Cruising Flight Performance!

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics,

MAE 331, 2016

Learning Objectives
! Denitions of airspeed
! Performance parameters
! Steady cruising ight conditions
! Breguet range equations
! Optimize cruising ight for
minimum thrust and power
! Flight envelope

Reading:!
Flight Dynamics !
Aerodynamic Coefcients, 118-130!

Copyright 2016 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Review Questions!
!! What is static margin?!
!! Is the airplanes pitching moment sensitivity to angle of
attack linear?!
!! What factors are most important in dening the
airplanes pitching moment sensitivity to angle of
attack ?!
!! Which is more important: stability or control?!
!! Is the airplanes yawing moment sensitivity to sideslip
angle linear?!
!! What effect does the wing dihedral angle have on
airplane stability?!
!! Why would an airplane have a twin tail?!
!! What are ventral ns, and why do airplanes have/not
have them?! 2
 U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Standard_Atmosphere 3

Dynamic Pressure and Mach Number

! = air density, function of height
= ! sealevel e" # h
a = speed of sound
= linear function of height

Dynamic pressure = q ! !V 2 2
Mach number = V a

4
 Denitions of Airspeed
Airspeed is speed of aircraft measured with respect to air mass
Airspeed = Inertial speed if wind speed = 0

! Indicated Airspeed (IAS)

2 ( ptotal ! pstatic )
(
IAS = 2 pstagnation ! pambient ) " SL =
" SL
2qc
! , with qc ! impact pressure
" SL
! Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)*
CAS = IAS corrected for instrument and position errors
2 ( qc )corr #1
=
! SL
5
* Kayton & Fried, 1969; NASA TN-D-822, 1961

Denitions of Airspeed
Airspeed is speed of aircraft measured with respect to air mass
Airspeed = Inertial speed if wind speed = 0

Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)*

2 ( qc )corr # 2
EAS = CAS corrected for compressibility effects =
! SL

True Airspeed (TAS)* Mach number

!SL !SL TAS
V ! TAS = EAS = IAScorrected M=
! (z) ! (z) a

* Kayton & Fried, 1969; NASA TN-D-822, 1961

6
 Checklist!
"! IAS?!
"! CAS?!
"! EAS?!
"! TAS?!
"! M?!

Flight in the
Vertical Plane!

8
 Longitudinal Variables

Longitudinal Point-Mass
Equations of Motion
! Assume thrust is aligned with the velocity
vector (small-angle approximation for !)
! Mass = constant

(CT cos ! " CD ) 12 #V 2 S " mg sin $ (CT " CD ) 12 #V 2 S " mg sin $

V! = %
m m
(CT sin ! + CL ) 12 #V 2 S " mg cos $ CL 12 #V 2 S " mg cos $
$! = %
mV mV
h! = " z! = "vz = V sin $ V = velocity = Earth-relative airspeed

r! = x! = vx = V cos $ = True airspeed with zero wind

! = flight path angle
h = height (altitude)
10
r = range
Conditions for Steady,
Level Flight
! Flight path angle = 0
! Altitude = constant
! Airspeed = constant
! Dynamic pressure = constant

1
(CT ! CD ) 2 "V 2 S
0= ! Thrust = Drag
m
1 2
CL "V S ! mg
0= 2 ! Lift = Weight
mV
h! = 0
r! = V 11

Power and Thrust

Propeller
1
Power = P = T ! V = CT "V 3S ! independent of airspeed
2
Turbojet
1
Thrust = T = CT !V 2 S ! independent of airspeed
2
Throttle Effect
T = Tmax! T = CTmax ! TqS, 0 " ! T " 1
12
 Typical Effects of Altitude and
Velocity on Power and Thrust

