Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Foreword ................................................................ 2
Acknowledgements ................................................ 2
History .................................................................. 4
Constituent Materials........................................... 15
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
T
he Sprayed Concrete Association would like to thank the following member
organisations and their representatives for their contribution and assistance in
the production of this document:
Aliva Ltd - Paul Wells
Balvac Whitley Moran Ltd - Roger Bridge
Concrete Repairs Ltd - Tony Rimoldi
FEB MBT Ltd - Ross Dimmock
Lightcem Ltd - Nick Varley
Quickseal Specialist Contractors - Pat Quarton
Sika Ltd - Richard Barton
FOREWORD
T
his Introduction to Sprayed Concrete is issued by the Sprayed Concrete
Association based in the United Kingdom.
It is intended to be used by industry professionals who may require practical knowledge
of the techniques of sprayed concrete for the first time. It is not intended to be a
comprehensive Specification or Standard. (Those documents are available and listed
on pages 29-31.)
This publication covers the broad range of processes that are commonly used together
with descriptions of the more commonly used materials available in the marketplace.
It will refer the user to the best ways of carrying out these processes safely and with
the expectation of a high quality end product.
It will encourage the use of a member of the Association for advice, design, supply
and application of the sprayed concrete.
2
THE ASSOCIATION
I
n 1976 a small group of the United The Association also includes a number
Kingdoms leading sprayed concrete of Consultant Members, many of whom
contractors came together to form the have spent much of their working careers
Association of Gunite Contractors. This involved in the specification, design and
group of skilled and like minded experts execution of sprayed concrete.
were all committed to a common set of
aims: Links are closely maintained with
overseas contracting members thereby
! to encourage and promote the use of enabling the Association to call upon a
sprayed concrete full range of expertise and experience.
! to develop and maintain codes of The full list of members is published as
practice and specifications a directory and updated every two years.
This book details each Members area of
! to develop, encourage and maintain expertise and their areas of operation.
links with other interested bodies
both nationally and internationally Working within a very busy industry with
ever tighter deadlines demands a high
! to encourage and promote, through degree of professionalism and
regular meetings, publications, commitment from contractors. Common
conferences and exchange of views sense requires, and legislation demands,
advances in the technolog y of that works are carried out safely and to
sprayed concrete. the highest quality.
In 1986 the Association changed its The Sprayed Concrete Association
name to the Sprayed Concrete suppor ts and promotes training
Association. especially for safety and the use of new
Since 1976 the Association has worked products. It recognises that the
hard to achieve its aims. It has fostered processes it promotes are some of the
a much better understanding of the most operator sensitive in the
benefits of sprayed concrete. Initially construction industry. It therefore
contractor led, the Association now encourages all its members to establish
includes a comprehensive list of and maintain the highest standards of
Associate Members including major workmanship.
industrial companies involved in the
manufacture of materials and the supply
of specialist plant.
3
HISTORY
C
oncrete is probably the most
versatile material used in the
construction industr y. In
compression it is strong enough to form
the basic material for the most massive
structures. Before it has set its fluidity
allows it to assume the most complex
shapes. Indeed, and with addition of
steel reinforcement, there are virtually
no elements of a structure that cannot
be formed from concrete.
If there is a drawback to the use of
concrete it is the need for formwork or
shutters necessary to create a mould for
the concrete whilst in its fluid state.
In 1895 at the Field Museum of Natural This equipment was known as the
Science in Chicago USA, the curator, Dr Cement Gun and the sprayed material
Carlton Akeley was searching for a way named Gunite. The methods were
to create models of prehistoric animals. patented in 1911 and taken over by the
A skeleton frame had been manufactured Cement Gun Company. After moving
but the body shapes could not be formed from the USA to Germany in 1921 it
by the application of conventional eventually became a British owned
trowelled mortars. company in 1953.
4
HISTORY
The early machines placed the dry mix allow complex shapes and structures to
of sand and cement into the pressurised be formed without the high costs
chamber from where it was projected to associated with formwork.
a nozzle where water was added. This
system was therefore termed the dry Early applications of sprayed concrete
process. were for reinforced concrete repair work.
