
Rotational Dynamics
42
We now consider what happens when a force is applied tangentially to a uniform disk
of mass m, radius R, and thickness h, which is allowed to rotate about an axis passing
through its center of mass (see Figure below).
The torque applied on the disk is = F R (since the force is applied at a distance R from
the axis of rotation), and the Second Law of Rotational Dynamics states that this net
torque causes the disk to acquire angular acceleration
FR 2F
= = 1 2
= .
I 2
mR mR
m a = m g T,
43
where T denotes the tension in the string. The tension in the string, in turn, exerts a
torque = T R, which causes the pulley to rotate with angular acceleration
2T
= .
MR
Since the string is wrapped tightly around the pulley, there is no slipping and the accelera-
tion a and the angular acceleration are related: a = R and, thus, we find the tension in
the string as T = 12 Ma. By combining these two results, we find the system acceleration
and string tension
! !
m m (M/2)
a = g and T = g,
m + M/2 m + M/2
respectively. As expected, if M = 0 (i.e., for a massless pulley), we find a = g and T = 0.
44
The no-slip condition implies that the linear velocity v (with which the center of mass
travels) is related to the angular velocity : v = R. The total kinetic energy is, therefore,
a sum of its linear and angular parts
1 1 I 1
K = mv 2 + I 2 = 1 + m v 2 = (1 + k) Klin ,
2 2 m R2 2
where k = I/(mR2 ) is a dimensionless number (e.g., k = 12 for a disk, k = 25 for a sphere,
and k = 1 for a hoop). Hence, if we apply the Energy Conservation Law K + U = 0 to
the case where this object rolls down an incline (without slipping) and calculate how fast
the object is moving after having dropped by an effective height h, we find
s
(1 + k) 2gh
K = m v 2 = U = mgh v = .
2 1+k
The fastest object down the incline is, therefore, the one which does NOT rotate (i.e.,
a box k = 0), while the slowest object is the one for which k = 1 (i.e., a hoop).
13 Statics
Textbook Reference: Chapter 12 sections 1-3.
45
An object subjected to forces (F1 , F2 , , FN ), applied at different locations on the
P PN
object, is in static equilibrium if the net force N n=1 Fn and the net torque n=1 n on
the object both vanish. Assuming that the forces are planar (say in the x-y plane), then
the conditions of static equilibrium become
N
X N
X
Fn x = 0 = Fn y , (12)
n=1 n=1
N
X
n z = 0, (13)
n=1
where the torque produced by an (x, y)-planar force is directed along the z-axis.
Statics Problems
As an example, we consider the case of a uniform beam (B) of length L and mass
mB attached on a wall at point O (see Figure below) with the help of a cable (assumed
massless) so that the beam is hanging horizontally while the cable makes an angle with
respect to the horizontal. Next, attached to the beam at a distance L from the wall, we
place a weight (W) of mass mW .
This problem requires that the tension T in the cable and the normal force
provided by the wall be calculated by using the three static-equilibrium conditions (12)
and (13). First, the condition for force equilibrium in the x-direction requires that
FN cos = T cos ,
while the condition for force equilibrium in the y-direction requires that
46
Next, the condition for torque equilibrium requires that
L
T L sin = mB g + mW g L,
2
where the torque exerted by the weight of the beam is calculated by placing the full mass
of the beam at its center of mass located at its center (at a distance L/2 from point O on
the wall).
From the last equation, we find the tension
1 g
T = mB + m W ,
2 sin
while the amplitude of the normal force FN and its angle are now determined from the
two equations
1
FN cos = mB + m W g cot ,
2
1
FN sin = mB + (1 ) mW g.
2
From these equations, we solve for the angle as
" #
mB + 2 (1 ) mW
tan = tan ,
mB + 2 mW
while the magnitude FN is solved as
s
2 2
mB mB
FN = g + (1 ) mW + + mW cot2 .
2 2
Note that if mW = 0, we find = and FN = T = mB g/(2 sin ).
14 Oscillations
Textbook Reference: Chapter 14 sections 1-8.
47
The equation of motion for a mass m is attached to a spring of constant k is
d2 x
ma = m = k x,
dt2
where the restoring force of the spring, F = k x, is linearly proportional to the spring
displacement x from away from its equilibrium state.
Using the initial conditions x(t = 0) = x0 and v(t = 0) = v0, we find that the solution
x(t) for this motion is an oscillatory function of time (see Figure above)
x(t) = A cos( t + ), (14)
where A denotes the amplitude of the oscillation, is the initial phase of the oscillatory
motion so that
x0 = A cos and v0 = A sin = x0 tan ,
and s
2 k
= 2 f = =
T m
denotes the angular frequency (with units rad/s), while f = 1/T denotes the frequency
(with units Hz = s1 ) defined as the inverse of the period T .
Since the restoring force is linearly proportional to the displacement x, the oscillatory
motion (14) is called Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) and the mass-spring system is known
as a simple harmonic oscillator (SHO).
48
The total energy for a mass-spring system
m 2 k 2
E = v + x
2 2
can be expressed in terms of the SHM solution (14) by, first, writing the expression for the
velocity
dx
v(t) = = A sin( t + ).
dt
If we now substitute this expression into the energy expression, we find
k A2
A2 h i 1
E = m 2 sin2( t + ) + k cos2 ( t + ) = or
2 2
m 2 A2
q
where we have used the definition = k/m for the angular frequency. Hence, we find
that the energy is indeed a constant of the motion (it is determined solely from the initial
conditions) and is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude A (i.e., by doubling
the amplitude of an oscillation, we quadruple its energy).
Simple Pendulum
The equation of motion for a pendulum of mass m and length ` is expressed as
d2
m` 2 = mg sin , (15)
dt
where denotes the angular displacement of the pendulum away from the vertical (equi-
librium) line (see Figure below).