! Propeller

! Turbojet

13

Models for Altitude Effect on

Turbofan Thrust
From Flight Dynamics, pp.117-118
1
Thrust = CT (V, ! T ) " ( h )V 2 S
2
1
= ( ko + k1V # ) " ( h )V 2 S! T , N
2
ko = Static thrust coefficient at sea level
k1 = Velocity sensitivity of thrust coefficient
! = Exponent of velocity sensitivity
= "2 for turbojet
# T = Throttle setting, ( 0,1)
$ ( h ) = $ SL e" % h , $ SL = 1.225 kg / m 3 , % = (1 / 9,042 ) m "1 14
 Models for Altitude Effect on
Turbofan Thrust
From AeroModelMach.m in FLIGHT.m, Flight Dynamics,
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/AeroModelMach.m
[airDens,airPres,temp,soundSpeed] = Atmos(-x(6));
Thrust = u(4) * StaticThrust * (airDens / 1.225)^0.7 * (1 - exp((-x(6) 17000)/2000));

Atmos(-x(6)) : 1976 U.S. Standard Atmosphere function

-x(6) = h = Altitude, m
airDens = ! = Air density at altitude h, kg/m 3
u(4) = " T = Throttle setting, ( 0,1)

Empirical t to match known characteristics of powerplant for

generic business jet
(airDens / 1.225)^0.7 * (1 - exp((-x(6) 17000)/2000))
15

Thrust of a
Propeller-Driven
Aircraft
With constant rpm, variable-pitch propeller
where
Pengine Pengine !P = propeller efficiency
T = !P!I = !net ! I = ideal propulsive efficiency
V V !netmax " 0.85 # 0.9

Efciencies decrease with airspeed

Engine power decreases with altitude
Proportional to air density, w/o supercharger

16
 Reciprocating-Engine Power and
Specic Fuel Consumption (SFC)
P (h) ! (h)
= 1.132 " 0.132
PSL ! SL

SFC ! Independent of Altitude

! Engine power decreases with altitude
! Proportional to air density, w/o supercharger
! Supercharger increases inlet manifold pressure,
increasing power and extending maximum altitude

Anderson (Torenbeek)

17

Propeller Efciency, "P, Effect of propeller-blade pitch angle

and Advance Ratio, J

Advance Ratio

V
J=
nD
where
V = airspeed, m / s
n = rotation rate, revolutions / s
D = propeller diameter, m
from McCormick
18
 Thrust of a
Turbojet
Engine
02*# 1/2 42
! o &# !t & !t -
T = mV
! 1,% (% ( () c "1) + / "15
23+$ ! o "1 '$ ! t "1 ' ! o) c . 26

m! = m! air + m! fuel

( )
(" #1)/"
! o = pstag pambient ; " = ratio of specific heats $ 1.4
! t = ( turbine inlet temp. freestream ambient temp.)
% c = ( compressor outlet temp. compressor inlet temp.)
from Kerrebrock
Little change in thrust with airspeed below Mcrit
Decrease with increasing altitude 19

Performance Parameters
L CL
Lift-to-Drag Ratio D= CD

Load Factor n = L W = L mg ,"g"s

T T
Thrust-to-Weight Ratio W = mg ,"g"s

Wing Loading W , N m 2 or lb ft 2
S

20
 Checklist!
"! Flight variables?!
"! Propeller vs. jet propulsion?!
"! Variation with airspeed and altitude?!
"! Advance ratio?!
"! Wing loading?!

21

!is"rical Fac"id
! Aircraft Flight Distance Records
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_distance_record

! Aircraft Flight Endurance Records

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_endurance_record

Rutan/Scaled Rutan/Virgin Atlantic

Composites Voyager Global Flyer

22
 Steady, Level Flight!

23

Trimmed Lift Coefcient, CL

! Trimmed lift coefcient, CL
! Proportional to weight and wing loading factor
! Decreases with V2
! At constant true airspeed, increases with altitude

"1 %
W = C Ltrim $ !V 2 ' S = C Ltrim qS
#2 &

1 2 # 2 e" h &
C Ltrim = (W S ) = (W S ) = % ! V 2 ( (W S )
q !V 2 $ 0 '
! = 1 / 9,042 m, inverse scale height of air density
24
 Trimmed Angle of Attack, !
! Trimmed angle of attack, !
! Constant if dynamic pressure and weight are
constant
! If dynamic pressure decreases, angle of attack
must increase

1
2W "V 2 S # C Lo q (
W S ) # C Lo
! trim = =
C L! C L!