Soon its advantages were adopted for
As the dry process was being developed new construction.
the True Gun method was also being
developed. This required the sand and During the Second World War free
cement mixture to be fully mixed with standing hangers for Spitfire fighters
water before being pumped through a were constructed, some of which still
fundamentally different machine. exist today. The Mersey Tunnel in
Because of its different mixing the Liverpool is another example of a major
system became known as the wet engineering structure lined with sprayed
process. The wet process was not fully concrete.
developed commercially until well into Today it is a common procedure to use
the 1970s, much of its experimentation sprayed concrete for structural repair,
being carried out in the USA. for fire protection to steel framed
It is at this point that a few moments structures, for tunnel and refractory
should be spent considering terminology. linings and for other structures such as
swimming pools, river walls, domes and
The original name for the sprayed mixture shell structures.
of sand and cement was Gunite. Other
terms have been, and are still used Installed properly by experienced
including Sprayed Concrete Shot applicators, sprayed concrete provides
Concrete and Shotcrete. The term designers with a cost effective and
Shotcrete is often used when describing adaptable method to create and repair
a mix whose maximum aggregate size is concrete structures.
more than 10mm.
However, the current
acceptance is that
Shotcrete is used in
the USA and Sprayed
Concrete is the more
widely used term in
Europe.
The acceptance and
use of sprayed
concrete is now world-
wide. The processes
5
PROPERTIES AND ADVANTAGES
6
PROPERTIES AND ADVANTAGES
Reduction in Formwork
Costs
In comparison with
conventionally poured
concrete, sprayed concrete
requires far less formwork.
This is especially so if curved
or organic shapes are
favoured by the designer
which may be impossible to
achieve using conventional
for mwork. Vir tually any
shape can be for med
especially thin shells and
linings.
Ease of Access
The ease of application of sprayed
concrete means that material can
be applied in restricted areas, often
considerable distances from the
point of access. Without the need
to transpor t and erect bulky
formwork only the operator and
delivery hoses need to be able to
visit the workface. The cement and
sand mixture can be transported
over long distances from the
production plant.
7
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS AND USES
T
he following examples demonstrate
the unique adaptability of sprayed
concrete.
New Construction
! Shell roofs and domes
! Retaining walls
! Piled wall facings
! Silo structures
! Barrel vaulting
! Diaphragm walls
! Caissons
! Blast proof structures
! Bank vaults
Underground Construction
! Tunnel linings
! New Austrian tunnelling method
! Storage reservoirs
8
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS AND USES
Free Formed
Structures
! Swimming pools
! Landscaping
! Climbing walls
! Theme parks
! Sculpture
! Water sports
slalom courses
! Bobsleigh runs
! Zoological
structures
9
THE DRY PROCESS
I
held and the stream of materials is
n dry process sprayed concrete a directed by the nozzleman, who also
predetermined ratio of cement and adjusts the amount of water added. The
aggregate is batched and mixed water can only be varied within a limited
without added water. The mixture is fed range, as too little water will prevent the
into a purpose-designed machine, mixture compacting into a homogenous
pressurised and introduced into a high mass, while an excess will make it too
velocity air stream and conveyed through workable, causing slumping. Remotely
flexible hoses to the spraying nozzle. At controlled robotic spraying arms are
this nozzle a finely atomised spray of often used in tunnelling work where they
clean water is added to the stream of enable the sprayed concrete to be placed
materials to hydrate the cement and in situations that could be hazardous for
provide the right mix consistency so that a nozzleman. They also avoid the need
the uninterrupted stream of materials for temporary access in order to place
can be projected at high velocity into the material at high level.
place, where the impact compacts the
material. Because water or admixtures The technique is very flexible, capable
are not necessarily required to give of wide variation in throughput, able to
workability during transportation or to handle virtually all types of cement and
achieve compaction, dry process sprayed a wide range of conventional and
concrete with suitable aggregates and lightweight aggregates. Aggregate sizes
aggregate/cement ratios can be placed up to 20mm can be used but there is
at low water/cement ratios, with no normally no advantage in using material
slump characteristics. This enables it over 10mm.
to be placed without admixtures to
The range of aggregate/cement ratio
limited thicknesses on ver tical and
mixes that can be sprayed is limited and
overhead surfaces.
the range used is typically 3.5/1 to 4.0/
Admixtures can be introduced in powder 1 by weight. Because the rebound is
form into the dry pre-mix, in liquid form mainly aggregate, the placed mix will be
with the added water at the spraying richer in cement than the batched pre-
nozzle or as a separate injection at the mix. The performance characteristics of
nozzle. Steel or other fibres can be dry process sprayed concrete are good
incorporated in the pre-mix. density, high strength (typically 40 to 50
N/mm2) and very good bond to a suitable
Equipment offering a wide range of substrate. The intrinsic properties tend
throughputs is available, allowing to be more variable than conventional
accurately controlled low rates of concrete or wet process sprayed
application for thin layers or on awkward concrete.
or intricate structures. High rates of
application for tunnel construction slope
stabilisation and larger areas are also
possible.
