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    Chapter 2

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    Debabrata Paul
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    Chapter 2: Fluid Statics 2 Pressure at a Point in a Fluid at Rest A fluid at rest has only normal stresses, no shear. Thus, pressure at a point has the same magnitude in all directions. Proof: Consider a small fluid prism. Let, Pos Py, Dz be average pressures on surfaces as shown and p, be the average pressure on the inlined surface. Let the prism be small ‘enough so that pressure on cach face is es- sentially constant. Let fz, fy; fz be the body force components per tnit mass Pluid is in equilibrium. Therefore, 2F, = DF, = SF. = 0. Consider SF, = 0. BFL = pede pede fee (4222) =o, (24) In the above f, (4322) is the body force, a is the angle between the perpendiculars to the surfaces A, and Ap, sto is the intercept of prism faces on the x-axis, (43%) is the volume of fluid prism or pyramid, But, A, = A, cosa. Therefore, [pepe + feo] =0. (5) In the limit, the pyramid shiinks, «79 + 0, pz = pe. Similarly, p, =p. = p.. Therefore, Pr = Py = Pz = Pe» 2.1 Pressure field within a fluid at rest We know that in a fluid at rest, the pressure at a point is the same in ez _p| all ditections, But, how does pres- Lae sure vary form point to point in a | eed guia? vg $ & Consider a fiuid volume (dx) (dy)(dz). X Body and si we forces act on the fluid ele- ment. Among body forces, let us consider only gravitational force, ( Magnetic or electric fields are absent). In regard to surface forces, we will only consider normal stresses. u © Body forces = dF, = pg drdydz. © Surface forces = dF, =i {pls dydz — plesae dydz} +... 4 But, from Taylor's series, plesde = ple-+ (22) dr+...higher order terms. The higher order terms are like (dz)?,... and hence are negligible ‘Therefore, Surfaceforces=dF, = i ( %) dadydz + ...4.. (28) ~ = dna i ( 7) Saale Vp. (28) ‘Therefore, Net force — pgdadydz—dadydz Vp (29) Net force per unit volume = pg—Vp (30) Now,g = —kg (31) ‘Therefore, net force per unit volume = —pgk— Vp (32) If the fluid is at rest, net force = 0. (33) Therefore, for a static fluid, at any point in the fluid, 0 = pgkip (34) 0 = aks (ij Bok 2). (38) Therefore, an ‘ BOS 6) ae (36) Op ied (37) De (37) Thus, p is not a function of «, not a function of y, and is « function of z alone. We write, p= f(z) and therefore, dj B= pg. (38) 2.1.1 Constant density (incompressible) fluid (39) (@-P) (40) Therefore, p (41) 2.1.2 Compressible fluid [oe | [oe (42) For an ideal gas.p = p RT. (43) ee “ PE [hu 2a For g and R constants, In (2) = —5 [ # (46) If Ty is the temperature of the layer between z; and 2», i =a Pro = Pi on { ‘RT } (47) 2.1.3 Pressure variations in the Tropesphere and the Stratosphere ‘Troposphere is an important domain since it extends from sea level to between ~ 10 km. ~ 6 miles near north and south poles to ~ 15 km ~ 10 miles near the equator. Sun heats up the air near equator more and this is the reason why the cloudy skies in the Arctic and Antartie are always leaden and low, while clouds in the Torrid zone (between the ‘Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn) are often very tall, and catch the sun’s rays while the ground is in shadow, enabling vividly brilliant sunrises and sunsets. The weather variation in this domain is important to us, and in particular for aviation and space travel. In the Troposphere, T = Tea tev — 2, (48) where, \ = constant called the “Lapse rate” equal to 6.5°C/km. In the troposphere, we can regard air as an ideal gas. Therefore, dp Py =egdz a _ (Be Se Re 9) te ~~ (Rr) > Am 3) a By integration and noting that R and g are constants, P dz ) wR =({1- a 50) maa" Cae eG With Taos exer = 288°K, R= 0.28784, \ = 0.0065°C/m, z in meters = (1 — 0.0000226 z)** (51) bj This equation gives the value of p at 11km as 22.5 kPa. Beyond ~ 11km and say, upto ~ 20km, there exists au isothermal air layer of temperature ~ —56°C called the Stratosphere. With g constant, for the pressure variation in the isothermal layer, a a! da > Inst - ‘2 — 11000) (0.001578). 