25

Thrust Required for Steady, Level Flight

26
Thrust Required for Steady, Level Flight
Trimmed thrust
Parasitic Drag Induced Drag

"1 2 % 2W 2
Ttrim = Dcruise = C Do $ !V S ' + (
#2 & !V 2 S

Minimum required thrust conditions

! Ttrim 4 $W 2
= C Do ( "VS ) # =0
!V "V 3S
Necessary Condition:
Slope = 0 27

Necessary and Sufcient

Conditions for Minimum
Required Thrust
Necessary Condition = Zero Slope

4 "W 2
C Do ( !VS ) =
!V 3S
Sufcient Condition for a Minimum =
Positive Curvature when slope = 0

! 2 Ttrim 12#W 2
= C Do ( " S ) + >0
!V 2 "V 4 S
(+) (+) 28
 Airspeed for
Minimum Thrust in
Steady, Level Flight
Satisfy necessary condition

# 4! & 2
V =%
4
2( (W S )
$ C Do " '
Fourth-order equation for velocity
Choose the positive root

2 "W % (
VMT = $ '
! # S & C Do
29

Lift, Drag, and Thrust Coefcients in

Minimum-Thrust Cruising Flight
Lift coefcient
2 "W %
C LMT = 2 $
!VMT # S '&
C Do
= = ( C L )( L/D )
( max

Drag and thrust coefcients

C Do
C DMT = C Do + ! C 2
LMT = C Do + !
!
= 2C Do " CTMT 30
 Achievable Airspeeds in Constant-
Altitude Flight
Back Side of the
Thrust Curve

! Two equilibrium airspeeds for a given thrust or power setting

! Low speed, high CL, high !
! High speed, low CL, low !
! Achievable airspeeds between minimum and maximum
values with maximum thrust or power 31

Power Required for

Steady, Level Flight

P=TxV

32
 Power Required for
Steady, Level Flight
Trimmed power
Parasitic Drag Induced Drag

) " 1 2 % 2(W 2 ,
Ptrim = TtrimV = DcruiseV = +C Do $ !V S ' + 2 .
V
* #2 & !V S -

Minimum required power conditions

! Ptrim 3 2$W 2
= C Do ( "V S ) #
2
=0
!V 2 "V S
2

33

Airspeed for Minimum

Power in Steady,
Level Flight
! Satisfy necessary condition C 3 !V 2 S = 2"W
2

Do
2
( ) !V 2S
! Fourth-order equation for
velocity 2 "W % (
VMP = $ '
! Choose the positive root ! # S & 3C Do

! Corresponding lift and 3C Do

drag coefcients C LMP =
!
C DMP = 4C Do 34
Achievable Airspeeds for Jet in
Cruising Flight
Thrust = constant

"1 % 2(W
2
Tavail = C D qS = C Do $ !V 2 S ' +
#2 & !V 2 S

"1 2)W 2
%
C Do $ !V 4 S ' ( TavailV 2 + =0
#2 & !S
2Tavail 2 4 #W 2
V ! V + 2 = 0
4

C Do " S C Do ( " S )
4th-order algebraic equation for V
35

Achievable Airspeeds for Jet in

Cruising Flight
Solutions for V2 can be put in quadratic
form and solved easily
V 2 ! x; V = x

2Tavail 2 4 #W 2
V ! V + 2 = 0
4

C Do " S C Do ( " S )
x 2 + bx + c = 0
2
b " b%
x = ! $ ' ! c =V2
2 # 2&
36
Thrust Required and Thrust
Available for a Typical Bizjet
Available thrust decreases with altitude
Stall limitation at low speed
Mach number effect on lift and drag increases thrust required
at high speed

Typical Simplied Jet Thrust Model

x
$ ! ( SL ) e" # h '
Tmax (h) = Tmax (SL) & )
% ! (SL) (
x
= Tmax (SL) $% e" # h '( = Tmax (SL)e" x# h
Empirical correction to force thrust to zero at a given altitude, hmax.
c is a convergence factor.

Tmax (h) = Tmax (SL)e! x" h #$1! e!( h!hmax ) c %&

37

Thrust Required and Thrust

Available for a Typical Bizjet

Typical Stall
Limit

38
 Checklist!
"! Thrust required vs. airspeed and altitude?!
"! Minimum-thrust cruise vs. minimum-power
cruise?!
"! Power/thrust available for climb?!
"! Mach effect?!

