6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous: Basic Maintenance Training Manual

Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials and Hardware
Training Manual 6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous
6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous
Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.1 - 1
Aircraft Materials - Introduction have allowed us to build structural shapes that are superior to metals in strength,
weight, and rigidity.
The development of new space age materials for both aircraft structure and en- Modern aircraft are manufactured from many different types of materials. Those
gines has made the vast progress of aviation possible. The basic structure of most most commonly used are aluminium alloy, titanium alloy, Monel (a nickel alloy),
of the earliest flying machines were made of strips of spruce or bamboo, and the stainless steel, and chrome-molybdenum steel.
lifting surfaces were covered with cotton or linen cloth. After World War I, welded
steel tubing replaced the wooden truss used for the fuselage structure of most of Civilian aircraft are constructed primarily from heat-treated aluminium alloys, while
the new aeroplanes. And it was during the 1920s that formed plywood became military aircraft (fighters) are constructed primarily from titanium and stainless
used for the primary structure of some of the most streamlined and high-strength steel. It is to say that more and more primary structure parts are being made of
aircraft of the time. composites.
The technological developments made during World War II allowed the all-metal, Submodules 6.1 to 6.3 will consider the materials used in aeroplane construction,
stressed-skin, semi-monocoque structure to replace the fabric-covered truss and will look at some of the processes used to adapt these basic materials to air-
structure in the vast majority of aircraft. This technology was standard until the last craft use.
few decades when resins reinforced with various types of composite materials
Figure 1: Materials
Materials
Metallic Non-Metallic
Ferrous Non-Ferrous Plastics Ceramics Natural
Pure Alloy Pure Alloy PVC Porcelaine Rubber

Figure 2: Example of Material Usage in Airliner

Metals temperatures. A material is considered to be heat resistant if there is not an impor-

The basic classifications of metals for aircraft structure are ferrous and nonferrous. tant loss of strength up to a temperature of 600C.
A ferrous metal is one that contains iron, and in this classification are the various
types of steel. Nonferrous metals are classified into lightweight and heavy-
Elasticity
weight and include aluminium, magnesium, titanium, and monel. In aviation in- It is the capability of an object or material to be stretched and to recover its size
dustry, titanium with its alloys is considered the heaviest light weight metals (see and shape after its deformation.
Figure 5 on page 6). The flexibility of spring steel used for the construction of landing gear is a good ex-
As an aviation maintenance technician, you must possess a thorough knowledge ample of elasticity. Another form of elasticity is demonstrated when aircraft skins
of metals. However, before you can develop a complete understanding of metals expand and contract when an aircraft is pressurized.
used in the aviation industry, you must first become familiar with some of the prop- A metals elastic limit is the point beyond which the metal does not return to its orig-
erties metals have. inal shape after a deforming force is removed. Soft materials such as lead, copper,
and pure aluminium have very low elastic limits, while the elastic limit of hard
Properties Of Metals spring steel is very high.
A given metal can possess several properties. Among these are strength, hard-
Figure 3: Simplified Elasticity Layout
ness, malleability, ductility, brittleness, conductivity, expansion, elasticity, tough-
ness, fusibility, and density.
Hardness
The property of a material that enables it to resist penetration, wear or cutting ac-
tion.
Strength
The ability of a material to withstand forces which tend to deform the metal in any
direction, or the ability of a material to resist stress without breaking.
Considering the way a piece of material is loaded, the strength takes a different
name:
Tension Strength
Pressure Strength
Shearing Strength
Bend Strength
Tension Strength is the most important one, evaluating material(see Title Tensile
Strength Test on page 22) .
Thermal Strength
If metal is heated up during loading, it will turn ductile earlier than at ambient tem-
peratures. Because of this phenomenon is necessary to test metals at different

Plasticity Toughness
The property of a metal which allows it to be reshaped. When a force acts on a The property of a metal which allows it to be deformed without breaking. Breaking
lattice structure, the atoms in it will begin to slide from each other. If there is change when it is bent or stretched. Hammer faces and wrenches are examples of metal
in the form of the piece of material, without cracks, when the force stops to act, are that must be tough as well as hard to be useful.
we speaking about plasticity.
Brittleness
Figure 4: Simplified Plasticity Layout The property of a metal to break when, deformed, or hammered. It is the opposite
of ductility and malleability. A brittle metal is more apt to break or crack before it
changes shape. Because structural metals are often subjected to shock loads,
brittleness is not a desirable property. Cast iron, cast aluminium, and very hard
steel are examples of brittle metals.
Slip Plane Conductivity
The characteristic of a material which makes it possible for it to transmit heat or
electrical conduction.
Metals that can carry heat also carry electrons, making them good electrical con-
ductors. Electrical conductivity is the measure of a materials ability to allow elec-
tron flow. A metal conductor can be a wire, an aircraft frame, or an engine.
Ductility Electrons flow much easier in some metals than they do in others, because of their
The property which allows metal to be drawn into thinner sections without break- molecular structures. The best electrical conductors are gold, silver, copper, and
ing. Ductile metals are preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of forming aluminium.
and resistance to failure under shock loads. For this reason, aluminium alloys are
often used for cowlings, fuselage and wing skins, and formed or extruded parts Durability
such as ribs, spars, and bulkheads. The property of metal that enables it to withstand force over a period of time.
Durability properties are important considering fatigue of metal.
Malleability
That characteristic of material that allows it to be stretched or shaped by beating Density
with the hammer or passing through rollers without breaking. Hardness and mal- Density is actually the mass-per-unit volume of a material, and throughout the dis-
leability are generally considered opposite characteristics. To help increase mal- cussion of metals we use the density of a material to compare weight.
leability, several metals are annealed, or softened (see Title Annealing on
page 16) . The density of some of the more commonly used metals is shown in the table be-
low.
In this condition complex shapes can be formed. After forming is complete, the
metal is then heat treated to increase its strength. A metal may be fully annealed
when the forming is started, but hammering and shaping can harden it to such an
extent that it must be re-annealed before forming is completed.

