Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. INTRODUCTION
For centuries, the differences between men and women were socially defined and
distorted through a lens of sexism in which men assumed superiority over women and
maintained it through domination. Inarguably, there are natural differences between
the sexes based on biological and anatomic factors, most notably differing
reproductive roles. Biological differences include chromosomes, brain structure,
and hormonal differences. There is a natural difference also in the relative physical
strengths (on average) of the sexes.
It might or might not be true. Sexism today is rather institutional rather than
individual. Social institutions in society are, as being a member, things are taken
for granted as aspects of social order, of norms and behaviours, of sorts of social
relationships you form with other people.
Gender discrimination can occur in various forms in daily basis of life. There are
complex as well as simple, day-to-day activities where we get to see from minimal to
maximum display of sexism.
Direct discrimination
Some women are paid less than men for doing the same job. This factor only
explains a small part of the gender pay gap, due to the effectiveness of the
European Union and national legislation.
More frequently women earn less than men for doing jobs of equal value. One
of the main causes is the way womens competences are valued compared to
mens. Jobs requiring similar skills, qualifications or experience tend to be
poorly paid and undervalued when they are dominated by women rather than
by men. For example, the (mainly female) cashiers in a supermarket usually
earn less than the (mainly male) employees involved in stacking shelves and
other more physical tasks.
In addition the evaluation of performance, and hence pay level and career
progression, may also be biased in favour of men. For example, where women
and men are equally well qualified, more value can be attached to
responsibility for capital than to responsibility for people.
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The gender pay gap is also reinforced by the segregation in the labour market.
Women and men still tend to work in different jobs. On the one hand, women
and men often predominate in different sectors. On the other hand, within the
same sector or company women predominate in lower valued and lower paid
occupations. Women often work in sectors (for example in health, education,
and public administration) where their work is lower valued and lower paid
than those dominated by men. When we look at the health sector alone, 80%
of those working in this sector are women.
Consequently, there are fewer women working in scientific and technical jobs.
In many cases this results in women working in lower valued and lower paid
sectors of the economy. Because of these traditions and stereotypes, women
are expected to reduce their working hours or exit the labour market to carry
out child or elderly care.
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3. HISTORY
Until the 20th century U.S. and English law observed the system of coverture,
where "by marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law; that is the very
being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage". U.S.
women were not legally defined as "persons" until 1875 (Minor v. Happersett, 88
U.S. 162).
In France married women received the right to work without their husband's
permission in 1965, and in West Germany women obtained this right in 1977
(women in East Germany enjoyed more rights). In Spain during the Franco era a
married woman required her husband's consent (permiso marital) for nearly all
economic activities, including employment, ownership of property and traveling
away from home; the permiso marital was abolished in 1975.
In many countries, women still lose significant legal rights at marriage. For
example, Yemeni marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and
must not leave home without his permission.
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In Iraq husbands have a legal right to "punish" their wives. The criminal code
states at Paragraph 41 that there is no crime if an act is committed while exercising
a legal right; examples of legal rights include: "The punishment of a wife by her
husband, the disciplining by parents and teachers of children under their authority
within certain limits prescribed by law or by custom".
In the Democratic Republic of Congo the Family Code states that the husband is
the head of the household; the wife owes her obedience to her husband; a wife has
to live with her husband wherever he chooses to live; and wives must have their
husbands' authorization to bring a case in court or to initiate other legal
proceedings.
related to kinship, lineage, inheritance, identity, status, and economic security. This
preference cuts across class and caste lines, and it discriminates against girls. In
extreme cases, the discrimination takes the form of honour killings where families kill
daughters or daughter in laws who fail to conform to gender expectations about
marriage and sexuality. When a woman does not conform to expected gender
norms she is shamed and humiliated because it impacts both her and her familys
honor, and perhaps her ability to marry. The causes of gender inequalities are
complex, but a number of cultural factors in India can explain how son preference, a
key driver of daughter neglect, is so prevalent.
Patriarchal society
Patriarchy is a social system of privilege in which men are the primary authority
figures, occupying roles of political leadership, moral authority, control of property,
and authority over women and children. Most of India, with some exceptions, has
strong patriarchal and patrilineal customs, where men hold authority over female
family members and inherit family property and title. Examples of patriarchy in India
include prevailing customs where inheritance passes from father to son, women move
in with the husband and his family upon marriage, and marriages include a bride price
or dowry. This 'inter-generational contract' provides strong social and economic
incentives for raising sons and disincentives for raising daughters. The parents of the
woman essentially lose all they have invested in their daughter to her husband's
family, which is a disincentive for investing in their girls during youth. Furthermore,
sons are expected to support their parents in old age and women have very limited
ability to assist their own parents.