52) 25 PRT Siro00 M } “A 2.2 Measurement of Pressure A Barometer is used for atmospheric pres- sure measurement. In the barometer, a mer- cury (Hg) column will come to equilibrium From static fiuid theory, Pa = Pat pug gh Here, pp is the atmospheric pressure, pa is the vapor pressure of Hg at the prevailing temperature. At 20°C, pa = 1.56 x 10° atm. This pa may be neglected at that temperature. Therefore, pp = Patmeophore = Pig 9 h. ‘Thus, 1 atmospheric pressure = 76 cm of Hg = 1.013 x10° Pascal = 14.7lbs/in®. For a given pressure, the height of column of Hg depends on g and on p which varies with T. The Hg column does not depend on the cross-sectional area of the vertical tube. 2.2.1 Piezometer Tube A Piczometer tube is simply a tube attached to the container containing a liquid. The open end of the tube is exposed to the atmosphere. PA = Po + 09 he = Patmospherie + pe g he mn end [| Requirements: pa must be > pe or liquid will be sucked into the chamber; also, p4 must not, be > po or else we would require a very long tube. This arrangement is useful B only for liquids. We can set po = Preference = O and call p4 = pp = gauge pressure t Container vats feud 14 2.2.2. U-tube Manometer In reference to the figure of the manometer, Pa =r (53) Pe = pitpighs (54) P2 Ps (55) Ps = Ps+paghs (56) — pight, and this with 55 becomes, pa = ps — pigh; which in turn with 56 becomes pa = pa + poghs — pight. Therefore, Pa — Pa = 9 (poke — pila). (57) The gauge pressure Pearget = 9 (pale — pylts). If py is very small, then, p, = poghs. The gauge pressure may be positive or negative depending on whether pa > ps or pa < par In an inflated tire or the human circulatory system, p4 is positive. If we suck on a straw to pull fluid up the straw, then the absolute pressure in the hings is less than the atmospheric pressure and the gauge pressure is negative 2.2.3 Inclined tube manometer If the pressure differential is small, using a U-tube manometer is difficult because the ‘hy will be very small. Then we can use an inclined tube manometer. p4 = Pa, Py = Pat pight, Po = Pes Pe = Pat paglssin 0, pe = pat paglssind, pe = pp. Therefore, pa—pp = paglssind — paglssinO — pighy. For py and fs very small, (gases in vessels), py — py = The effect of paix, cancels out. Let Fz be the Resultant force on the tank bottom, and A be the area of the tank bottom. Let Fr = IFr| = pA = pghA. Since ps is constant and uniformly distributed over the bottom, Fx acts through the centroid of the area. : \ PlanView C2 Contreid of area CP: Center of Pressure 2.3.1 Force on an inclined surface Consider a thin plate. What are the direc- tion, location, and magnitude of the resultant force acting on one side of the area die to liquid in contact with the area? Let dF be the magnitude of the elemental force acting downward on an elemental area dA er ee 68) (Pat + pgh) dA (59) h = ysing (60) 4F = (Patm + egysind) dA (61) is J (eam + poysinoyaa (62) A = Pam + pgsind Hl dA (63) fi Here, F is the magnitude of total downward force on plate. We have assumed that. p and 4 are constants. If the plane area is in equilibrium, then a force equal to the hydrostatic contribution must. be applied from below to keep it there. Note that psn is common to both top and bottom of the plate. ‘Therefore, magnitude of the Resultant force = Fr = pg sinO [yd A. © Where does Fp act? The point of action of the resultant forces called the Center of pressure. To completely locate this point, we need to find the y and © coordinates of this point. ‘Take moments about 7-axis located at O. Let the yr be the y component of the location of Fi. 16 Faun = I (4F = atin) dA y (64) 4 = / (ogy sind) dAy (65) 4 = / (pg sin6)y? dA (66) A We now define the “first moment” of an area with respect to the x-axis by vA = f yaa, (67) A where ye is the y co-ordinate