Chapter 1 1. Introduction Flnid mechanics deals with the motion of fluids. Matter : Solid and Fluid. Fluid ; Liquid and Gas * Molecular spacing and latitude of molecular motion determine whether solid, liq: uid or gas. Spacing is large in gas, smaller in liquid and extremely small in a solid Asa result, intermolecular forces (consider echesive) are large in a solid, smaller in a liqnid, and extremely small in a gas, ¢ We can study fiuids from a molecular view point. But this is very difficult because we need to know the detailed behavior of molecules at all points and for all times. ‘« In spite of the mobility and spacing of molecules (spacing'~ 107mm for liquid, ~ 10-Smm for a gas at NTP, we shall consider a fluid to be a CONTINUUM in which there are no holes or voids. When is this assumption valid? When the physical dimensions of the bodies about which a flow may be takiug place are very large compared to the size of molecules and to the distance between molecular in- teractions, Recall that there are, in general, 10" molecules/ mm for a gas and 107 molecules/ mim for a liquid. Therefore, in general, even the smallest clement of fluid that must be considered will contain @ great many uumber of molecules. What about time variations? The percentage change in the number of molecules contained will be small from one moment to another Au important consequence of continuum assumption is that mass per unit volume (density), as well as other properties, will approach a limit as smaller and smaller volumes are examined. Therefore, on the scale of the object over which the flow is occuring, density and other properties will vary smoothly from one “point” of the fluid to another “point”. * An important exception to continuum assumption is a gas at a very low pressure (high altitude flight) where the intermolecular spacing is “large” and the “fluid” is an aggregate of widely separated particles (Rarefied gas). * In coutinuum hypothesis, we consider average conditions at a point, For example, ve define, fluid density aia point as mG), () auno)where Arn is the mass contained in a small Av. The lim Av — 0 implies that Av is small enough in value but still large compared to the cube of the mean free pat of molecules in the fluid 1.1 Mechanical definition of solid and fluid states Can define solid and fluid states on the basis of theit behavior under vatious types of stress. Recall: Stress = Force/ Area, Stresses ; Tensile, Compressive, Shear * Solid: Application of tension, compression, or shear stresses results first in elastic deformation, and later if these stresses exceed the elastic limits, in permanent dis tortion, * Fluids: Possess clastic properties only under direct compression or tension. Can only support extremely small teusile stress. In engineering, we generally assume that duids cannot support tensile stresses. Very pure fluids may in fact support reasonable values of tensile stresses. The value depends on intermolecular cohe- sion, Shear stresses have remarkable effects on fluids. An application of shear stress, however small, results in a continual flow and permanent distortion of fluid. ¢ Important: Because fluids cannot support shearing stresses, it does not follow that such stresses are non existent in the fluids themselves. As a matter of fact, during the flow of a “real” fluid, shearing stresses play an important role, Without flow, however, shearing stresses canuot exist for a fluid. © For a fluid at rest, in engineering, we only consider “Compressive Stresse 1.2 Units © Qualitative description: Length 1, time , mass M, temperature 8, ‘These are ise these to define secondary quantities. Area A: L?, p: ML, ..., Force F : MLT-*, Mass m: FL~T?, /L? = ML“ T = FL-, acecleration a = LT/T = LT* ote. primary quantities Velocity V : LT Stress o | MLT” * Pundamental requirement: All equations describing physical phenomena must be dimensionally homogeneous. That is, dimensions ou the LHS must be the same as dimensions on the RHS. For example, Vv Yo +at 2) nas* ie er ar (3) ie ae ee (4)* International System (SI Units) 1 Newton = 1 kg. 1 m/s?. Standard gravity = 9.807 m/s. Therefore, 1 kg mass will “weigh? 9.81 N under standard gravity. 1 Joule of work = (1N))(1m). 1 Watt of power = 1 Joule of work per see = 1NV m/s. °K =°C 4278.15", °R ="F + 459.67 * Density p : kg/m, Specific volame v = 1/p (m®/kg). Specific weight y = 9 (Njim*), Water at 60°C has y = 9.8 (tN/m®). Specific gravity = p/pino at 4°C = SG, puso at 4°C = 1000 (kg/m). 