Types of forces acting on a propeller:

Centrifugal force: the greatest force that is exerted on a propeller is none as the centrifugal force. It is the
force, which tries to pull the blades out of the hub. The amount of stress created by
centrifugal force may be more than 7,500 times the weight of the propeller blade

Figure 1: Centrifugal force

Thrust bending force: Thrust-bending force pushes the propeller blades forward at the tips. Because the lift
toward the tip of the blade flexes the thin blade sections forward. Thrust bending force
reduced centrifugal force to some degree.

Figure 2: Thrust bending forces try to bend the propeller blade

Torque bending force: Torque bending forces try to bend the propeller blade back in the direction opposite
the direction of rotation.

Figure 3: Torque bending forces

Aerodynamic twisting moment:

Aerodynamic twisting moment tries to twist a blade to higher angle. This force is
produced because the axis of rotation of the blade is at the midpoint of the chord line,
while the center of the lift of the blade is forward of this axis. This force tries to increase
the blade angle. Aerodynamic twisting moment is used in some designs to help feather
the propeller (Figure 1.16).

Figure 1.16: The aerodynamic twisting moment tries to increase the blade angle

Centrifugal twisting moment:

Centrifugal-twisting moment tries to decrease the blade angle, and opposes

aerodynamic twisting moment. This tendency to decrease the blade angle is produced
since all the parts of a rotating propeller try to move in the same plane of rotation as the
blade center line. This force is greater than the aerodynamic twisting moment at
operational RPM and is used in some designs to decrease the blade angle.

Figure 1.17: The centrifugal twisting moment tries to decrease the blade angle

Vibrational force, critical range and resonance:

When a propeller produces thrust, aerodynamic and mechanical forces are present
which cause the blade to vibrate. If this is not compensated for in the design, this
vibration may cause excessive flexing and work-hardening of the metal and may even
result in sections of the propeller blade breaking off in flight.

Aerodynamic forces cause vibrations at the tip of a blade where the effects of transonic
speeds cause buffeting and vibration.

Mechanical vibrations are caused by the power pulses in a piston engine and are
considered to be more destructive in their effect than aerodynamic vibration. These
power pulses cause a propeller blade to vibrate and set up standing wave patterns that
cause metal fatigue and failure. The location and number of stress points change with
 different RPM settings, but the most critical location for these stress concentrations is
about six inches in from the tip of the blades.

Most airframe-engine-propeller combinations have eliminated the detrimental effects of

these combinations which are sensitive to certain RPMs and this critical range is
indicated on the tachometer by a red arc. The engine should not be operated in the
critical range except as necessary to pass through it to set a higher or lower RPM. If the
engine is operated in the critical range, there is a possibility of structural failure in the
aircraft because of the vibration stresses set up. At the critical range, vibrations of
engine propeller-airframe superimpose together resulting in resonance when
vibrations of very large amplitudes (theoretically infinite length) is produced.

Propellers are usually constructed of wood, aluminum alloy. They come in

two, three or more blades depending of the application and engine. Some
high-end turboprop aircraft even have six blades to absorb the power. But,
more blades means more weight and more propeller torque (drag) and the
engine must be able to handle this.
 Materials commonly used to make aircraft propellers:

Metal

Propellers are fabricated from high-strength, heat-treated,

aluminium alloy by forging a single bar of metal to the required
shape. The uses of aluminium alloy have allowed designing
propeller to be lighter in weight and thinner.

Wood

Mahogany, Walnut and oak are the types of wood that is commonly used to manufacture

propellers. They are laminate with strong epoxy glue to increase their strength and durability. It

also makes it very resistant to water and insects. Wooden propellers dampen the engine vibration

much better thus limits blade failures.

Selection criteria
Size

With propellers size does matter. With a larger disc area, more thrust can be
generated by the propeller, engine power permitting of course. But with
longer blades come another set of problems, ground clearance and noise are
one of them. Propeller aerodynamics shows us the propeller tip speed and
if it will break the sound barrier increase noise.

Engine & aircraft

With taildraggers one might select a larger propeller if the engine can handle
it. With tri-cycle aircraft ground clearance usually becomes an issue. These
must take a flat nose tire and strut into account so that the propeller does not
hit the ground in those situations.
A good test to see if the engine can handle the prop is the static RPM test. If
that can be reached one can assume that the engine will perform as required
and fly the aircraft with this propeller.