of the centroid measured from the x-axis which passes through O. With this, Fr = pg sindy.A ( = pghA (69) ( ( Faun = pg sindy. Aye 70) = Jc sin0) y2dA 7) h a rial wm - {ae (72) Now, fy? dA is recognized as the second moment of the area (moment of inertia), with respect to the x-axis at O, and is denoted by Jzz. [xz is quadratic and is always positive. With this Jor Tox ree coh Tzz, however, depends on the depth of the plane below the free surface, and it would be more convenient to write the above in terms of a second moment: Jy. taken about a 17 parallel axis 2’ passing through the centroid of the inclined area. We can use parallel axis theorem for this: Tez = Tate + Ay? (74) UR = (4 + x] (75) We note that the centroid but is always below it. Next, the x-component of the location of the resultant force may be found by taking moments about the y-axis. is always positive. The resultant force does not pass through Frte = foo sin Oxy dA (76) A Here J, :ry dA is called the product of inertia, fy, with respect to the « and y axes taken about the origin O. Also, recall, Fr = pg sin@ y, A. Therefore, [ytydA ley a (™ Again, from parallel axis theorem, ly = by Age ge (78) Teive a = + 2, 9) cg {z A ‘ es} Ne In the above, Jpy¢ is the product of inertia referred to the origin located at the centroid of the inelined area and this could be positive or negative because it is not quadratic. However, if either axis x or y/ is an axis of symmetry, then Ipc = 0. ‘That is, if the submerged area is symmetrical with respect to an axis passing through the centroid and parallel to either the r or y axis, then /,y; — 0, and the resultant force must lie along x = ze, Fortunately, a great number of areas encountered in engineering are symmetrical about one or the other axis, For such areas, ag =, and we need only to determine yr 2.4 Hydrostatic forces on curved submerged areas Consider dA. Let dF}; = Horizontal compo- nent of force = (p cos@ dA. But, dA cos dA is the projection of dA on vertical plane. a ‘Therefore, Horizontal component on a AnCes0 curved surface A is, Fy = p A cos0, Equal in magnitude and direction to the hydrostatic force on the vertical projection of that area. Noxt, let dF), 18 = Vertical component of force = (p sin? )dA. Note that, dA sin@ is the projection of dA on horizontal plane. Also, with p = pgh, dFy =p 9 hdA sind. From figure, h dA sin0 = dv, where du is the volume of fluid lying directly above dA ‘Therefore, dFy = pg dv = weight of fluid above dA. Integrating over the entire submerged area, Vertical component on a curved surface Fy = p g v, where v is the total volume of the fluid above the submerged area. The vertical component is the weight of fluid above the submerged area, Line of action of Fy and Fy can be found by taking moments. The resultant force, Fr, exerted by the tank on the mass, Fr = \/ (Fi + Fi) The line of action of Fg can be found by taking moments about an axis. (80) EXAMPLE Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the hydrostatic force on the curved cylindrical area ABCD shown in Figure}, as. well as their location, Water 1000 Kgl? Figure 1 ‘Solution: The horizontal component is equal to the hydrostatic force on the vertical projection of the curved area. (See Figure 2) The projection of ABCD is a rectangle 3m x 1m. From Figure } Fig = PeAyresetea [(1000 kg/m? 9.81 m/s4)(2.5 m)] 3 m? = 24.525 kPay3 m4) = TBSTSEN D i tim | ["Aa'c'D= projected area a 19 ‘The line of action of Fy is given by h alee £ Yeu = FG te id ; ei Jeo He = 30)? = 025 me Re 6S as Yeu = Pity +25 —2539m (ooo Figure 3 ) 5 JH m+} Figure 3 Figure Ge ‘The vertical force on the submerged area is equal to the weight of water above the area, The total volume above ABCD is equal to the arca of ABEF times the width of 3 m. (See Figure 4) ¥~[@ x 0+ 3]3~8356ms Fy = per = (1000 kg/m?)