1.3 Ideal Gas Law Gases are highly compressible. p = pRT for an ideal gas. At low enough pressures, gas behavior may be described by ideal gas law. Here p is absolute pressure, p is density, T is absolute temperature, P is zas constant (related to molecular weight). ‘+ What is pressure? Pressure in a fluid at rest = Normal force /Area . p is expressed in (N/m). 1 N/m? is called a Pascal (Pa). Now, pessaute = Poage Petmespherie- Pressure exerted by a gas on a surface can be easily explained in terms of molecular collisions and change in momentum associated with such colli the surface (Kinetic theory of simple gases). In a fluid at rest, we cannot. have shearing stresses. Therefore, in a fluid at rest, pressure transmission is everywhere normal (perpendicular) to the boundary. jons on All real fluids possess “viscosity” and there- =P fore exhibit certain frictional phenomena when motion occurs, Viscosity arises sete) due to cohesive forces between moleciles and molecular momentum exchange between Quid layers. These effects appear as tan- gential or shear stresses between mov- Bxed Bottom — ing fluid layers. In a liquid, strong cobe- sive forces result in closely patked molecules. Resistance to relative motion between adjacent layets is due to these forces. As temperature T is increased, cohesive 3forces are reduced, and liquid viscosity is lowered. In a gas, resistance to relative motion between adjacent layers primarily arises due to exchange of momentum between gas molecules. Molecules from a region of low bulk yelocity mix with molecules from a region of higher bulk velocity and exchange momentum. This resists relative motion. Resistance manifesis as viscosity. As T is increased, random molecular motion in- creases, and gas viscosity increases. How do yon quantify the concept of viscosity? Consider a solid which is mechanically attached to the top and bottom plates. Consider a vertical line AB. Pull force =P. Top plate displaces by &a. Vertical reference line filament will rotate by 68. 68 is the angular displacement. ‘Io resist P, a shearing stress T would develop at the top plate - solid material interface. In equilibrium, P — 7 A, where A is effective area of the top plate. For “Elastic solids” (as different from Plastics), within the elastic limit, 5 is proportional to r. The quantity 69 is called the shearing strain and r the shearing stress 1.4.1 Couette Flow In the previous discussion, replace solid between plates by a uid. Pull P will cause the upper plate to move with some velocity. This velocity will become constant, after imme- diate transients have died down, Let the velocity be U. The speed is U. Experiments show that fluid in contact with the top plate moves with U while fluid in contact with the bottom plate is at rest (“no-slip condition”). Between plates, at any section, the fluid velocity w is a function of y, w= t(y), and furthermore, u(y) varies linearly with y. In fact, x For U and b constants, (§#) is a constant. We call (4#) the velocity gradient 3 Sa 3B! BS PU Nexettas betore awe twist relate: the —? shear stress 7 to 68. ‘This is a little more ae “stress complicated. Because, 6 depends on éa which in turn depends on U' and 6t where 5¢ is the time elapsed in our observation. Now, 6a = U6t and tan 6 = a/b. For small 59, Fixed tand3= 68. Therefore, goat Lp 6B = =r (6) 6. , Ge) tate of change of angular displacement (7) Formally, we let, Rate of shearing strain = + = limy,.o(4). Por this case, 7 = (44) From experiments with fluids, + depends on ¥7 kK ¥ reas (8) In the above, 4: is the coefficient of proportionality and is called “Absolute or Dynamic Viscosity”. For Newtonian fluids, shear stress is linearly related to the rate of shearing strain, 4 depends on temperature T and may depend mildly on pressure. When shearing stress is not linearly related to the rate of shearing strain, we call such fluids non- Newtonian. Ex: Paints, blood. For non-Newtonian fluids, we introduce, apparent viscosity, jay Hap is the slope of the shear stress vs. rate of shearing strain curve. Rate of shearing strain is also called shear rate, For shear thinning fluids, jg, decreases with increasing shear rate, i.e, the harder the fluid is sheared, the less viscous it becomes. Examples: Latex paint does not drip from the brush when the brush is not in contact with the wall surface, zero shear rate, jgy is large. But, the same paint flows smoothly onto the wall when the brush is moved over the wall surface because the thin layer between the wall and the brush cause a large shear rate, large #4, a smnall gp. For shear thickening fluids, jigy increases with increase in shear rate, ie., the