Son preference
A key factor driving gender inequality is the preference for sons, as they are deemed
more useful than girls. Boys are given the exclusive rights to inherit the family name
and properties and they are viewed as additional status for their family. In a survey-
based study of 1990s data, scholars found that son are believed to have a higher
economic utility as they can provide additional labour in agriculture. Another factor is
that of religious practices, which can only be performed by males for their parents'
afterlife. All these factors make sons more desirable. Moreover, the prospect of
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parents losing daughters to the husbands family and expensive dowry of daughters
further discourages parents from having daughters. Additionally, sons are often the
only person entitled to performing funeral rights for their parents. Thus, a
combination of factors has shaped the imbalanced view of sexes in India. A 2005
study in Madurai, India, found that old age security, economic motivation, and to a
lesser extent, religious obligations, continuation of the family name, and help in
business or farm, were key reasons for son preference. In turn, emotional support and
old age security were main reasons for daughter preference. The study underscored a
strong belief that a daughter is a liability.
While women express a strong preference for having at least one son, the evidence of
discrimination against girls after they are born is mixed. A study of 1990s survey data
by scholars found less evidence of systematic discrimination in feeding practices
between young boys and girls, or gender based nutritional discrimination in India. In
impoverished families, these scholars found that daughters face discrimination in the
medical treatment of illnesses and in the administration of vaccinations against serious
childhood diseases. These practices were a cause of health and survival inequality for
girls. While gender discrimination is a universal phonomena in poor nations, a 2005
UN study found that social norms-based gender discrimination leads to gender
inequality in India.
Dowry
In India, dowry is the payment in cash or some kind of gifts given to bridegroom's
family along with the bride. The practice is widespread across geographic region,
class and religions. The dowry system in India contributes to gender inequalities by
influencing the perception that girls are a burden on families. Such beliefs limit the
resources invested by parents in their girls and limits her bargaining power within the
family.
The payment of a dowry has been prohibited under The 1961 Dowry Prohibition Act
in Indian civil law and subsequently by Sections 304B and 498a of the Indian Penal
Code (IPC). Several studies show that while attitudes of people are changing about
dowry, the institution has changed very little, and even continues to prevail.
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Marriage laws
Men and women have equal rights within marriage under Indian law, with the
exception of Muslim men who are allowed to unilaterally divorce their wife. The legal
minimum age for marriage is 18 for women and 21 for men, except for those Indians
whose religion is Islam for whom child marriage remains legal under India's
Mohammedan personal laws. Child marriage is one of the detriments to
empowerment of women.
5. FEMINISM
Feminist theory, which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the
nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience;
it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues such
as the social construction of sex and gender. Some forms of feminism have
been criticized for taking into account only white, middle-class, educated
perspectives. This led to the creation of ethnically specific or multiculturalist forms of
feminism.
Feminist movements have and continue to campaign for many women's rights such
as the Equal Rights Amendment, the right to own property, equal health care coverage
for equal pay, sexual freedom and liberation, and voting while also promoting body
autonomy/integrity, and reproductive rights for women.
Feminist campaigns are generally considered to be main force behind major historical
societal changes, particularly in the West, where they are near-universally credited
with having achieved women's suffrage, gender neutrality in English, equal pay for
women, reproductive rights for women (including access
to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property.
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Feminists have worked to protect women and girls from domestic violence, sexual
harassment, and sexual assault. Feminists have also advocated for workplace rights,
including receiving the right to paid work, paid maternity leave, and eradicating all
forms ofdiscrimination against women.
Feminist advocacy is mainly focused on women's rights, but author bell hooks, among
others, argue for the necessity for it to includemen's liberation, because men are also
harmed by traditional gender roles.
Though gender inequality is the most debated issue and is a major concern in the
society due to its complex variance and dynamical output. We, whole as an social
institution can change this fact by being aware of the problems and look through its
solutions. Some of them are:
1) Education system should be made such that the awareness about the gender
stereotypes should be studied. There should be an incentive system of scholarships
to promote gender equality.
7. CONCLUSION
Gender inequality is amongst us all in any given society. Although gender is not as
simple as may seem. Gender comes into play along with a number of different aspects
such as sex, gender and gender roles. Each of these aspects play a significant part
when speaking of the different social problems encountered by men and women.
Thus, with the changing norms and recognition of women, there is a need for new
kinds of institutions, incorporating new norms and rules that support equal and just
relations between women and men. These days' women are organizing themselves to
meet the challenges that are hampering their progress.