39

Flying Qualities Becomes a

Science!
Chapter 3, Airplane Stability and
Control, Abzug and Larrabee!
! What are the principal subject and scope of the
chapter?!
! What technical ideas are needed to understand the
chapter?!
! During what time period did the events covered in
the chapter take place?!
! What are the three main "takeaway" points or
conclusions from the reading?!
! What are the three most surprising or remarkable
facts that you found in the reading?!
40
 The Flight Envelope!

41

Flight Envelope Determined by

Available Thrust
! All altitudes and airspeeds at which an aircraft can y
! in steady, level ight
! at xed weight

! Flight ceiling dened by

available climb rate
! Absolute: 0 ft/min
! Service: 100 ft/min
! Performance: 200 ft/min
Excess thrust provides the
ability to accelerate or
climb

42
Additional Factors Dene the
Flight Envelope
!! Maximum Mach number
!! Maximum allowable
Piper Dakota Stall Buffet aerodynamic heating
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCCjGAtbZ4g
!! Maximum thrust
!! Maximum dynamic
pressure
!! Performance ceiling
!! Wing stall
!! Flow-separation buffet
!! Angle of attack
!! Local shock waves

43

Boeing 787 Flight Envelope

(HW #5, 2008)

Best
Cruise
Region

44
 Lockheed U-2
Cofn Corner
Stall buffeting and Mach
buffeting are limiting factors
Narrow corridor for safe ight

Climb
Schedule

45

!is"rical Fac"ids
Air Commerce Act of 1926
! Airlines formed to carry mail and passengers:
! Northwest (1926)
! Eastern (1927), bankruptcy
! Pan Am (1927), bankruptcy
! Boeing Air Transport (1927), became United (1931)
! Delta (1928), consolidated with Northwest, 2010
! American (1930)
! TWA (1930), acquired by American
! Continental (1934), consolidated with United, 2010

Ford Tri-Motor Lockheed Vega

Boeing 40

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3a8G87qnZz4
46
 Commercial Aircraft of the 1930s
Streamlining, engine cowlings
Douglas DC-1, DC-2, DC-3 Lockheed 14 Super Electra,
Boeing 247

47

Comfort and Elegance by

the End of the Decade
Boeing 307, 1st pressurized cabin (1936), ight engineer, B-17 pre-cursor,
large dorsal n (exterior and interior)

Sleeping bunks on transcontinental planes (e.g., DC-3)

Full-size dining rooms on ying boats

48
 Seaplanes Became the First
TransOceanic Air Transports
! PanAm led the way
! 1st scheduled TransPacic ights(1935)
! 1st scheduled TransAtlantic ights(1938)
! 1st scheduled non-stop Trans-Atlantic ights (VS-44, 1939)
! Boeing B-314, Vought-Sikorsky VS-44, Shorts Solent
! Superseded by more efcient landplanes (lighter, less drag)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x8SkeE1h_-A

49

Checklist!
"! Flight envelope?!

50
 Optimal Cruising Flight!

51

Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio

Lift-to-drag ratio

L CL CL
D= CD = C + !C 2
Do L

Satisfy necessary condition for a maximum

! ( CL
CD ) =
1
#
2" C L2
2 =0
! CL C Do + " C L2 (C Do + " C L2 )
Lift coefcient for maximum L/D and
minimum thrust are the same

C Do
( C L )L / D = = C LMT
max
!
52
 Airspeed, Drag Coefcient, and
Lift-to-Drag Ratio for L/Dmax

2 "W % (
Airspeed VL/Dmax = VMT = $ '
! # S & C Do

Drag ( C D )L / D = C Do + C Do = 2C Do
Coefcient max

Maximum C Do ! 1
L/D ( L / D )max = =
2C Do 2 ! C Do

Maximum L/D depends only on induced drag factor

and zero-lift drag coefcient
Induced drag factor and zero-lift drag coefcient are
functions of Mach number 53