Figure 5: Metal Classification Considering Density

Ferrous Metals
Any metal that contains iron as its principal constituent is called a ferrous metal. In
aircraft structure we are chiefly concerned with steel, which is iron with a controlled
amount of carbon added.
Figure 6: Example of Steel Usage for Airliner
Most of screwings and hinged joinings

Steel Manufacturing
Iron
Iron is, in its pure form, a fairly soft, malleable, and ductile metal that is easy to form
or shape. It is silvery white in colour and is quite heavy, having a density of 7.9g/
cm3. Iron easily combines with oxygen to form iron oxide, which is more commonly
known as rust.
Cast iron is seldom used in aircraft construction because of its low strength-to-
weight ratio.
When the iron is removed from the furnace, after it has been taken out of ore, it is
in a form known as pig iron. It may be re-melted and cast into cast-iron compo-
nents, or it may be taken to some of the steel-making furnaces, or converters, to
convert the iron into steel.
Unalloyed And Low-Alloyed Steels

Pig iron from the blast furnace is re-melted in a special furnace where oxygen is
forced through the molten metal so that oxygen can unite with the carbon and burn
it out. When the carbon is burned out, a controlled amount of carbon is put back
in, along with other elements that are needed to get the particular characteristics
we want from steel.
High Alloyed Steels

If a steel alloy contains more than 5% of an alloying agent, it is considered as a
high alloyed steel.
High alloyed is the kind of steel we use in aircraft construction. It is made in electric
furnaces, which allow much better control of the alloying agents than the gas fired
furnaces.

Alloy Steels Standards SAE Classification of Steels

Most of the steel used in aircraft structure is classified according to the SAE four-
There are different standards, used for civil aviation steel clasification. The most
applied ones are listed below: digit numbering system that identifies its composition.
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) Figure 7: SAE Notation
AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute)
AMS (Aerospace Material Specification)
This standard does not give information about material components. Be- 1. Basic alloying element
cause it includes many different material it is often used as a material or- 1 = Carbon (C) only
dering system
BS (British Standard)
2 = Nickel (Ni)
3 = Ni + Chromium (Cr)
SAE 4130
AFNOR-Air ("Association Francaise de Normalisation") 4 = Molybdenum (Mo)
BMS (Boeing Material Specification) 5 = Chromium (Cr)
6 = Vanadium (V) + Chromium (Cr)
7 = Tungsten (Tg) 1 2 3
8 = Ni + Cr + Mo
9 = Silicon (Si) + Mangan (Mn)
2. Percentage of the basic element in the alloy
3. Percentage of carbon in the alloy in hundredths of a percent
For example, SAE 4130 steel is a Molybdenum steel that contains approx. 1% Mo
and 0.30% carbon. Some of the most commonly used SAE steels are:
1xxx Carbon steel:

Steels containing between 0.10% and 0.30% carbon (SAE 1010 and 1030)
are classed as low-carbon steels and are used for making safety wire and cer-
tain secondary structural parts where strength is not critical.This low carbon
steel does not have sufficient strength for aircraft structural applications, and
its use is limited to secondary structure where the loads are not high. Steels
containing between 0.30% and 0.50% carbon (SAE 1030 and 1050) are me-
dium-carbon steels and are used for machined and forged parts, especially
where surface hardening is needed. Steel containing between 0.50% and
1.05% carbon (SAE 1050 and 1105) are high-carbon steel and are used
where extreme hardness is required. Springs are made of high-carbon steel.