10
THE DRY PROCESS
11
THE WET PROCESS
W
et process sprayed concrete to design the mix to achieve the required
consists of a mixture of cement strength and durability, and to take into
and aggregate, weight or volume consideration the balance of fine and
batched and mixed with water prior to coarse aggregates to ensure optimum
being pumped through a hose or pipe to a pumping performance and reduction of
discharge nozzle. High velocity air is used rebound.
to propel the mix into position and this Where the Specifier considers that a water
supply of high pressure air is introduced bar or joint sealing system is necessary,
at the nozzle and the resultant velocity the Contractors advice should be sought
propels the concrete into position where it prior to the commencement of work to
is compacted by its own momentum. establish the appropriate design detail and
Wet mix sprayed concrete can be supplied sequence of work.
by ready mix or site batching facilities, or The designer should consider buildability
may be supplied as a dry, pre-blended of the structure, reflecting the construction
material in bags. Bagged material is processes employed in spraying concrete.
favoured for small operations of low Particular care is required for joints and
volume, such as repairs, where site access reinforcement details. The emphasis
may prohibit large wet-mix concrete should be to reduce the quantity of steel
deliveries. reinforcement wherever possible. The
With the wet process the water cement option of fibre reinforcement should be
ratio can be accurately controlled and with considered where appropriate.
water reducing plasticisers, water cement Spraying techniques are varied according
ratios below 0.45 can be easily achieved. to the nature of the work but usually
Concrete strength requirements can be concrete is built up in layers of up to
specified in a similar manner to 150mm thick. Further layers may be
conventional concrete although in the wet applied to achieve greater thicknesses once
process high strengths are usually achieved the underlying layer has achieved a final
due to the cement rich characteristic. It set. Care should be taken that the surface
is usual for wet mix designs to use cement to receive the new sprayed concrete layer
contents in the range of 350kg to 450kg should be free from deleterious substances
per cubic metre. The resulting cube by jet washing with air-water, starting at
strengths will normally be between 30N/ the top of the structure and working
mm2 and 60N/mm2 at 28 days. downwards. This is normally achieved with
the sprayed concrete nozzle.
With the use of hydration control
admixtures, the working life of wet mix Whereas tolerances of 10 millimetres
concrete can be extended up to 72hours over a 3 metre length are attainable on
allowing the system great flexibility, and plain flat surfaces, special provisions will
preventing the need to clean out the system be required in respect of more complicated
after each application. shapes or difficult locations.
12
THE WET PROCESS
Wet mix sprayed concrete can be a volumes are required. Accelerator dosing
structural material and provide a units are usually fitted to these pumps
decorative finish depending on the allowing synchronised dosing with the
selection of the appropriate system. Sharp concrete output. These wet process
returns and fine details are not advisable sprayed concrete pumps may take mixes
but where they are specifically required they with up to 20mm aggregate.
should be clearly defined by the Engineer Rotor chamber pumps normally used for
in the specification as they will require the dry process have been adapted to spray
careful attention during placing. wet mix concrete. These pumps can deliver
Wet mix sprayed concrete can be between 4 and15m3/h with up to 20mm
pigmented for architectural purposes. aggregate. The material is conveyed by
compressed air to the nozzle in a thin
Wet Process Equipment
stream, where accelerator (if required) is
Wet process sprayed concrete pumps
added.
include machines with piston and worm
pumps where the concrete is delivered to Spraying equipment should be capable of
the nozzle as a dense stream. At the nozzle, delivering concrete to the substrate at a
air and accelerator (if required) are added regular rate and be free from pulsation
to project and compact the material to the effects that can cause mix segragation and
substrate. over dosing with additives.
All concrete delivery
lines should be sealed
and lubricated prior
to pumping concrete
using a grout mix.
Transpor t lines
consisting of flexible
hoses and steel pipes
the wet spray process (typical) should be laid as
straight as possible or
Worm pump machines can deliver concrete in gentle curves. The transport pipes
with maximum aggregate sizes of 4mm, should have a uniform diameter
and are typically used for repair and surface appropriate to the mix and fibre
finishing projects. The output is typically characteristics determined by site trials,
up to 4m3/h. and be free from any lips, dents and kinks
Double piston pump based machines also between the spraying machine and nozzle.
supply a dense stream of concrete to the All equipment should be cleaned and
nozzle, and should be virtually pulse free maintained at regular intervals to prevent
when spraying. This type of machine can the build-up of concrete in the hopper
produce high outputs from 4m 3/h to and delivery system.