Cruising Range and

Specic Fuel Consumption
! Thrust = Drag 0 = ( CT ! C D ) 1 "V 2 S m ! Level ight
2
# 1 & h! = 0
! Lift = Weight 0 = % C L "V 2 S ! mg ( mV r! = V
$ 2 '

! Thrust specic fuel consumption, TSFC = cT

! Fuel mass burned per sec per unit of thrust

kg s
cT : m! f = !cT T
kN
! Power specic fuel consumption, PSFC = cP
! Fuel mass burned per sec per unit of power
kg s
cP : m! f = !cP P
kW 54
 Breguet Range Equation
Louis Breguet,
for Jet Aircraft
1880-1955

Rate of change of range with respect to weight of fuel burned

dr dr dt r! V V " L% V
= = = =! = !$ '
dm dm dt m! ( !cT T ) cT D # D & cT mg

" L% V
dr = ! $ ' dm
# D & cT mg
Range traveled
R Wf
# L & # V & dm
Range = R = ! dr = " ! % ( %
0 Wi
$ D ' $ cT g (' m
55

B-727 Maximum Range of a

Jet Aircraft Flying at
Constant Altitude
At constant altitude and SFC

2W ( t )
Vcruise ( t ) =
( )
C L ! h fixed S

Wf
" C %" 1 % 2 dm
Range = ! ) $ L ' $ '
Wi #
C c g
D&# T & C L (S m
12

" CL % " 2 % 2
=$ '$ '
# C D & # cT g & ( S
(
mi1 2 ! m f 1 2 )
Range is maximized when

! CL $
# C & = maximum
" D %
56
Breguet Range Equation MD-83

for Jet Aircraft

For constant true airspeed, V = Vcruise, and SFC

" L%"V % mf
R = ! $ ' $ cruise ' ln ( m ) m
# D & # cT g & i
! C $ ! 1 $ ! mi $
= # Vcruise L & # & ln # &
" L%"V % "m % " C c
D%" T %g " mf %
= $ ' $ cruise ' ln $ i '
# D & # cT g & # m f &

!! Vcruise(CL/CD) as large as possible

!! Respect Mcrit
!! # as small as possible
!! h as high as possible
57

Maximize Jet Aircraft Range

Using Optimal Cruise-Climb
$ CL '
!R
"
(
! Vcruise
CL
CD ) ! &Vcruise
= %
& ( C Do + # C 2 )
)
L )
(=0
!C L !C L !C L

Vcruise = 2W C L ! S

Assume 2W ( t ) ! ( h ) S = constant
i.e., airplane climbs at constant TAS as fuel is burned

58
 Maximize Jet Aircraft Range
Using Optimal Cruise-Climb
( )
! #$Vcruise C L C Do + " C L2 %&
=
(
2W ! #$C L C Do + " C L %&
1/2 2
)
=0
!C L 'S !C L

Optimal values: (see Supplemental Material)

C Do
C LMR = : Lift Coefficient for Maximum Range
3!
C Do 4
C DMR = C Do + = CD
3 3 o

Vcruise!climb = 2W ( t ) C LMR " ( h ) S = a ( h ) M cruise-climb

a ( h ) : Speed of sound; M cruise-climb : Mach number 59

Step-Climb Approximates Optimal

Cruise-Climb
!! Cruise-climb usually violates air trafc control rules
!! Constant-altitude cruise does not
!! Compromise: Step climb from one allowed altitude
to the next as fuel is burned

60
 !is"rical Fac"id
! Louis Breguet (1880-1955), aviation pioneer
! Gyroplane (1905), ew vertically in 1907
! Breguet Type 1 (1909), xed-wing aircraft
! Formed Compagnie des messageries
ariennes (1919), predecessor of Air France
! Breguet Aviation manufactured numerous
military and commericial aircraft until after
World War II; teamed with BAC in SEPECAT
! Merged with Dassault in 1971

Breguet Atlantique SEPECAT Jaguar

Breguet 14 Breguet 890 Mercure

61

Checklist!
"! Specic fuel consumption?!
"! Breguet equation?!
"! Constant altitude?!
"! Cruise-climb?!

62
 Next Time:!
Gliding, Climbing, and
Turning Flight!
Reading:!
Flight Dynamics !
Aerodynamic Coefcients, 130-141, 147-155!

Learning Objectives
Conditions for gliding ight
Parameters for maximizing climb angle and rate
Review the V-n diagram
Energy height and specic excess power
Alternative expressions for steady turning ight
The Herbst maneuver

63

#upplemental Ma$rial

64
 Back Side of
the Power

Achievable Airspeeds
Curve

in Propeller-Driven
Cruising Flight
Power = constant
Pavail = TavailV
PavailV 4 #W 2
V4 ! + =0
C Do " S C Do ( " S )2

Solutions for V cannot be put in quadratic form;

solution is more difcult, e.g., Ferrari


s method

aV 4 + ( 0 )V 3 + ( 0 )V 2 + dV + e = 0

Best bet: roots in MATLAB

65

P-51 Mustang
Minimum-Thrust
Example
Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m)
Wing Area = 235 ft 2 (21.83 m 2 )
Loaded Weight = 9,200 lb (3, 465 kg)
C Do = 0.0163
! = 0.0576
W / S = 39.3 lb / ft 2 (1555.7 N / m 2 )

Airspeed for minimum thrust

Air Density,

2 "W % ( 2 0.947 76.49 Altitude, m kg/m^3 VMT, m/s

VMT = $ ' = (1555.7) = m/s 0 1.23 69.11
! # S & C Do ! 0.0163 ! 2,500
5,000
0.96
0.74
78.20
89.15
10,000 0.41 118.87

66
 P-51 Mustang
Maximum L/D
Example
( C D )L / D = 2C Do = 0.0326
max

C Do
( C L )L / D = = C LMT = 0.531
max
!
Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m)
1
Wing Area = 235 ft (21.83 m 2 ) ( L / D )max = = 16.31
2 ! C Do
Loaded Weight = 9,200 lb (3, 465 kg)
76.49
C Do = 0.0163 VL / Dmax = VMT = m/s
!
! = 0.0576
W / S = 1555.7 N / m 2
Air Density,
Altitude, m kg/m^3 VMT, m/s
0 1.23 69.11
2,500 0.96 78.20
5,000 0.74 89.15
10,000 0.41 118.87
67

Breguet Range Equation for

Breguet 890 Mercure
Propeller-Driven Aircraft

Rate of change of range with respect to

weight of fuel burned
dr r! V V V "L% 1
= = =! =! = !$ '
dw w! (!cP P ) cPTV cP DV # D & cPW

Range traveled
Wf
R
# L &# 1 & dw
Range = R = ! dr = " ! % (% (
0 Wi $ D ' $ cP ' w

68
 Breguet Atlantique

Breguet Range Equation for

Propeller-Driven Aircraft
For constant true airspeed, V = Vcruise
" L %" 1 % Wf
R = ! $ '$ ' ln ( w ) W
# D & # cP & i

" C %" 1 % " W %

= $ L '$ ' ln $$ i ''
# C D & # cP & # W f &

Range is maximized when

! CL $
# & = maximum = L D ( )
" CD % max

69

P-51 Mustang
Maximum Range
(Internal Tanks only)

W = C Ltrim qS !C $ ! 1 $ !W $
R = # L & # & ln ## i &&
1 " C D %max " cP % " W f %
C Ltrim =
q
(W S )
! 1 $ ! 3, 465 + 600 $
2 # 2 e" h & = (16.31) # & ln # &
( ) " 0.0017 % " 3, 465 %
=
!V 2
W S = %$ ! V 2 (' (W S )
0
= 1,530 km ((825 nm )

70
 Maximize Jet Aircraft Range
Using Optimal Cruise-Climb
(
! #$Vcruise C L C Do + " C L2 %& )
=
(
2w ! #$C L C Do + " C L %&
1/2 2

=0
)
!C L 'S !C L

2w
= Constant; let C L1/2 = x, C L = x 2
!S

" $
&
x
)=
( o
) = o
(
' C D + # x 4 * x ( 4 # x 3 ) C D * 3# x 4 )
(
"x & C Do + # x 4
% ) )( (
C Do + # x 4
2
) (
C Do + # x 4
2
)
Optimal values:
C Do C Do 4
C LMR = : C DMR = C Do + = CD
3! 3 3 o 71