2xxx Nickel steel: AISI Classification of Steels

Between 3% and 3.75% nickel may be alloyed with carbon steel to increase This Standard is used, in aviation, to classify corrosion resistant steels.
its hardness, tensile strength, and elastic limit without appreciably decreasing
its ductility. SAE 2330 steel is used for aircraft bolts, cable terminals, keys, Figure 8: AISI Notation
clevises, and pins.
3xxx Nickel-chromium steel:

Nickel gives toughness to steel, and chromium hardens it. Nickel chromium
AISI 403
steels such as SAE 3130 and 3250 are used for forged and machined parts
where high strength, ductility, toughness, and shock resistance are needed. The AISI notation does not describes the alloy components.
4xxx Chrome-molybdenum steel: Table 1: Identification for Heat and Corrosion Resistant Steels
Most aircraft structural steel is a chrome-molybdenum alloy that combines
toughness and high strength with ease of welding and machining. AISI 2XX Chromium-nickel-manganese (non-hardenable, austenitic,
nonmagnetic).
SAE 4130 is one of the most popular alloys, and it is used extensively for
welded steel structure such as fuselage frames, landing gear, and engine AISI 3XX Chromium-nickel (non-hardenable, austenitic, nonmagnetic).
mounts. Engine cylinders and other highly stressed parts are often made of
SAE 4130 steel. AISI 4XX Chromium. (hardenable, martensitic and ferritic, magnetic).
Heat-treated SAE 4130 steel has an ultimate tensile strength of about four AISI 5XX Chromium (low chromium, heat resisting).
times that of SAE 1025 steel, which makes it an ideal choice for landing gear
structures and engine mounts.
Sometimes it is posible to find one or more letters close to the AISI number, de-
6xxx Chrome-vanadium steel: scribing the following caracteristics:
Chrome-vanadium steels are used extensively for wrenches and other hand
tools where extremely high strength and toughness are essential. Table 2: Letter Code
L Low Carbon C High carbon
N Nitrogen B Lower carbon than C
Se Selenium A Lower carbon than B
Ti Titanium F Free machining
Cb Columbium
For more information about stainless steel (see Title Corrosion-Resistant (Stain-
less) Steel on page 13) .

Alloying Agents Nickel

Nickel adds strength and hardness to steel and increases its yield strength. And
Carbon nickel, used as an alloy, slows the critical rate of hardening when the steel is heat-
Carbon is the most important element found in steel, mixing with the iron to form treated. This increases the depth of hardening and produces a finer grain struc-
compounds of iron carbides called cementite. It is the carbon in the steel that al- ture. Nickel also reduces the tendency of steel to warp and scale when it is heat-
lows it to be heat-treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength, and treated. Nickel is one of the chief ingredients in corrosion resistant, or stainless
toughness. steel.
The greater the carbon content, the better the ability to heat treat and therefore the
higher the tensile strength and the hardness. However, increasing the carbon con- Chromium
tent decreases the malleability and the weldability of the steel. This hard high-melting point element is alloyed with steel to increase its strength
A high carbon content, up to about 0.953%, may be used where extreme hardness and wear resistance, as well as its resistance to corrosion. It also gives steel a
is needed and malleability is not of primary concern. High-carbon steel is used in good measure of hardness. Chromium is usually used in conjunction with other el-
the manufacture of cutting tools and springs. ements, such as molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium, to give steel the special
qualities that are needed in aircraft structure.
Low-carbon steel that contains about 0.203 carbon is used where a great deal of
forming or deep drawing is needed, and where strength is of minor concern. Chrome-vanadium alloy is used when extremely tough steel is needed for applica-
tions such as wrenches and ball bearings.
Medium-carbon steel, one having between 0.253 and 0.503 carbon, is used for ap-
plications where both strength and ductility, or form ability, are required. Chrome-molybdenum steel has the strength, toughness and lightweight needed to
make it the primary steel for aircraft structure and for high-strength engine compo-
Manganese nents such as cylinders.
Manganese is alloyed with steel to eliminate some of the oxides and the sulphur Nickel-chrome steel is the primary alloy used in the manufacture of aircraft hard-
from the steel, making it a clean, tough, and uniform metal. Manganese also im- ware, and because of its strength and hardness at elevated temperatures, tung-
proves the forging characteristics of the steel by making it less brittle at the rolling sten-chrome steel is used for high-speed cutting tools.
and forging temperatures. In addition to its important function as an alloying element in the manufacture of
steel, chromium may be electrolytically deposited on cylinder walls and bearing
Silicon journals to provide a hard, wear-resistant surface.
When this non-metallic element is alloyed with steel, it acts as a hardener. When
it is used in small quantities, it also improves the ductility of the steel. Molybdenum
One of the most widely used alloying elements for aircraft structural steel is mo-
Phosphorous lybdenum. It reduces the grain size of the steel and increases both its impact
strength and its elastic limit. Molybdenum steels have some of the best wear re-
This element raises the yield strength of steel, which improves the resistance of
sistance and fatigue strength of any of the alloys. This accounts for their popularity
low-carbon steel to atmospheric corrosion. No more than 0.05% phosphorous is
normally used in steel, as more of it will cause the metal to become brittle when it for high strength structural members and for engine cylinder barrels.
is cold. Chrome-molybdenum steel responds very well to heat treatment, machines easily,
and is readily welded.