harder the fluid is sheared, the more viscous it becomes. Ex: water-corn starch mixture, Quicksand mixture of water and sand. Plastic (neither 2 fluid nor a solid) can withstand finite shear stress without motion, but once the “Yield stress” is exceeded, flows like a fluid. Ex: Toothpaste, epoxy, mayonnaise. Thixotropie fluid has a viscosity dependent on the immediately prior angular deformation and has tendency to take a set when at rest. Example: ink. Dimensions and Units for 4: FTL-%, (N s/m?). Some empirical relationships for p: are given below. For gases, Sutherland Eq. (9) where C and S are empirical constants and 7 is absolute temperature. For liquids, Andrade’s Eq. (10) where D and B are constants. We define Kinematic viscosity, v = j:/p. This usefully combines jz and p. Units ofv are m2 /s, Later oa we will see why this is a useful quantity. In fact, we will find it especially useful to deal with a quantity called Reynolds number for studying flowing Quids. This Reynolds number, Re, may be expressed by the combination Ree Dinero beets v me (11) where L is a typical length such as the diameter of the pipe when considering a flow occurring in a cireular pipe or the length of a plate when flow is occuring over the surface of the plate. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless number as seen by its definition. We will later on learn about the great usefulness of dimensionless numbers such as the Reynolds number in engineering and science. 1.5 Compressibility All fluids are compressible by pressure. “Elastic” energy gets stored in the process. With the release of pressure, final state will correspond nearly to the original state. Therefore, we can treat fluids as “Elastic” media, We can define a modulus of elasticity, 2, for a fluid Bulk modulus of elasticity = © (12) =(2) (13) Large By = Fluid is relatively incompressible. With a such a fluid, it requires a large pressure to create a smell change in volume. Liquids can generally be considered incompressible. By increases with How about Ey for gases? For an ideal gas p = p RT. For an isothermal process with an ideal ges, (p/p) = Constant. For an adiabatic process with an ideal ges, (p/p*) = Constant = é, where k = cy/ca, é is another constant, We also know that for an ideal gas, R= G—c . Here, cg and G are specific heat for constant. pressure and constant volume, respectively, Then it follows that, for an isothermal process with an ideal gas, Ey = pRT = p , while for an adiabatic process, By = kp. Now, in terms of p, noting that v = 1/p, 1.5.1 Relevance of the Speed of Sound When pressure is applied on a fluid, small pressure disturbances travel through the finid at a finite velocity depending on [, of the fluid. ‘This velocity, ¢, may be shown to be 6 dj

De. Sap © hemisphere (19) Next consider the general case of a surface element, dardy, of a surface of local principal radii of curvature Ry and Ry. In equilibrium, BF = 0 for the force components normal to the clement. This yields (b= p,dedy = 2ody sin a+ 2dzo sin 6. (20) A Ry oA Now, for small a and #, we may write ody fo 2 i sina = dx/2R; and sin@ = dy/2Ro. There- t < = fore, ap ee (@- aes 21 VbIke (Di — Pe) RiP Re) aac % For a spherical interface, 1/R, = 1/Rz = 1/R. For a cylindrical jet issuing into air, Ry =00 and Ry =r, where r is radius of jet. 81.7.1 Contact angle and Capillary rise Consider the situation shown in figure. We are considering liquid-gas-solid interfaces. A capillary tube has been introduced into a liquid and the free surface of the liquid inside the capillary tube is at a different height from the free surface levels on the outside. Also, adhesion between the tube wall and the liquid molecules pulls the liquid up in the vicinity of the solid surface both on the inside and on the outside of the tube. Therefore the liquid “wets” the solid. Leth be the height of capillary rise. The rise arises from an equilibrium between the upward force due to liquid surface tension and the weight of fluid. At (1), Py = Patm and at (2), Pam = pe pgh. Vherefore, py = pe-+ pgh, or, (Py — Pe) = pgh. Assume the liquid surface in the tube to be a section of a sphere. Then, (=m) =0(4+4) 20 cos 0 20 cos (p — Pe) = —p—sAgh = — : (23) (22) ‘Therefore, © What is the meaning of 0” © @ is known as the wetting or contact angle and it depends on the relative attraction of the molecules of the three media involved and is therefore a function of the characteristics of all three substances. O~0' fa Mercuny molecsles Watey— Clean gles bag ee affenit each ae Ee glass Apesed any (adhesien).