Check to see what other pilots are using with the same type of aircraft and
engine, this will give a good reference of the expected performance of this
combination.

Weight & Balance

Metal is heavier and installing that lump of metal on the nose of the aircraft
will definitely change the weight and balance. The center of gravity will go
forward so a new basic calculation must be done. A composite propeller
might help here should the C of G be to far forward.

Damaged prop

Simple choice. If you have found a damaged propeller and want to use it on
your aircraft, then it have it repaired by the propeller manufacturer or a
certified repair station. Some will try to chop off the damaged section leaving
the propeller shorter and with possible stress damage left inside. Do not take
any chance by playing with your life and that of others.

Balancing

The propeller has a certain amount of mass and this should be evenly
arranged among all blades. If this is not the case the propeller is said to be
out of balance. This can be easily shown by taking the propeller off the
airplane and balancing on the mounting holes. The heaviest blade will
eventually rotate to the lowest position.
 This statically imbalance should be taken of by the manufacturer. Balancing
the propeller on an engine is called dynamically balancing and is done on the
aircraft in question with a running engine on different RPM settings.

When its done properly, the engine will run silky smooth and less vibration
means less damage caused by fatigue for the aircraft and its occupants.

Wood Propeller Inspection

Wood propellers should be inspected frequently to ensure airworthiness. Inspect for defects, such as
cracks, dents, warpage, glue failure, delamination defects in the finish, and charring of the wood between
the propeller and the flange due to loose propeller mounting bolts. Examine the wood close to the metal
sleeve of wood blades for cracks extending outward on the blade. These cracks sometimes occur at the
threaded ends of the lag screws and may be an indication of internal cracking of the wood. Check the
tightness of the lag screws, which attach the metal sleeve to the wood blade, in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions. In-flight tip failures may be avoided by frequent inspections of the metal cap,
leading edge strip, and surrounding areas. Inspect for such defects as looseness or slipping, separation of
soldered joints, loose screws, loose rivets, breaks, cracks, eroded sections, and corrosion. Inspect for
separation between the metal leading edge and the cap, which would indicate the cap is moving outward
in the direction of centrifugal force. This condition is often accompanied by discoloration and loose rivets.
Inspect the tip for cracks by grasping it with the hand and slightly twisting about the longitudinal blade
centerline and by slightly bending the tip backward and forward. If the leading edge and the cap have
separated, carefully inspect for cracks at this point. Cracks usually start at the leading edge of the blade.
Inspect moisture holes are open. A fine line appearing in the fabric or plastic may indicate a crack in the
wood. Check the trailing edge of the propeller blades for bonding, separation, or damage.

Metal Propeller Inspection

Metal propellers and blades are generally susceptible to fatigue failure resulting from the concentration of
stresses at the bottoms of sharp nicks, cuts, and scratches. It is necessary, therefore, to frequently and
carefully inspect them for such defects. The inspection of steel blades may be accomplished by either
visual, fluorescent penetrant (see chapter 5), or magnetic particle inspection. The visual inspection is
easier if the steel blades are covered with engine oil or rust-preventive compound. The full length of the
leading edge (especially near the tip), the full length of the trailing edge, the grooves and shoulders on the
shank, and all dents and scars should be examined with a magnifying glass to decide whether defects are
scratches or cracks.

Tachometer inspection is a very important part of the overall propeller inspection. Operation with an
inaccurate tachometer may result in restricted rpm operation and damaging high stresses. This could
shorten blade life and could result in catastrophic failure. If the tachometer is inaccurate, then the
propeller could be turning much faster than it is rated to turn, providing extra stress. Accuracy of the
engine tachometer should be verified at 100-hour intervals or at annual inspection, whichever occurs first.
Hartzell Propeller recommends using a tachometer that is accurate within 10 rpm, and has an
appropriate calibration schedule.