25m 3 /h, lending itself to tunnel
construction or where large structural
13
SURFACE FINISHES
In both the wet or dry processes any finishing of the surface other than
I
t is usual for the concrete to be placed very light trowelling, can cause plastic
slightly proud of the required alignment cracking which may be detrimental to the
and screeded to the required profile with end product.
a timber or steel derby. If required this surface can be finished,
On thin coatings (less then 25mm) preferably with a wooden trowel or, if
trowelling is undesirable as it can disturb absolutely necessary, a steel float. No
the impaction bond, unless a specifically additional water should be used to aid
designed mix (eg including polymers) is finishing. A very thin flash coat is
used. preferable. Typically, the finer the
aggregate, the easier it will be to float
Generally, it is preferable that the finished and the better the end product.
surface should also be left as sprayed as
14
CONSTITUENT MATERIALS
15
CONSTITUENT MATERIALS
hardening properties are also achieved. lie in the respective envelopes defined in
Pigments should be used in accordance Figure 1.
with the requirements of EN 206 and the It is the responsibility of the contractor
suppliers recommendations. to choose the most suitable grading for
Cement additions may also be specified the process and materials available.
as a cement replacement, but should not For dry mixes the natural moisture content
exceed the relative proportions given in in the aggregate should be as constant as
Table 1. possible and a maximum of 6%.
Aggregates Proprietary lightweight aggregates may
Aggregates in general should comply with be used but should not be specified
the requirements of BS 882, and should without reference to a specialist supplier/
be checked for their susceptibility to contractor.
alkali-silica reaction.
Mixing water
The aggregate gradation curve for the wet Potable water is suitable for sprayed
and dry mix processes should normally concrete. Other sources should be
S A N D G R A V E L
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse
ISO Sieve
size (mm)
0.125
0.25
0.5
16
1
8
2
100 10 0 10 0 10 0
90 90
90
88
80
73
72
70
Percentage passing
62
60 60
55
50 50 49
40
37
35
34
30
26
12 12
Dry-mix process gr ading
10 8
11
8
env elope
4
3
0 1
size (mm)
BS Sieve
0.15
0.3
0.6
1.18
3.35
6.3
14
0.212
0.425
0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Figure 1: Aggregate grading curves for the wet and dry-mix sprayed concrete process
16
CONSTITUENT MATERIALS
checked in accordance with BS 3148 for with the actual materials and mix design
suitability. It should be noted that the should be conducted prior to
mixing water temperature influences the commencement of the work, in order to
final mix temperature. verify the dosage rate of the product.
Admixtures Fibres
A sprayed concrete mix may include Fibres are added to sprayed concrete to
admixtures to improve the properties of impart one or all of the following material
the fresh mix and the hardened concrete. properties:
The following list of admixtures are ! Control of plastic shrinkage cracking
commonly included in sprayed concrete ! Control of thermal cracking
systems: ! Improved abrasion and impact
Accelerators increase the stiffening rate, resistance
to produce a fast set and provide early ! Improved fire resistance
strength development. A fast setting ! Improved ductility and toughness
concrete may be necessary to build up ! Enhanced tensile and flexural
the required thickness and to ensure strength
overhead stability. The dosage should be Further technical information is provided
optimised to ensure good cohesion by the Sprayed Concrete Associations
between individual passes thus Technical Data Sheet No.1.
producing a single layer and minimising
any adverse effects on long term strength. Steel reinforcement
Steel reinforcement increases the flexural
Different accelerator types are available strength and controls cracks. Steel
for different applications. Guidance reinforcement is normally in the form of
should be sought from the manufacturer. fabric and is recommended for thick
Superplasticisers and Plasticisers are layers ( 50 mm). For most uses,
used in sprayed concrete to minimise the reinforcing steel fabric with a mesh of
amount of water in the mix, thereby 50 to 150 mm and a wire diameter of no
improving the final quality. more than 10 mm is widely accepted.