Vanadium
When extremely high strength is required of steel along with toughness and good
ductility, chrome-vanadium steel is used. Vanadium used in amounts up to about
0.20% improves the grain structure and increases both the ultimate tensile
strength and the toughness. Most wrenches are made of chrome-vanadium steel.
Tungsten
Tungsten, which has an extremely high melting point, brings some of this charac-
teristic into the steels with which it is alloyed. Tungsten alloys are used for breaker
contacts in magnetos and for cutting tools. Tungsten steels retain their hardness
even when operated red-hot.

Corrosion-Resistant (Stainless) Steel The development of stainless steel has made possible many of the outstanding
advances in aircraft, gas-turbine engines, and rockets.
Since the 1940s the term stainless steel, also designated corrosion resistant steel The most important characteristics of stainless steels are corrosion resistance,
(CRES), has become a household word because of its many applications in con- strength, toughness, and resistance to high temperatures. Stainless steels can be
sumer items as well as in aircraft applications, for example fire walls. divided into three general groups based on their structures: austenitic, ferritic, mar-
tensitic and Precipitation hardenable.
Table 3: Type of CRES
Ferritic Martensitic Austenitic Precipitation Hardenable
Not used in Aviation Limited use: Chromium-Nickel: (AISI Notation) Martensitic:

Engine parts exposed to high temperature Hydraulic syst. tubing Rod
Semi Austenitic:
Parts of high strenght High stressed plate parts
Chromium-Nickel-Manganese:
Austenitic:
Hydraulic syst. tubing creeping resistant parts
Austenitic The most widely used stainless steels for general use are those in the 300 series,
The austenitic steels are chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni) and chromium-nickel-manga- called 18-8 because they contain approximately 18 percent chromium and 8 per-
nese alloys. They can be hardened only by cold working, and heat treatment cent nickel. Typical of these types are 301, 302, 321 and 347.
serves only to anneal them. They are nonmagnetic in the annealed condition, al-
though some may be slightly magnetic after cold working.
Precipitation Hardenable
The increase of flight speed increased friction with the air and grater heat is devel-
Steels are formed by heating the steel mixture above the critical range and holding
oped. Therefore, the need arose for materials that have good corrosion resistance
to form a structure called austenite. A controlled period of partial cooling is allowed and great strenght at room temperature and at moderately high temperatures to
followed by a rapid quench just above the critical range.
approximately 400C (675K). This led to development of this kind of Steel. They
This kind of CRES is of wide use in aviation. are alloyed with elements such as copper and aluminium. These elements make
precipitation hardening possible.
Ferritic
Ferritic steel contains no carbon; they do not respond to heat treatment. They con- Handling Peculiarities of CRES
tain a substantial amount of chromium and many have a small amount of alumin- Although stainless steels have many advantages, there are certain disadvantages
ium. They are always magnetic. It is to mention that this kind of CRES is not used that must be faced by the fabricator and designer:
in aviation
Stainless steels are more difficult to cut and form than many materials.
Martensitic Stainless steels have a much greater expansion coefficient than other steels, and
Martensitic steels are straight chromium alloy that harden intensely if they are al- they conduct heat at a lower rate; this makes welding more difficult.
lowed to cool rapidly from high temperatures. They differ from the two preceding
groups because they can be hardened by heat treatment.

Many of the stainless steels lose their corrosion resistance under high tempera-
tures.
In the use of corrosion resistant steels for aircraft, the technician must assure that
the proper type is selected for the part of the aircraft involved.
In most cases a damaged part can be replaced by a factory-made part identified
by the part number; however, there are situations where it is preferable to repair a
part by patching or welding. In these cases, the correct type of corrosion-resistant
steel (CRES) must be chosen.
In welding CRES, inert-gas arc welding is preferred, because this process causes
less deformation due to heat expansion of the metal and it prevents oxidisation.
The expansion of stainless steel due to temperature increases may be more than
twice that of ordinary carbon steels.
Because of its toughness, stainless steel is more difficult to cut, form, shear, ma-
chine, or drill than ordinary steel. For this reason the technician who is to work with
this material successfully must be experienced in the necessary processes or
must be directed by an experienced technician.