(9.81 my/s*) (6.356?) = 81.97 KN ‘The vertical component acts through the centroid of the volume of water above the surface. To find the centroid of area ABEF, take moments about a vertical line through AF. The area AGEF is 2 m+, with its centroid at x = 0.5 m, From Table, the centroid of ABG is at 2d 4 x=1-3f=1-£-05756m with z Area ARG = % Combining, the centroid of ABGEF is at 2 x 0.5 40.7854 x 0.5756 27854 7854 m2 = 0.5213 m In other words, the vertical component acts at x = 0.5213 m. ae \ A091? ~ 64) F it Toe &) xt = 230 Quadrant of circle 44) 19" 2.5 Buoyancy, Flotation and Stability Consider a completely submerged body. Consider a horizontal prism of the body as shown. Pressure at (1) = Pressure at loca- tion (2). No horizontal force on the prism. We can integrate over the whole body to conclude that the Horizontal component of hydrostatic forces on a fully sub- merged body is zero. Next, consider a vertical prism of crass section dA. Ignore Pam since its effect is on both top and bottom. Pressure at (1) = pg his. Pressure at (2) = pha. Vertical force on prism = dy = pg (ho— In) dA = pg dv, where du is differential volume of the prism. Integrate over the whole body, Fe= [ pado-par, (1) ‘Thus, Vertical component of force on a fully submerged body in a static fluid = Weight of fluid displaced by the body = BUOYANCY force = Fy. This is the Archimedes principle Where does Fg act? Select an axis at O. Take moments. Fi itr, = f,.p9 dv x. With 81, frdo 2m = (82) We recognize this as the definition of the centroid of the volume. ‘Therefore, Buoyant force acts through the centroid of the displaced volume of the fluid. This point is called the Center of Buoyancy 2.5.1 Stability of a fully submerged body Stable equilibrium: When subjected to a small disturbance, forces are set up that tend to restore the body to equilibrium. Vor this, the Center of gravity of the body, C, must he below the center of buoyancy, B. A restoring couple will restore stability. Otherwise, unstable due to the overturning couple. =e : = @ 5. epee J w a Unstable Overtumning Stable Corple 2.5.2. Partially submerged body Consider the figure. Vertical force on the differential prism = (p2—p;)dA. pr = pat — a9 hy. Pz = Patmt peg ha. Therefore, (po — pi)dA = (94 9 ha + Pag ty) dA. Integrating over the whole body, total buoyant force is equal to the sum of the weights of air and liquid displaced by the body Since pir is very small, usually, compared to Powe write Fy =f, peg he dA. 2.5.3 Stability of partially submerged bodies In the floating condition, Fg = W and the lines of action of both the forces are the same. In (a), both G and B lie on the same vertical axis and the body is in an uptight position of neutral equilibrium. In (b), the body is tilted by 6. Part of the body to left of center is uncovered and an equel additional volume is submerged on right. Total submerged volume remains constant so the Fs = W for flotation. Because of additional submersion, however, the center of buoyancy shifts to right, B'. Fz and W are not along the same line. Therefore, a couple is set up = W GM sin@. Mis the point of intersection of the line of action of B with the geometric centerline, This is called "Meta Center”. Next, W GM sind acts as a restoring couple and is stabilizing, In (c), the couple acts in the direction of tilt, M is below G. This situation is unstable. Thus, M must be above G for the stability of a floating body, When M and G coincide, we have neutral stabi (a) Neutral (b) Stable (ec) Unsteble Gi Cee raid Bs Center fo burgeney 21 Br 2.5.4 Determination of Metacentric Height GM a & Initially, the body is upright. Let it rotate about y (centerline) by A9. The tipped position is shown in the figure. B is the center of buoyancy for un-tipped position. B’ center of buoyancy for tipped position. AF is upward on left because of increased displacement and is downward on right because of loss of displaced water. Let 6 be the shift in line of action of the buoyant force. Then from geometry, 8 Me (sem) sinQ@ = Ad, for AP small(~ 6°) Sv = elements of displaced volumes 5 = (© Ad)dA (86) where, because of tilt, an area dA on the horizontal plane at a distance 1 is lifted up through (v8) on one side whereas an equal area is submerged by (29) on the other. Hydrostatically, this corresponds to shifting a weight of water (p ¢ 7 A@ dA) and we can associate an elemental force df with this action. Force df points up to the left of y and points down to the right of y. Let Ay, be the total area as shown in the figure. Take moments about y. Let /,, be second moment of A; about x axis. Fg MB sing = if (p97 AO dA)r (87) Ane = pg ae f ada (88) erage (9) MB = (90) a (91) MG = (02) 2.6 Concept of Relative rest: Rigid body motion of a fluid So far, both the Muid and container were at rest. This is the absolute rest situation ‘There are situations where the fluid and container as a whole are in motion. But, under some circumstances, there may be no relative motion between the fluid and the container, and no relative velocity between the layers of the fluid. In such a situation, there is no shear stress in the medium. Only normal components of the surface forces play a role This is the ‘relative rest” situation and we may have “rigid-body” motion of the fluid after a small transient involving “sloshing”, where present. We can siudy, for example, the fluid in a container that is uniformly accelerating along a straight path. Each particle in the fluid will have the same acceleration. Consider a volume element of the fluid. Let the container acceleration be a = i dy +] a, +k a, as measured from a fixed reference O. Then from fluid statics, maz = ~ (Bar) avez (93) may = - (an) Adz (94) me x =f P| With m= pArAyAz, 5 be ed &p | eae PO = (98) alee? <7 4 -m, = 2 7) 0° a. "x aE 4 ap b ~e(ats) = 5 (98) From calculus, the pressure variation along any arbitrary direction s, at any point (:-,y, 2) is given by: dp ap dy a. ao 09) ds ay ds (09) ap, a, ap i. Peg oe 100) dp = Feder + Sry + Ged (100) between closely spaced points (x,y,z) and (x + de,y + dy,z + dz). Therefore, dp = —pardr — paydy — p(g + a2) dz. (11) for such a fluid. In particular, where the fluid does not completely fill the container, we can find the shape of the free surface of the fluid by cxamining the equation for a plane of constant pressure. Vor a constant pressure plane, dp = 0. If we restricted to a two-dimensional case, op op 9 = ar + Paz 102 a oe” ie Oz (uot 23, Slope of such a plane is: = tand, (108) Negative sign of () shows that the in- clination will be in the direction opposite to a,. For purely horizontal acceleration, a, = 0. An interesting situation arises when the acceleration is purely vertical, a, = 0. ‘Then tan@ = 0. This means, constant pres- sure surfaces will remain horizontal. Now consider a container with liquid that is al- lowed to fall freely under gravity. Then, az = 0, and a, = —g. The free surface will remain horizontal, and from before, &p az —p (a: +9) = (104) Therefore, a point in the liquid under free fall of its container (or otherwise in zero gravity)experiences no hydrostatic pressure due to the column of liquid above it ! Let us make a hole in the base of the container. During free fall, liquid will not leak out ! So Wwe can have containerless situations in outerspace for holding fluids. 24 Example: What percentage of the total volume of en iceberg floats above the water surface? The density of water is 1000 kg/m? and of ice 917 kg/m? Vertical force on iceberg = Buoyancy force = pester 9 Unbmeeet + Prt 9 Uynaubraged Ignore the contribution from the unsubmerged part (displaced air) since the density of water is so much larger than that of air. Thea, Buoyancy force = pester 9 Untmerget- I equilibrium, this must be balanced by the weight of the iceberg. Weight of iceber: Prcesers 9 Viecvee Therefore, piceben:Vieberg PuaterUaubmerged» Therefore, Vestomast 917 = ot s) —aewet = app0 = O91 (105) Vbore Thus, only 8.3% of the iceberg is above the surface, Example A barge in Fig. has the form of a rectangular parallelepiped