1. Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves.

The more we are aware

of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way we and
others use language. It can help foster precision, detect ambiguity, and exploit the richness of
expression available in English. And it can help everyone--not only teachers of English, but
teachers of anything, for all teaching is ultimately a matter of getting to grips with meaning.

Communication

the process of sending and receiving messages through verbal or nonverbal means-- speech (oral
communication), writing (written communication), signs, signals, or behavior.

sender - who is conveying the message.

message - what is being said.
receiver - to whom it is being said.
feedback - how the message is received.
medium - how the message is being sent.
context - the situation or setting within which the communication takes place.
noise - what interferes with the transmission of the message.
code - the set of rules used to convey a message (can be words, pictures, sounds, symbols).

2.     The eight basic parts of speech are simple. They are verbs, nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

  1   Verbs are words used to express action, condition, or a state of being. They are used in
speech to move the meanings of sentences along. An action verb expresses an action. Words
such as throw, create, and draw express physical action. Mental actions can be expressed by
words such as believe, desire, and visualize. Verbs such as be and feel are used to show states of
being. Helping verbs, or auxiliary verbs, are used to help the main verb express action or create
verb phrases. Some examples of auxiliary verbs are would, might and am.

  2   Nouns are words that name a person, place, thing or idea. A few examples of nouns are
person, place, thing and idea. Proper nouns name specific things such as Jeff, California, and
English. To change a noun from singular form to plural form an s or es must be added to the end
of the word. Two examples are thing/things and dish/dishes. Some nouns have irregular plural
forms and are a little harder to spell sometimes. A couple of these nouns are man/men, and
reality/realities. To show ownership, one must add an apostrophe s to the end of a singular noun,
or just an apostrophe to a plural noun. Examples of the possessive form are Jeff’s possession and
fools’ wisdom.

3     Pronouns are words used in place of nouns to shorten a repeated noun that has already been
mentioned. The noun that the pronoun replaces is called the antecedent of the pronoun. My
girlfriend goes shopping a lot. She spends a bunch of money on garbage. In these last two
sentences, she is the pronoun, and girlfriend is the antecedent. There are many forms of
pronouns, such as personal, possessive, reflexive, intensive, indefinite, demonstrative,
interrogative, relative and reciprocal.

4     Adjectives are very useful words. They add information to sentences by telling us more
about nouns and pronouns, usually by describing, identifying, or quantifying those words.
Adjectives usually come before the words they modify, but sometimes follow linking verbs.
Here are two examples. She is a nice woman. That woman is nice. Quantifying adjectives come
in the form of articles and numbers such as an, and twenty-one.

    5 An adverb is defined as a word that gives more information about a verb,
adjective or other adverbs. In the sentence: She runs slow, slow describes how
sue performs the adjective, runs. In the sentence She runs very slow, very
describes the adverb slow, and tells how slow she runs. Most, but not all
adverbs end in ly, but not all words that end in ly are adverbs. Ugly is an
adjective. Supply can be a noun. Quickly and not are both adverbs.

  6   A preposition is a word, which shows relationships between other words in

the sentence. Relationships between words can be in the form of time or space.
She went to the mall again. To is a preposition that shows direction or space.
She will find more clothes than you could imagine in thirty minutes. In is the
preposition that shows time. A preposition always goes with a noun or pronoun,
which is called the object of the preposition.

The preposition is almost always before the noun or pronoun and that is why it is called a
preposition. The preposition and the object of the preposition together are called a prepositional
phrase. In the sentence She went to the mall, to the mall is the prepositional phrase.

7     A conjunction is a word that connects words, or groups of words, to tell something about the
relationship between these words. In the sentence she and I are friends, and connects two
pronouns, she and I. Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions, which connect two equal parts
of a sentence. The most common ones are and, or, but, and so. She is small but strong. But is
used as a coordinating conjunction. Subordinating conjunctions connect two parts of a sentence
that are not equal. Some subordinating conjunctions are whether, though and because.
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. Both she and I live in San

 8    An interjection is a word, or a short phrase used to express emotion or surprise. Interjections
are often sentence fragments, or stand by themselves. Yeah! I’m done. Yeah is used to show the
long awaited emotion of freedom. Interjections are also often used as commands, or as part of a
protest. Stop! Don’t assign so much homework. Interjections are very important, and that’s why
they are mentioned last, but not least, in the eight parts of speech.

3. Kinds of noun
Common Nouns 
A common noun is an everyday item. 
It is the name given to a generic item: chair, fish, concrete, cloud, tree, nail, screwdriver,
pencil, coffee, arm, hair, kangaroo, table, wall, or finger. It is everything and anything.

Proper Nouns 
This is the exact opposite of a common noun. Proper nouns refer to all the things that are
unique. They have their own distinguishable identity. 
All proper nouns start with a capital letter: London (a city), Napoleon Bonaparte - (an
historical figure), Amazon River (a waterway), Avatar (a movie), McDonalds (a restaurant),
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (a book) and Sydney Harbour Bridge (a landmark).