Aluminum Propeller Inspection

Carefully inspect aluminum propellers and blades for cracks and other flaws. A transverse crack or flaw of
any size is cause for rejection. Multiple deep nicks and gouges on the leading edge and face of the blade
is cause for rejection. Use dye penetrant or fluorescent dye penetrant to confirm suspected cracks found
in the propeller. Refer any unusual condition or appearance revealed by these inspections to the
manufacturer.
PROPELLER DESIGN AND CAUSES OF FAILURE.

a. A propeller is one of the most highly stressed components on an aircraft. During normal
operation, 10 to 25 tons of centrifugal force pull the blades from the hub while the blades are
bending and flexing due to thrust and torque loads and engine, aerodynamic and gyroscopic
vibratory loads. A properly maintained propeller is designed to perform normally under these
loads, but when propeller components are damaged by corrosion, stone nicks, ground strikes,
etc., an additional unintended stress concentration is imposed and the design margin of safety
may not be adequate. The result is excessive stress and the propeller may fail.

b. Additional causes of overstress conditions are exposure to overspeed conditions, other object
strikes, unauthorized alterations, engine problems, worn engine vibration dampers, lightning
strike, etc. Most mechanical damage takes the form of sharp-edged nicks and scratches created
by the displacement of material from the blade surface and corrosion that forms pits and other
defects in the blade surface. This small-scale damage tends to concentrate stress in the affected
area and eventually, these high-stress areas may develop cracks. As a crack propagates, the
stress becomes increasingly concentrated, increasing the crack growth rate. The growing crack
may result in blade failure.
TYPES OF PROPELLER DAMAGE

Corrosion. One of the principal causes of loss of airworthiness in propellers is corrosion. External
corrosion on metal blades, hubs, and other components poses a serious problem. Internal corrosion
may exist where moisture may collect in internal cavities such as hubs, blade clamps, and pitch control
mechanisms. This threatens propeller structural integrity and performance without being noticed.

1) Surface Corrosion. The loss of surface metal due to chemical or electro-chemical action with
visible oxidation products usually having a contrasting color and texture to the base metal.
Surface corrosion, as shown in Figures 1-1 and 1-2, generally results when the corrosion
protection on a metal surface has been removed by erosion or by polishing. Therefore,
removing paint and corrosion protection, such as when polishing blades, is not recommended.

Hub Surface Corrosion Polished Blade Surface Corrosion

Pitting. Pits consist of visible corrosion cavities extending inward from the metal surface. They can grow
on the surface, under decals, or under improperly installed de-ice boots. Pitting can appear to be
relatively minor - 0.010 inches deep - and still cause major problems since the pits could be a precursor
to the initiation of cracks
 b. Face, Leading Edge, or Twist Misalignment. When propeller blades are bent, twisted,
or cocked, they will not be properly aligned with each other in operation. This will cause
vibration and may cause a loss of thrust. The level of vibration can be severe and depending on
the severity of the misalignment, could lead to catastrophic failure (see Chapter 2,
paragraph 203a).

c. Nick. A sharp, notch-like displacement of metal usually found on leading and trailing
edges. All nicks are potential crack starters (see Figure 1-6).

d. Erosion. The loss of material from blade surface by the action of small particles such as
sand or water and is usually present on the leading edge close to the tip. This damage destroys
the blades corrosion protection, which might lead to blade failure (see Figure 1-7).

Blade Nick Erosion on a Metal Blade

e. Scratches, Gouges, Cuts, and Scoring. These terms describing surface

damage are found in Appendix 1, Glossary of Common Propeller Terms.

f. Cracks. When found anywhere in a propeller, cracks are cause for its immediate
removal and detailed inspection. Cracks in propellers will grow over time, perhaps very
rapidly, and eventually lead to failure (see Figures 1-8 and 1-9).

FIGURE 1-8. FIGURE 1-9.

Hub Crack Blade Crack from a Nick

g. Dents. Dents can be harmful, depending on their size, location, and

configuration. Dents cause local stress risers around their perimeter and at the bottom
 under the surface. Removing material should repair dents. Filling dents with any material
such as auto body compound does nothing to correct the stress riser and is not approved.
Failure may occur.

h. Lightning Strike. A lightning strike on a metal blade may be indicated by

a small burned and melted area on the blade, a trail of small pits along the blade,
or may show no indication at

Foreign Object Strike. A foreign object strike can include a broad spectrum of damage,
from no visible damage, to a small nick, to severe ground impact damage. A conservative
approach in evaluating the damage is required because of the possibility that there may be
hidden damage that is not readily apparent during a superficial, visual inspection (see Figure 1-
13). Refer to the manufacturers maintenance instructions for damage limitations.

FIGURE 1-13.
Propeller Blade Struck by a Foreign Object