Superplasticisers offer greater water Curing agents
reduction than plasticisers, without Liquid curing agents should be specified
retardation of the mix. to maximise hydration of the cement by
Hydration control admixtures are added reducing water evaporation.
to sprayed concrete in order to maintain There are two types of curing agent:
workability and extend the open time Externally spray applied curing agents and
during transportation and application internal curing admixtures added to the
without reducing concrete quality. concrete. Both types should be used in
Retarders are added to retard the setting accordance with the manufacturers
of the concrete. With the use of technical instructions.
retarders, preconstruction tests on site
17
HEALTH AND SAFETY
W
hilst inherently safe, like all works and form an as built record for
activities in construction, the future. This is especially relevant
spraying concrete needs to be where services or structures may be
planned and executed with due regard hidden by the spraying operation.
to Health and Safety.
It is advisable only to employ the services
Control of Substances Hazardous
of competent designers, suppliers and to Health COSHH
contractors (members of the Sprayed The material components of sprayed
Concrete Association) to carry out these concrete contain cementitious products
works. Since the Health and Safety at and possibly other additives and
Work Act of 1974 and subsequent chemicals.
legislation such as COSHH (Control of
Material manufacturers and contractors
Substances Hazardous to Health) and
are duty bound to issue a COSHH
CDM (Construction Design Management)
assessment for the handling and use of
it is vital that due consideration is given
the materials. This assessment will
to safety issues.
highlight the hazards that may exist and
the measures required to eliminate risk
Construction Design and to the user.
Management Regulations
From the design stage onwards all parties Particular consideration should be given
to the contract are expected to have due to special circumstances e.g. high
regard of the Health and Safety buildings, confined spaces etc. All
implications of their proposals. Via the materials should be used in accordance
site safety plan and the Risk Assessment with the manufacturers instructions.
all parties are now expected to plan and Personal Protective Equipment
create a safe working environment where
(PPE)
risk is, at best, eliminated or certainly
reduced. The risk assessment and COSHH
assessments will inform the user that
A safe work site must be maintained. spraying concrete is going to be a noisy
This will include security to prevent and dirty process.
unauthorised visitors, especially
children, a safe means of access to the The nozzleman, mixing gang and those
works (scaffolding etc) and the adjacent to them must be issued with
elimination of risk to passers-by. appropriate PPE. This will include
overalls, gloves and safety helmet with
After due consideration at the design full face visor or specialised helmet with
stage the construction team will work breathing apparatus and safety boots.
together to maintain this safe This equipment must be maintained and
environment. replaced when damaged or worn out.
The site safety plan will accompany the
18
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Working Environment
A safe working
environment should be
created and maintained.
This will include levelled
ground and proper access
to the work area.
Proper lighting should be
provided and, if necessary,
ventilation, especially for
dust extraction or when
working in a confined
space. Protection against
overspray and airborne
dust should be provided
where necessary.
The workforce must enjoy
proper welfare facilities.
These will include
accommodation where
they can change and dry
clothes, washing facilities,
Plant WC facilities, and a separate clean area
Sprayed concrete plant is essentially for taking breaks and eating.
fairly simple. A large air compressor
feeds the wet or dry spray plant via a Disposal of Waste
series of valves and hoses. A mixer may Sprayed concrete operations usually
also be used for the dry process. generate significant quantities of waste
Plant must be maintained and serviced material. This will include overspray and
properly and used in accordance with the rebound material together with packaging
manufacturers instructions. Protective from the delivered materials and
guards should be checked and used. additives.
Unsafe or improperly maintained plant This waste must be properly disposed of
should never be used until it is repaired to licensed tips by licensed contractors.
and checked by competent persons. Wherever possible the material selection
Plant should never be used in should minimise the disposal of waste
circumstances that exceed the and the impact on the environment.
manufacturers specification.
19
QUALITY CONTROL AND TESTING
T
ests should be carried out on a ! compressive strength and density at
routine basis on cores or other 7 and 28 days
samples taken from sprayed ! flexural strength
concrete applied in the Works. Only for ! residual strength
certain specific tests as indicated in the ! fibre content
following clauses should panels or beams ! bond
be prepared for test purposes. ! permeability
The Site Trials should be repeated if the The need for such tests is dependent on
source or quality of any of the materials the type of project and the utilisation of
or the mix proportions are required to the sprayed concrete, but should always
be changed during the course of the be done in control class 3.
Works.
Quality control
An agreed testing regime should be
carried out on a routine basis. The production of sprayed concrete shall
be subject to quality control procedures.
Specimens should be tested in Different levels of control can be
accordance with the EFNARC exercised dependent upon the complexity
Specification: 10. of the project.