having dimensions 10 m by 26.7 m by 3 m. The barge weighs 4450 kN when loaded and has a center of gravity 4 m from the bottom. Find the metacentsic height for a ‘oration about its longest centerline, and determine whether or aot the barge is stable, Ifthe barge is rotated by 10° about this axis, what isthe restoring torque? ‘We must frst find the center of buoyancy of the barge. The barge displaces 4 solume of fui having a rectangular cross section 10m 8) 26 mand 9 bem Neglect displaced air which we detemin by using Archimedes priseple Thue = (4.24602 nee ake, = 4-96 = d= 1.700m = e N, os ‘The center of buoyancy is at a distance 1.100/2.m above the bottom of ay) ‘the barge, 13 a metaceniric height MG is then s ag ~ 2201(4)267)00%)] a =345 = 13 The Center 6 bucyanc) (ERO 84S = 179m ge sh u Ma ‘Thus the barge is stable, (MG ts +, MG—>MBEL KInstabiliky) | Us tater & be al The erinecouple ora rutin af geen Ev(4) Toa” Condrred of Aes teal ray om oO op ee have Lamered dia rele peep vehi of ou, FIGURE Loaded barge 4 “se Teed! or 2.7. Solid-Body rotation we In solid-body rotation, the fluid elements behave as in a rigid, rotating solid. Such a low can be generated by rotating a cylindrical tank containing a viscous fluid at a constant angular velocity w about an axis end waiting until the transients die out. ‘The liquid elements experience both centrifugal and gravitational body forces. In equilibrium, these body forces are balanced by respective pressure gradients. Consider a partially filled upright container that is rotating about: a vertical axis through the center of the container. The free surface shape will not be horizontal but can be ascertained by applying the force balance. We can also calculate the pressure variation in the rotating fluid column. We employ the polar coordinates, (r, 0, 2) since we are studying a fluid in a cylindrical container, Recall, 2 = ros, y = r sind,z = 2, r= /(?+y), tnd = yj, z = z. The motion is axi-symmetric, that is, there are no variations in the the @ direction. For a fiuid element at (7,2) which is in equilibrium, ~Vp—pqk = net force per unit volume = pa. (106) Here, the acceleration vector, a = ica, + igag + i,02, and the operator 10) LOY 08 ap ..1dp.. ap Ving theo ting, and Vp = ins” + ie FE ine (107) In this problem, a, = —r w?, ag = 0, a, = 0. The minus sign on ay is because the acceleration experienced by the element is centripetal. The force balance yields, aah A Naa (108) or op as 6 109} 26 (109) op ats - 0) ae pg (110) Also, for axially symmetric motion, dp = 22ar 4 Bae (111) We are interested in the shape of the free surface and in the pressure variation with depth. The free surface is a surface of constant pressure. Now, along a surface of 26 constant pressure, dp = 0. This yields, for the free surface of the fluid in the container, dp = prudr—pgdz = 0 (112) dz ra (=) - G) o wir? or by integration, = = "4 constant (114) g From the functional relationship z = f(r), we sce that surfaces of constant pressure in rigid-body rotation of this type are parabolic. The shape is a paraboloid. Next, how does the pressure vary in the fluid column? For this, consider, dp = pru*dr — pgdz (115) wr? Tntegrate, p = p 7 7 P92 + constant (116) wp? 12 which yields, pp = eee = pg(z— %)- (17) With po = potm, for ra = 0,2 = ha, we get, ~p9(2—m). (us) Po — Pat 2 But, free surface is a surface at constant pressure p = Patm Therefore, 2p2 st). (119) ‘The free surface shape is a parabola with vertex on the axis at z = hy. What is hy in terms of ha, the original height of the liquid column? To evaluate this, we use the fact that the volume of the liquid in the container must remain constant. So, Volume before rotation, V- = a R? hy (120) pe k with rotation, V = ff [errtae f Qnerdr (121) hb Js fi n wt = Qn 4 rd f on (4 ' =): I (122) apt = [ue (123) ‘Therefore, in terms of original height he, ape ae (3) (124) Finally, sn (2B) (GE)

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