Heat Treatment of Steel the carbon particles will be extremely fine and will effectively bind the molecular
structure of the steel together, making it hard and strong.
When steel is heated its temperature increases steadily until it is momentarily The critical temperature and the ultimate strength steel will develop, will vary with
checked at the critical point. At this point the metal absorbs heat and changes oc- the alloying agents, but the most important factor is the amount of carbon.
cur in the structure of the metal , without temperature rise. After this period has
passed the temperature continues to rise as before. Low-carbon steel will not heat-treat satisfactorily because of the small amount of
carbon, but as the amount of carbon is increased, the steel gains the ability to be
If steels having different carbon contents are heated in this way and the critical hardened and strengthened by heat treatment. This occurs up to about 0.80% car-
points plotted on a graph, and if all these points are joined an Iron/Carbon Equilib- bon.
rium Diagram is produced (see Figure 10 on page 17)
Beyond this, the hardness does not increase, but its wear resistance improves with
Most of the heat treatment that are carried out on carbon steels relate to the tem- an increase in the amount of carbon.
peratures on the Iron/Carbon equilibrium Diagram
Iron is an allotropic metal, which means that it can exist in more than one type of
lattice structure, depending on the temperature. Molten pure iron will begin to so-
lidify at 1536C. The structure at this point is known as the (delta) form. If cooling
continues to 1392C the atoms will rearrange themselves into the (gamma)
austenitic form. Strangely enough iron in this form is nonmagnetic.
When the nonmagnetic austenitic gamma iron is cooled to 911C another change
occurs. The iron is transformed into a nonmagnetic form of the (alpha) ferritic
structure. If cooling continues to 769C the material becomes magnetic with no fur-
ther change in the lattice structure.
Steel (iron + carbon) exists in two basic forms that are of interest in our consider-
ation of heat treatment. Ferrite is alpha solid solution of iron into which some car-
bon has dissolved. It exists at temperatures below the lower critical temperature.
Above this lower critical temperature, the steel begins to turn into austenite, which
consists of austeniticgamma iron into which carbon has been dissolved. As the
temperature is increased, this transformation of ferrite into austenite continues un-
til the upper critical temperature is reached. Above the upper critical temperature,
the entire structure consists of austenite.
Below its lower critical temperature the carbon, which exists in the steel in the form
of cementite (iron carbides Fe3C), is scattered throughout the iron matrix, or its
molecular structure, as a physical mixture.
When the steel is heated to its upper critical temperature, this carbon dissolves
into the matrix and becomes a solid solution, rather than a physical mixture. The
steel has now become austenite, and the iron is in its gamma form.
When the temperature of the steel drops below this critical value, the carbide par-
ticles precipitate out of the solution. If the steel is cooled slowly, the particles will
be quite large and the steel will be soft, but if it is cooled very rapidly by quenching,

Figure 9: Relationship of Temperature and C-content of Steel Annealing

If steel is heated to about 10C above its critical temperature, and is held there until
1600 the carbon goes into solid solution with the matrix, and is then allowed to cool very
slowly, the carbon that precipitates out will be in large particles that do not bind the
1536 matrix tightly.
1500
The steel will be soft and ductile and may be easily formed, or worked. The tem-
peratures and cooling rates vary with the alloy, but for annealing they are normally
1300
above 871C. The steel may be cooled by leaving it in the furnace but shutting off
the heat so it will cool slowly, or by packing the steel in hot sand or ashes to insu-
late it so the beat will be conducted away slowly.
1200
Normalising
Steel that has been forged, welded, or machined usually has stresses left within
1100 the structure that could cause failure, so these stresses must be relieved by a
Austenite
ur
e process known as normalising.
t
ra The steel is heated to about 40C above its upper critical temperature and held un-
pe
Temperature (C)
1000 m
Te til this temperature is uniform throughout. Then it is removed from the furnace and
ic al allowed to cool in still air. The particles of carbon that precipitate out are not as
rit
911
900 er
C large as those formed when the steel is annealed, but the molecular stresses are
p relieved.
Up Austentite +
Cementite
800 Hardening
Austentite
+ Ferrite If the steel is to be hardened, it is heated above its critical temperature so the car-
Lower Critical Temperature
723 bon can enter into a uniform solution with the iron matrix, and is then cooled rapidly
700 by quenching it in water, oil, or brine. The speed of the quench is determined by
the quenching medium. Oil provides the slowest quench, and brine the most rapid.
If the quench is quick enough, insufficient time is allowed for the carbon to precip-
Perlite
Ferrite + Perlite +
600 Perlite Grainboundary itate out, and it becomes trapped in the solution. The resultant structure is known
Cementite
as martensite, and is a supersaturated solid solution of carbon in an iron matrix.
500 Although martensite is the hardest possible structure, it is not the desired result of
heat-treating. Martensite is far too hard and brittle for most applications, and the
final product must be obtained by tempering.
0 1 2
0.8
Carbon Content (%)
2.06
Tempering
The hardened steel may be tempered, or have some of the hardness drawn out,
Iron Steel Cast Iron by heating it to a temperature considerably below its critical temperature and hold-