20
QUALITY CONTROL AND TESTING
Thi ckness 50 25 10
Source: EFN AR C
given in Table 2 may be used as a guide. mm for hand spraying and 1000 x 1000
mm for robot spraying. The thickness
Location of test specimens should be appropriate to the size of test
The location of specimens to be taken specimens to be cut from the panel, but
from the Works should be proposed by should not be less than 100 mm.
the Contractor and approved by the Appropriate measures should be taken
Engineer. For repair works it is to avoid entrapment of rebound in the
recommended to only measure the mould (such as using chamfered or
compressive strength on cores taken from slotted sides).
representative test panels. In the event
The moulds are positioned vertically and
of a failure the Engineer may require
sprayed with the same operator,
verification from cores taken from the
equipment, technique, layer thickness
permanent works.
per pass, spraying distance, etc. as the
Marking of test specimens actual work. The panel should be
protected immediately against moisture
Each core or beam should be marked with
loss using the same method to be used
an appropriate reference mark and the
in construction. The samples are marked
date and time of spraying.
for later identification (Mix, location,
Test Methods date, operator).
The tests should be carried out using the The panel should not be moved within
methods listed in Table 3. 18 hrs of being sprayed. Curing should
continue thereafter for 7 days or until
Test panels and samples
samples are to be extracted.
Moulds should be made of steel or other
non-water-absorbing rigid material. The The test samples should be cored in
minimum plan dimensions are 600 x 600 accordance with EN 7034 or sawn from
21
QUALITY CONTROL AND TESTING
D urabi li ty/permeabi li ty EFNARC Gui deli nes to the Speci fi cati on: 10.7
Fi bre content EFNARC Gui deli nes to the Speci fi cati on: 10.9.3
the panel, but should not include Compressive strength and density
material within 125 mm of the edge (with The required minimum compressive
the exception of the ends of beams for strength should in accordance with the
flexural/toughness testing). EFNARC Guideline to the Specification:
During transportation to the testing 9.1, tables 9.1.1 and 9.1.2 as shown in
laboratory the panel or sawn samples are the example below:
packed to protect against mechanical 40 MPa x 0.8 x 0.85 = 27 MPa
damage and moisture loss.
where:
40 = Characteristic cast cube requirement
0.8 = conversion for cube/cylinder specimen
0.85 = conversion factor for in situ sampling
Compressive strength
tests should be
performed in
accordance with EN
4012 on drilled cores
taken from the sprayed
concrete structure or
from sprayed test
panels. Their
minimum diameter
shall be 50mm and the
height/diameter ratio
shall be in the range
1.0 to 2.0. Test results
from cores with height/
diameter ratio different
22
QUALITY CONTROL AND TESTING
Source EFNARC
23
TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION
S
praying concrete is without doubt one As this route to certification is gradually
of the most demanding activities in phased out more formal approvals are now
construction. Its success relies very available. The Construction Skills Certificate
heavily on the skills of the nozzleman and Scheme (CSCS) now provides a simple
his team. It is vitally important therefore method of extending certification to a
that specifiers and designers insist upon and common standard across the industry by
verify the background and training methods accreditation.
adopted by their prospective contractors.
The more recently introduced National
The Sprayed Concrete Association has for Vocational Qualification (NVQ) is the goal to
many years recommended a formal record be aimed at by all competent employees.
keeping, training and certification scheme. Both schemes are linked and supported by
the Sprayed Concrete Association, the
The nozzlemans actions on site are crucial Construction Industry Training Board (CITB)
in maintaining the quality and consistency and many employers.
of the final product. With the dry process
they control water content and hence the Formal training schemes are offered by the
mix design. With both dry and wet processes CITB. These courses are usually residential
their skills determine the density and and quite intensive. The desired result is a
compaction of the sprayed material and the fully trained nozzleman who is not only
prevention of voids and shadows behind capable of spraying concrete but also able
reinforcement. They will be able to place to create test pieces for checking. He must
material overhead in multiple layers whilst also be able to understand the technicalities
minimising rebound and overspray, and will of the process.
also be able to achieve the required surface
finish to the sprayed material.
His support team will often hand batch
materials and certainly be responsible for
providing the nozzleman with a constant
supply of controlled materials without risk
of inconsistency or blockage.
Many of these skills will be learnt on site
through experience. On site apprenticeship
and training provides a firm grounding to
trainees. Their progress should be recorded
in a recognised log book such as that issued
by the Sprayed Concrete Association. It is vital therefore that training and
certification within the industry is both
Experienced operators have in the past been supported and maintained. Any reluctance
able to record their skills by the issue of to provide that commitment could result in
Grandfather Rights. This is a certificate substandard work or potentially dangerous
signed by their employer confirming the structures and the resultant Health and
holders past experience and success. Safety risks.