49
If remains below approximately 15o , we may replace sin with (where MUST be
expressed in radians); the graph below shows the percent error [( sin )/ sin ] 100 as
a function of (here expressed in degrees), and we clearly see that this simple-pendulum
approximation has better than 1% accuracy for angles below 15o .
Under the simple-pendulum approximation (sin ' ), the equation of motion (15),
therefore, becomes
d2
m` 2 = mg , (16)
dt
whose solution is of the form
(t) = cos( t + ),
where and denote the amplitude and initial phase of the simple harmonic motion of
the simple pendulum and the angular frequency of the simple pendulum is
r
g
= .
`
This result could have been obtained on simple dimensional grounds and it is interesting
to note that the mass of the pendulum does not enter since mass is represents both inertial
effects and the restoring force and, thus, it cancels out.
Damped Oscillations
When a simple harmonic oscillator is exposed to dissipation, the amplitude of oscil-
lations decreases as a function of time as the oscillation energy goes to zero (see Figure
below).
50
As a simple model to investigate damped oscillations, we consider the case of an object
of mass m attached to a spring of constant k and exposed to a dissipative force of the form
Fdiss = m v, where denotes an energy-dissipation rate and v = dx/dt denotes the
instantaneous velocity of the block. The equation of motion becomes
d2 x dx
2
+ + 2 x = 0,
dt dt
q
where = k/m denotes the undamped angular frequency. Solutions of this second-
order differential equation are generally studied in a course on differential equations; in the
interest of expediency, we simply introduce the following solution in the form
where A denotes the initial amplitude of the damped oscillation and the modified angular
frequency s
2
= 2
4
depends on the properties of the undamped system as well as the energy-dissipation rate.
Note that, for this solution, we can consider three cases. In case I, the underdamped
case, the energy-dissipation is small (i.e., < 2 ), and the system performs several
oscillations before the amplitude decreases significantly. In case II, the overdamped case,
the energy-dissipation is large (i.e., > 2 ), and the system cannot even undergo a single
oscillation cycle (i.e., the solution is purely exponentially decreasing since 2 < 0). In case
III, the critical-damping case, the energy-dissipation rate = 2 is such that = 0 (i.e.,
the motion is purely exponentially decreasing, just as in case II). In all three cases, the
equilibrium state is reached exponentially, with case III exhibiting the fastest approach.
Lastly, we note that the rate with which the mechanical energy E = 12 (m v 2 + k x2 ):
!
dE d2 x dx
= m 2 + kx = 2 K < 0
dt dt dt
51
1
is both proportional to the energy-dissipation rate as well as the kinetic energy K = 2
mv 2
of the block (i.e., energy dissipation is strongest where kinetic energy is largest).
15 Waves
Textbook Reference: Chapter 15 sections 1-4 & 6-9.
52
Examples of transverse waves include waves at the surface of water and light waves
(with minima and maxima referred to as throughs and crests, respecitvely), while exam-
ples of longitudinal waves include sound waves (with minima and maxima referred to as
compressions and expansions, respectively).
Wave speeds for transverse and longitudinal waves depend on properties of the medium
in which they propagate. Since wave speed depends on the frequency f of the wave, then
the wave speed depends on the restoring-force and inertial properties of the medium. For a
transverse wave travelling on a stretched string, for example, the restoring force is provided
by the tension FT (N) in the string while inertia is represented by the linear mass density
(kg/m) of the string. From simple dimensionalqanalysis, we find that the wave speed for
a transverse wave on a stretched string is v = FT /, as might be expected on physical
grounds. For a longitudinal wave such a sound travelling in a solid, on the other hand, the
restoring force is provided by the elastic modulus E(N/m2 ) of the material and inertia is
represented by the mass density (kg/m3 ). Once again from q simple dimensional analysis,
the wave speed of a sound wave travelling in a solid is v = E/.
m = V = (A `) = A v t,
53
which denotes the amount of mass transported across an area A in time t, where is the
mass density and A is the cross-sectional area through which the wave travels. Hence, the
average rate P = E/t at which energy is transported is defined as
1
P = ( A v) 2 D2 = 2 2( A v) f 2 D2 .
2
Lastly, we define the intensity I of the wave as the average power transported by the wave
across unit area transverse to its propagation axis:
P
I = = 2 2( v) f 2 D2 ,
A
i.e., the intensity of a wave depends on the square of its amplitude D and its frequency f
and is linearly proportional to its wave speed.
We now note that, for a continuous wave, the rate of wave generation is constant and
is proportional to the average wave power P and, thus, as the wave propagates outward
away from its source, it is spread over a progressively larger area A and, therefore, the wave
intensity is inversely proportional to the area A. For a wave produced by a point source
and travelling in three dimensions, the area A = 4 r2 is the area of the surface of a sphere
of radius r (note that v = dr/dt) and, thus the intensity of a spherical wave decreases with
the inverse square of the distance to the source:
2
1 I1 r2
I 2 = .
r I2 r1
Associated with a decrease in wave intensity, the wave amplitude also decreases with dis-
tance to the source (i.e., A 1/r for a spherical wave).
Wave Properties
54
All waves have a certain set of properties they have in common; a more detailed account
of wave properties (e.g., diffraction) will be presented next Semester in the context of light
waves. First, all waves can be reflected at boundaries and can be transmitted from one
medium to another medium while undergoing refraction. Next, all waves can experience
constructive and destructive interference, which is analysed through the Principle of Su-
perposition. As an example of the subtle interplay of reflection and interference effects,
we mention the resonant interference involving counter-propagating waves leading to the
formation of standing waves.
55