ing it there until it has reached this temperature throughout. It is then allowed to ground to the proper dimensions. It is then placed in a special retort and heated to
cool to room temperature in still air. a temperature of approximately 538C, and is surrounded by ammonia gas
Tempering not only reduces hardness, it will also relieve stress and improve the (CNH3).
ductility and toughness of the steel. The high temperature breaks the ammonia down into nitrogen and hydrogen. The
nitrogen reacts with the steel and with any of the nitride formers in the steel such
Case Hardening as aluminium, chromium, molybdenum, or vanadium, to form the appropriate ni-
Wearing surfaces in aircraft engines and landing gear systems are often hard- trides.
ened, while the core of the material is allowed to remain soft and tough. There are The nitrided surface is extremely thin, with its thickness depending on the length
two ways this is done. of time it is exposed to the ammonia gas. The hardness of the surface gradually
decreases with depth until it reaches that of the core.
The first is a process known as carburizing, in which controlled amounts of carbon
are added to the surface of low-carbon steel. Aircraft engine crankshafts and cylinder walls are commonly nitrided for increased
Nitriding is the other means of case hardening, and the hard surface is produced wear resistance. But these surfaces have one serious problem: they are highly
susceptible to pitting corrosion and must be protected from the air with a coating
in this process by converting the surface of the metal into an extremely hard alu-
of oil.
minium nitride.
Figure 10: Heat Treatment Temperatures of Steel
Carburizing
There are three methods that can be used to increase the carbon content of the
surface of a low-carbon steel. ure
mp erat
Pack carburizing is done by enclosing the part in a fire-clay container and packing l Te
911 Cr iti c a
it with a carbon-rich material such as charcoal. The container is sealed and placed 900 p er
in a furnace where it is heated to 927C. Carbon monoxide gas forms from the Up
heated charcoal, and since it cannot escape, its carbon combines with the gamma
iron in the surface of the steel. The depth to which this carbon penetrates depends 800
upon the soaking time.
Hardening / Normalising
Annealing Lower Critical
Gas carburizing is similar to pack carburising, except that the carbon monoxide is 723
Temperature
produced by a gas rather than a solid material. In this process, as with pack car- 700
Tempering
Temperature (C)
burising, the carbon from carbon monoxide combines with the gamma iron and
forms a high-carbon surface.
600
Liquid carburising produces the high-carbon surface when the part is heated in a
molten bath of sodium cyanide or barium cyanide, which supplies the needed car-
bon. 500
Any portion of the part that should not be case hardened may be copper-plated.
The carbon will not infuse into the copper-plated surface.
0 1 2
Nitriding Carbon Content (%)
Nitriding differs from carburising in that the part to be hardened is first heat-treated
to give it the characteristics we want that is, it is hardened, tempered, and then

Determining the Temperature of Steel Orange 950

If we need to heat-treat steel and do not have a pyrometer to measure its temper-
ature, we can make a reasonable estimate of its temperature by observing its col- Yellow red 1000
our.
Lemon or yellow 1100
In table below, we see the relationship between the colour of steel and its temper-
ature. For example, if we want to anneal a piece of chrome-molybdenum steel Light yellow 1200
(SAE 4130), we look up its annealing temperatures in the table below and see that
it is between 829C and 857C. Dazzling or white 1288
In the table below find that steel has a temperature of 850C when it is heated to
a bright red. To harden this same steel, we would heat until it is not quite so bright
as it was for annealing, and then quench it in oil.
When steel is hardened it becomes extremely brittle, and we can temper or draw
it to relieve some of this hardness and brittleness. We first polish a part of the steel
so we can see its bright, shiny metal surface. We then heat the part and watch this
area to see the way the oxides that form change colour.
The first oxide to form is a pale yellow, then the oxides progress through brown
into the blues. When the oxide on SAE 4130 steel is between a bright and a pale
blue, the heat should be removed and the steel allowed to cool in still air. This will
temper it to a tensile strength of around 1380N/mm2.
Table 4: Relationship between Steel Color and Temperature
Colour of Steel Temperature of

Steel (C)
Faint red 482
Dark brown 550
Terra-cotta 630
Dark red 680

Cherry or full red 780
Light cherry or bright red 850
salmon or well light red 900

Tempering Small Tools

We find a practical example of tempering steel when we make screwdriver blades,
chisels, or punches, from tool-steel rod. See the table below.
This steel has a high carbon content and is usually obtainable in its normalised
condition. After we have shaped the tool, we heat it to a cherry red colour and
quench it in oil. Then we polish a portion and re-heat it until the proper oxide colour
appears. When we quench the steel again, it should have the proper hardness.
Table 5: Annealing Colour Chart of Tool Steel Oxides
Colour of Oxide Carbon Steel Example of Small
Temperatures (C) Tool Tempering
Pale yellow 220 Scribe or hammer face

Straw 230
Golden yellow 243 Center punch
Brown 255 Cold chisel or drift

Brown dappled w/purple 265
Purple 277 Screwdriver
Dark blue 288
Bright blue 297
Pale blue 321

Testing of Ferrous Materials etrator and a 100kg major load, and the C-scale for hard metals, which uses the
conical diamond penetrator and a 150kg major load.
Relationship between Hardness and Strength
As it is described in the section on the heat treatment of steel, the smaller the car-
The Vickers Hardness System
bon particles that are in solution with the matrix of the steel, the harder and strong- Standard method for measuring the hardness of metals, particularly those with ex-
er the steel will be. It is because of this fact that there is a definite relationship tremely hard surfaces: the surface is subjected to a standard pressure, which de-
between strength and hardness of steel. This relationship does not necessarily ex- pends on the material, for a standard length of time by means of a pyramid-shaped
ist, however, with metals other than steel. diamond. The diagonal of the resulting indention is measured under a microscope
and the Vickers hardness value read from a conversion table.
There are two systems of measuring the hardness of steel that we find commonly
used in shops where steel is heat-treated: the Brinell and the Rockwell systems. This method leves only a small impression on the tested material surface. It can
be used for every sort of metal and it is preferred for testing of thin walled parts.
The Brinell Hardness System
The Brinell hardness tester uses a hydraulic force to impress a spherical penetra-
tor into the surface of the metal being tested. An extremely hard 10mm diameter
ball is forced down onto the surface of the metal by a 3,000kg force for steel, or a
500kg force for non-ferrous metals. A hand pump on the tester hydraulically ap-
plies this force, and the amount of the force is read on the pressure gage.
When the metal is removed from the tester, the diameter of the impression is
measured with a special calibrated microscope. This diameter is converted into a
Brinell number by using the chart furnished with the tester.
The Rockwell Hardness System

The Rockwell hardness tester gives us the same information the Brinell tester
gives, except that it measures the depth to which the penetrator sinks into the ma-
terial rather than the diameter of the impression.
The material to be tested is thoroughly cleaned, the two opposite surfaces are
ground flat and parallel, and all scratches are polished out of them. It is then placed
on the anvil of the tester and is raised up against the penetrator.
A 10kg load, called the minor load, is applied and the machine is zeroed. A major
load is then applied and the dial on the tester indicates the depth the penetrator
sinks into the metal. Instead of indicating the depth of penetration in thousandths
of an inch, it indicates in Rockwell numbers.
There are three types of penetrators:
a conical diamond, a 1/16-inch ball and a 1/8-inch ball.
There are also three major loads: 60kg, 100kg, and 150kg. The two most common-
ly used Rockwell scales are the B-scale for soft metals, which uses a 1/16 ball pen-

Figure 11: Hardness Tester
Table 6: Conversion of Different Hardness System Values
HB HV HRC Material Strength

Brinell Vickers Rockwell Rm=N/mm2 Display
64 67 - Al 99.5% 110
105 110 -
133 140 - AA 2024 440
143 150 -
190 200 -
238 250 22.2 TiAl5Sn2 814
285 300 29.8
342 360 36.6 Waspaloy 1120
361 380 38.8 Incoloy 901 1050
437 460 46.1
- 550 52.3
- 650 57.8 AISI 4130 1450
- 800 64
- 940 68
- 1500 ~ 80 Ceramic insert

- 10000 ~ 100 Diamante
Universal Hardness Tester

Rockwell Hardness Tester

Tensile Strength Test Figure 13: Extension/Compression Test Workstation
In this test the material is placed in a machine and pulled until it breaks. To ensure
uniformity, test-piece dimensions are specified in standards for tensile testing.
The figure below shows a typical test piece, and it will be seen that a section is of
reduced diameter, so that the extension and the breakage will occur along that part
of the test-piece. The extension of a length called the gauge length is studied dur-
ing the test. The points that indicate the ends of the gauge length are called the
gauge points. In a routine test, these points are marked by centre punch, but, if a
more detailed test is to be carried out, the extension is measured by an instrument
called an extensometer, which produces the gauge points when it is attached to
the test-piece.
There is a fixed relationship between the gauge length and the cross sectional
area of the test-piece at the reduced diameter. If the material is ductile, it will de-
velop a 'neck' or 'waist', as shown in the figure below; but if it is brittle, it will break
before local extension occurs.
The Tensile Strength

This is defined as the maximum force taken by the test-piece, divided by the orig-
inal area. This value is used to compare the strength of materials, but a safety fac-
tor is applied when making design calculations, to bring the working stress well be
low the limit of proportionality.
Figure 12: Specimen

Fatigue Strength Test Sheet & Plate Bending (Flexural Fatigue)

Procedure: A test stress is selected and converted to a bending moment for the
Fatigue failure is caused by repeated stress cycles, such as reversal or alternating
stresses (reversal of direction of bending or torsion, or alternating compressive particular specimen configuration. The constant- stress tapered specimen is rigidly
clamped at its wide end to the vise or bending moment load cell; the narrow end
and tensile stresses), fluctuating stresses (variation of intensity of stresses), and
is attached to the stroking portion of the machine. Machine stroke is adjusted to
repeated stresses (application and removal of stresses).
yield the desired peak-to-peak load. The mean load is achieved by adjusting the
This form of failure is encountered very frequently in engineering, and, although position of the vise which retains the specimen or load cell. As the machine speed
much publicity has been given to the fatigue of aircraft structures, this form of fail- is adjusted, the cycle counter records the number of test cycles. Fracture of the
ure is very common in more ordinary circumstances; motor-car half shafts, crown specimen automatically terminates the test. The number of test cycles is recorded
wheel and pinion assemblies, and pedal-cycle crank spindles are susceptible to and plotted.
fatigue failure.
When the fatigue resistance of a material is to be determined, a number of Figure 14: Sheet Bending Machine
test-pieces is prepared and tested. The number of stress cycles that produce fail-
ure is recorded. The first test is carried out with a high maximum stress, and each
subsequent test employs a lower maximum stress.
The object of the series of tests is to determine the highest maximum stress that
will permit a given 'life' in terms of stress cycles; alternatively, the fatigue limit may
be required. (The fatigue limit is the highest maximum stress that will permit the
material to undergo an 'infinite' number of stress cycles before failure).
If fatigue conditions are present, the material will fail at a stress that is much lower
than that associated with a static force. The fatigue strength of a material is be-
tween 0.35 and 0.65 of the tensile strength, depending upon composition; but the
fatigue strength of a component is reduced by poor finish, sharp corners, and cor-
rosion.
Specimen