24
DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION
T
he following information applies to Clear spacing between parallel main bars,
both the wet and dry processes. including laps, should be at least four
times the bar diameter or 50mm
whichever is the greater. Where concrete
Overall Design is sprayed against an existing structure
the back cover to reinforcement should
With sprayed concrete the Designer can
be between 25mm and 40mm depending
have the freedom to achieve almost any
on the concrete mix in use. Overlays in
shape. The Specifier should ensure that
excess of 25mm thick shall be reinforced.
adequate plans with detailed dimensions
are provided. This will enable the Where two layers of reinforcement are
Contractor to accurately assess the incorporated, the bars on the front face
Specifiers requirements. should be in line with those on the rear
face. In constricted areas it may be
Strength preferable to spray the rear layer of
The strength of sprayed concrete should reinforcement to ensure good
be specified as follows: encapsulation of the steel prior to fixing
the front layer.
Grade Characteristic strength at 28 days
30 30N/mm
The Engineer should specify the type and
40 40N/mm
spacing of fixings to ensure that the
50 50N/mm
reinforcement can be adequately secured
to prevent vibration or displacement
during spraying, Cover shall be as for
The Contractor should be free to design conventional concrete.
the mix to achieve the specified
characteristic strength. He should ensure Glass, steel or other approved fibres may
that the gradation of fine and coarse be used in appropriate quantities to
aggregates is such that the mix can be modify the characteristic of the sprayed
pumped (wet or dry) without problems concrete. Certain lightweight reinforcing
(such as bleeding within pumping lines fabrics, which do not comply with the
in the case of a wet mix). requirements of BS4483, may be
specified.
Reinforcement
Cement
The Designer may require the sprayed
Except where otherwise specified the
concrete to be reinforced. Mesh, bar or
cement should be Portland Cement
fibres could be specified. The
complying with the requirements of
reinforcement should be specified as for
EN197.
conventional concrete but with a limit on
larger bar sizes. Reinforcing bars greater All cement should be fresh and after
than 25mm should be avoided. delivery should be stored in a dry area
or in a purpose made bulk silo.
25
DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION
Aggregate Plant
Aggregate should consist of sharp If site-batched concrete is to be used
washed sand graded in accordance with then the required proportions of cement
BS882 (1984). Medium Grade is to aggregate should be determined by
preferable. Where this grade is not weigh batching.
readily available other fine aggregates
may be employed if the Contractor can
demonstrate that the specification can
be achieved.
Coarse aggregate should comply with
BS882 and in general should not exceed
16mm, although a maximum size of
10mm is preferable.
Some aggregates, such as proprietary
lightweight aggregates that can only be
pumped in a high slump condition,
should not be specified without reference
to a Specialist Contractor.
26
DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION
27
DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION
Application should commence at the Where thick layers are applied the
bottom of ver tical or near ver tical horizontal leading edge should be
surfaces and each layer of sprayed maintained at a slope. Where necessary
concrete built up by making several to achieve greater overall thickness,
passes of the nozzle over the work area. subsequent layers must not be applied
until the preceding layer has attained
For reinforced concrete the distance of
adequate strength. Prior to spraying
the nozzle from the work should be
subsequent layers, loose materials
between 600mm and 1500mm and held
should be removed using a strong blast
perpendicular to the application surface
of air.
except when spraying around a
reinforcing bar when the nozzle may be Construction joints should be tapered at
held closer and at a slight angle in order approximately 30o and cut back square
to facilitate full and total encasement. to the outer layer of reinforcement,
If the work is of a non-structural nature, unless otherwise specified by the
the nozzle may be held at a greater Engineer. The entire joint should be
distance provided the specification can thoroughly cleaned and dampened prior
be achieved. to the placement of adjacent sprayed
concrete.
The sprayed concrete should emerge
from the nozzle in a steady flow, free from When applying additional layers the
pulsation. Excessive cement paste or reinforcement should be cleaned of any
segregation caused by poor mix design previously deposited hardened material
should not be incorporated in the work. which might prevent a proper bond or
Should the flow become intermittent it encasement.
should be directed away from the work.