Concrete Nouns 
A concrete noun is anything that can be perceived with our senses. We can see it, hear it,
smell it, taste it or touch it. 
We can perceive clouds, flowers, soil, water, music, chatter, laughter, smoke, perfume,
stench, sugar, salt, vanilla, velvet, silk and bricks.

Abstract Nouns 
An abstract noun is a state, a quality or feeling that can not be perceived by the senses. 
We cannot use our five senses to perceive happiness, jealousy, beauty, trust, loyalty,
betrayal or love.

Collective Nouns 
A collective noun is used to describe a group of objects. 
For example, a herd of cows, a colony of ants, a school of fish, a flock of seagulls, a pack of
rats and a horde of zombies.

4.DIFFERENT RULES IN FORMING THE PLURALS OF NOUN

Singular means one. (snap, snap) 

Make a plural by adding "s".
But there's another rule we learn
To spell the rest.

Look at the end for "x" or "s", "s-h" or "c-h", 

So we've heard
We need to add the suffix "e-s"
To the word. 
And then with words like mouse and mice,
And goose and geese, and man and men,
We change the word to make the plural. 

More than one girl = girls 

More than one boy = boys
(add s to the root word)

More than one box = boxes

(The word box ends with x, so you add es)

More than one bus = buses

(The word bus ends with s, so you add es)

More than one brush = brushes

(Brush ends with sh, add es) 

More than one coach = coaches

(Coach ends with ch, so you add es)

Some words change to make a plural.

More than one child = children
More than one woman = women

5. 3 cases of noun
1. Nominative case: 

A noun is said to be in the Nominative case if it is the subject of a verb. (SUBJECT is the
person or the thing who or which carries out the action of the verb in the sentence)

Examples:

• Mr. Ram is an intelligent boy. 

Mr. Ram is a proper noun in Nominative case. 

• The painter paints the portraits. 

The painter is a common noun in Nominative case. 

• I am buying vegetables for my family. 

“I” is a pronoun in Nominative case. 

These examples carry another term "pronoun" which is a word used to represent a noun.

For example:

I, We, You, He, She, it and they are the seven pronouns.

There are only seven pronouns.

Only other variations of these seven pronouns are there.

Those variations can be used in place of the nouns.

The next one in the Noun-cases is:

2. Objective case (or Accusative case):

Nouns or pronouns are said to be in Objective cases if they are the direct objects of verbs or
if they are the objects of preposition. (Direct object is the person or the thing upon whom or
upon which the action of the verb is carried out). 

Examples: 

• I met your sister. 

“Your sister” is in objective case. 
• The vendors sell mangoes. 
“Mangoes” is in objective case. 

• The book is on the table. 

“Table” is in objective case. 
It is object of the preposition ‘on’. 

• This is one of my policies. 

“Policies” is in objective case. 
It is object of the preposition ‘of’. 

The next one in the Noun-cases is: 

3. Dative case: 

A noun is said to be in dative case if it is the Indirect object of the verb. (Indirect object of
the verb is the noun for whom or for which the action of the verb is carried out). There
should not be a preposition before the indirect object because in that case it will be the
object of that preposition. 

Examples: 

• The teacher gave the students few exercises. 

“Students” is in dative case. It is the indirect object of the verb ‘give’. 

• The Postman brought me a letter. 

“Me” is in dative case. 

• Get him a pen. 

“Him” is in dative case. 

The next one in the Noun-cases is: 

4. Possessive case (Genitive case): 

A noun is said to be in possessive case, if it denotes possession or ownership. A noun or

pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun that follows it. 

Examples: 

• This is your pencil. 

(“Your” is in possessive case. 

• It is our idea. 
“Our” is in possessive case. 

• John’s sister has been hospitalized. 

“John’s” is in possessive case. 

The last one in the Noun-cases is: 

5. Vocative case: 
A noun or a pronoun is said to be in Vocative case if it is used to call (or to get the attention
of) a person or persons. 
Examples: 

• Mr. Bill, students are waiting for you in the main hall. 
“Mr. Bill” is in vocative case. 

• You there, stand up. 

“You” is in vocative case. 

• Brother, a letter for you. 

“Brother” is in vocative case. 

• Chairman, all the letters are posted two days ago. 

“Chairman” is in vocative case. 

The nouns do not change their forms in the Nominative and Objectivecases. But few
pronouns change their forms between Nominative andObjective cases.

Nominative case ________Objective case_________ Possessive case 

1. I __________________ me__________________ my 

2. We_________________us____________________our 

3. You________________ You___________________your 

4. He_________________ him____________________his 

5. She_________________her_____________________her 

6. It___________________it_______________________its 

7. They_________________them______________________their