Tension/Compression (Direct Stress) Figure 15: Rotating Beam Fatigue Machine

Procedure and Results: The specimen is mounted in an appropriate set of grips
installed on the load cell and loading stud. The cyclic load and mean load are de-
termined from known yield strength data. The mean load is applied with the load
screw adjustment and locked in place. A trial stroke is chosen and the crank is ad-
justed to that value. Once the required loads are locked in, the machine is brought
up to the desired speed and the counter is reset. Completion of the test is deter-
mined by specimen fracture which actuates the cutoff switch, or the test may be
stopped by means of the predetermined counter. Recording the digital readout of
test cycles applied at the selected load completes the procedure for one data
point.
The equipment used for tensile strength testing is normally usable for this kind of
test (see Figure 13: Extension/Compression Test Workstation on page 22) .
Rotating Beam (High Speed Bending)

Procedure: The test stress is determined by selecting a percentage (%) of the ten-
sile strength of the test material and converting that value into a bending moment.
After the specimen is mounted into the machine collets, the speed control is ad-
justed to bring the machine up to the desired speed; the poise weight is then po-
sitioned on the calibrated beam to the bending moment previously calculated and
locked into place. When the specimen fractures, the machine automatically stops
and the number is recorded from the cycle counter.
Specimen

Impact Resistance Test velocities and impact energies could be achieved with vertical style drop towers
and thus the trend began to shift. Pendulum Machines remained popular with
During the first part of this century a metallurgist named Izod invented an impact- those testing to Izod and Charpy while more high speed, product oriented impact
test for determining the suitability of various metals to be used as cutting tools. The applications became the dominion of the drop tower. Within the last two decades,
test involved a pendulum with a known weight at the end of its arm swinging down advances in strain gage technology, data acquisition & computers have allowed
and striking the specimen as it stood clamped in a vertical position. impact test results to become quantitative.
Some years later another metallurgist named Charpy modified the test slightly by As we enter the 21st century, many companies are increasingly turning to drop
orienting the specimen in a horizontal fashion. weight testing to conduct traditional Charpy & Izod tests. It allows the user to use
These test methods proved to be very useful, providing reliable, qualitative impact one impact test system to not only test Charpy & Izod specimens, but also test
data throughout WWII up until the early 70s. It then became apparent that higher components and flat specimens.
Figure 16: Impact Resistance Test Equipment
Charpy
IZOD
Standard Specimen
Drop Weight Machine



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Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials and Hardware

Training Manual 6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous

6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Ferrous Non-Ferrous Plastics Ceramics Natural

Pure Alloy Pure Alloy PVC Porcelaine Rubber

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Figure 2: Example of Material Usage in Airliner

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Metals temperatures. A material is considered to be heat resistant if there is not an impor-

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Figure 5: Metal Classification Considering Density

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Most of screwings and hinged joinings

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Unalloyed And Low-Alloyed Steels

High Alloyed Steels

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Alloy Steels Standards SAE Classification of Steels

1xxx Carbon steel:

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

2xxx Nickel steel: AISI Classification of Steels

3xxx Nickel-chromium steel:

L Low Carbon C High carbon

N Nitrogen B Lower carbon than C

Se Selenium A Lower carbon than B

Ti Titanium F Free machining

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Alloying Agents Nickel

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Table 3: Type of CRES

Ferritic Martensitic Austenitic Precipitation Hardenable

Not used in Aviation Limited use: Chromium-Nickel: (AISI Notation) Martensitic:

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Figure 9: Relationship of Temperature and C-content of Steel Annealing

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Determining the Temperature of Steel Orange 950

Colour of Steel Temperature of

Faint red 482

Dark brown 550

Dark red 680

Light cherry or bright red 850

salmon or well light red 900

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Tempering Small Tools

Pale yellow 220 Scribe or hammer face

Golden yellow 243 Center punch

Brown 255 Cold chisel or drift

Purple 277 Screwdriver

Dark blue 288

Bright blue 297

Pale blue 321

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

The Rockwell Hardness System

Feb02/ju,all Corresponding with JAR 66

Figure 11: Hardness Tester

Table 6: Conversion of Different Hardness System Values

HB HV HRC Material Strength