In general the sprayed concrete should
A proportion of sprayed concrete will be cured in accordance with the
rebound and measures should be taken recommendation set out in EN 206.
to prevent it from being incorporated in Where the ambient temperature exceeds
the finished work. The amount of 25C or in exposed conditions where air
rebound will vary according to a number movement may cause a rapid drying of
of factors including the parent surface, the concrete surface, as the spraying
location, the applied materials mix and proceeds the work should be immediately
the type/quantity of reinforcing. protected by wet hessian or a fog spray
system. In these conditions no surface
Maximum layer thickness is governed by should be exposed for longer than one
the requirement that the material should hour.
not slump or sag in such a manner that
it can cause a break in bond. The
Contractor shall duly consider factors
such as position of reinforcement; plane
of application; mix design and
constituents including admixtures that
may contribute to slump and sag.
28
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND USEFUL PUBLICATIONS
I
n addition to the publications listed ! examine NATM design and
below, the Sprayed Concrete construction principles and their
Association produces a number of applicability to soft ground in urban
documents related to Sprayed Concrete, areas; and
a list of these publications may be
! provide guidance on the proper use
obtained from Association House.
of sprayed concrete linings in soft
Members of the Sprayed Concrete
ground in urban areas, with specific
Association are happy to answer any
reference to London Clay.
questions regarding sprayed concrete
application. The membership varies Contents: Introduction - What is NATM -
across the spectrum of contractors, General experiences of SCL - Procurement
material and plant suppliers and of SCL Tunnels - Design - Guidelines on
consultants. Construction - A comparison with
segmentally lined tunnels - Conclusions -
References.
ICE - design and practice guides
- Sprayed concrete linings Published by Thomas Telford
(NATM) for tunnels in soft ISBN No. 0-7277-2512-2
ground.
EFNARC - European Specification
In 1994, the collapse of two tunnels, one
under construction beneath a street in For Sprayed Concrete
Munich and the other under construction EFNARC was founded in March 1989 by
in the centre of Londons Heathrow five national trade associations
Airport, caused major concern in the representing producers and applicators
international tunnelling community and of specialist building products. The
to the public. These incidents brought Sprayed Concrete Technical Committee
into question the use of sprayed was for med in early 1991, which
concrete, a system more commonly eventually led to the publication of a final
referred to the New Austrian Tunnelling version of this document in 1996.
method (NATM), for the initial support
This specification treats sprayed concrete
of tunnels in soft ground. As a result of
as an entity and makes no reference to
this world-wide concern, the Institution
fields of application such as tunnelling
of Civil Engineers has issued this guide
which is the case of many other
to consider the implications of the use
publications. The subjects covered are
of sprayed concrete support methods in
thorough and contain information to
soft ground in urban areas and provide
satisfy the requirements of specifiers,
guidance on how the associated risks of
contractors and suppliers alike on all
this method can be minimized. The guide
aspects of sprayed concrete. The
has been specifically complied to:
specification has been specifically
! respond to public concerns over the compiled to:
use of NATM in soft ground in urban
! provide guidance to meet the
areas;
29
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND USEFUL PUBLICATIONS
30
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND USEFUL PUBLICATIONS
The document predominantly covers the of the NATM process throughout the
testing and design of sprayed concrete world, it also relates this to current UK
mixes but does so by investigating the Safety Legislation. The repor t is
requirements placed on the finished interesting reading, in particular the
material. There is some information sections which cover Safety Management
covering the placement methods but this of Sprayed Concrete operations, useful
is limited. The one failing of this information to managers of sprayed
document is that currently all charts and concrete activities.
graphs are still German which makes
Contents: Introduction, scope & purpose of
them awkward to use. Other than this
review - Summary of findings - Principal HSE
point the document is technically good conclusions - The NATM Process - World Wide
and covers all aspects of sprayed Review of NATM Safety - UK. Health & Safety
concrete. Legislation - NATM Safety Principles -
Designing for Safety - Management
Contents: Scope - Definitions - Environmental
Arrangements - Appendices - Glossary of
Compatibility of Shotcrete - Mix - Shotcreting
Terms - References & Reading List
Procedures - Requirements to be met by
Shotcrete - Structural Requirements - Special Published by HSE Books - ISBN No. 0-
Procedures - Testing - Quality Management - 7176-1068-3
Testing Procedures - Standards, Guidelines.
The report predominantly reviews safety Published by HSE Books - ISBN No. 0-
7176-1026-8
31
PHOTOGRAPHS
The SCA gratefully acknowledges the following for providing photographs and
illustrations for use in this publication:
Aliva Ltd
CMS Pozament Ltd
The Construction Industry Training Board
Gunform International Ltd
Graham Daws Associates Ltd
National Power plc
Polycrete
Sika Ltd
ISBN: 1 870980 08 5
32
Also available from the SCA: