Vol 18 No.
4 D e c e m b e r 1983 Contents
T H E A R U P
J O U R N A L
F r o n t c o v e r : C o l d front a p p r o a c h i n g B r i t a i n ( P h o t o : U n i v e r s i t y of Dundee)
B a c k c o v e r : T h e H o n g K o n g tunnel ( P h o t o : Neil F a r r i n )
The seawater intake
system for the new
headquarters of the
Hongkong and
Shanghai Banking
Corporation
Architect: Foster A s s o c i a t e s
Simon Murray
Introduction
T h e new h e a d q u a r t e r s for the H o n g k o n g
a n d S h a n g h a i B a n k i n g C o r p o r a t i o n at 1
Queen's R o a d Central, Hong Kong, needs
no i n t r o d u c t i o n . M u c h h a s b e e n w r i t t e n
about the d e s i g n of the b u i l d i n g w h i c h will
r e p l a c e o n e of Hong K o n g ' s m o s t signifi-
c a n t l a n d m a r k s . At the time of w r i t i n g the
s t r u c t u r e h a s r i s e n a l m o s t to the level of the
surrounding buildings.
T h e original headquarters w a s supplied
with s e a w a t e r for both c o o l i n g and
f l u s h i n g . T h e s e a w a t e r w a s d r a w n from a n
i n t a k e c h a m b e r built b e h i n d the s e a w a l l
s o m e 4 0 0 m f r o m the bank. It w a s p u m p e d to
the s i t e t h r o u g h two 4 0 0 m m m a i n s laid in a
t r e n c h b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e of S t a t u e S q u a r e .
W h e n the t i m e c a m e to r e d e v e l o p the s i t e it
w a s h o p e d that a s i m i l a r s y s t e m c o u l d be
d e v e l o p e d for t h e new building.
E a r l y in 1981 the p r o f e s s i o n a l t e a m , led by
t h e a r c h i t e c t F o s t e r A s s o c i a t e s , b e g a n to
i n v e s t i g a t e t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of supplying
s e a w a t e r to t h e n e w d e v e l o p m e n t . A v a r i e t y
of s o l u t i o n s w e r e a p p r a i s e d s t a r t i n g w i t h
the r e n o v a t i o n of the e x i s t i n g s y s t e m . T h e
s t u d y c o n c l u d e d that t h e o p t i m u m s o l u t i o n
w a s to lay the s e a w a t e r m a i n s in a t u n n e l
e x c a v a t e d b e n e a t h S t a t u e S q u a r e a n d to
Published by
Ove Arup Partnership
13 Fitzroy Street. London W 1 P 6 B Q
Editor Peter Hoggett
Art Editor D e s m o n d Wyeth F S I A D
Assistant Editor David Brown
d i s t r i b u t e the c a p i t a l c o s t of the w o r k s by
s h a r i n g the s y s t e m w i t h other develop-
ments.
T h e p r o p o s a l w h i c h the a r c h i t e c t put to the
c l i e n t in D e c e m b e r 1981 w a s to c o n s t r u c t a
n e w i n t a k e a n d p u m p h o u s e c l o s e to the
o r i g i n a l i n s t a l l a t i o n . T h e s e a w a t e r w a s to
be c a r r i e d to the new d e v e l o p m e n t in s i x 1m
d i a m e t e r p i p e s laid in a t u n n e l e x c a v a t e d at
a n a v e r a g e depth of 6 0 m b e l o w S t a t u e
Square. The s y s t e m w a s designed with a
c a p a c i t y of 4000 l/sec of w h i c h a p p r o x i -
m a t e l y 3000 l/sec w a s i n t e n d e d for other
developments. T h e proposal w a s accepted
a n d in J a n u a r y 1982 Ove A r u p a n d P a r t n e r s
( H o n g K o n g ) w e r e a p p o i n t e d to lead the pro-
f e s s i o n a l t e a m in its i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .
T h e p r o g r a m m e for the c o m m i s s i o n i n g of
the a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g e q u i p m e n t in t h e n e w
h e a d q u a r t e r s building required that s e a -
w a t e r be a v a i l a b l e in A u g u s t 1984. T h i s
g a v e the t e a m a period of only 32 m o n t h s
for the d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d c o m m i s -
s i o n i n g of the s e a w a t e r s y s t e m . F a i l u r e to
meet t h i s p r o g r a m m e c o u l d d e l a y the
o p e n i n g of the building.
To r e s o l v e the p r o g r a m m e the c o n s t r u c t i o n
w o r k w a s divided b e t w e e n two c o n t r a c t s .
T h e first c o n t r a c t c o m p r i s e d the d e s i g n a n d
c o n s t r u c t i o n of a n a c c e s s s h a f t a d j a c e n t to
t h e s e a w a l l . It w a s a w a r d e d to B a c h y
S o l e t a n c h e G r o u p in May 1982 a n d , w h i l e
it w a s under c o n s t r u c t i o n , the team
p r o c e e d e d with the d e s i g n a n d d o c u m e n -
t a t i o n of t h e r e m a i n d e r of the s y s t e m . T h e
m a n a g e m e n t c o n t r a c t o r invited four civil
e n g i n e e r i n g c o n t r a c t o r s to tender for the
m a j o r c o n t r a c t . In N o v e m b e r 1982 it w a s
a w a r d e d to A o k i C o n s t r u c t i o n C o m p a n y
L t d . w h o s u b - c o n t r a c t e d the m e c h a n i c a l
a n d e l e c t r i c a l w o r k s to H a d e n I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Ltd.
S h o r t l y after the a w a r d of the m a i n c o n t r a c t
it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that H o n g K o n g ' s
e c o n o m y h a d p a s s e d its peak of e x p a n s i o n
and had entered a decline. T h e subsequent
l o s s in c o n f i d e n c e in t h e property m a r k e t
h a d s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s for the p r o j e c t .
The s e a w a t e r intake s y s t e m
for the n e w h e a d q u a r t e r s
of the H o n g k o n g a n d S h a n g h a i
Banking Corporation,
by S . Murray
Seminaron
w i n d e f f e c t s on b u i l d i n g s :
Surface pressures,
by D. C r o f t
Structural response, 16
by M. W i l l f o r d
Arup I d e a s C o m p e t i t i o n 2 6
B o o k review 31
It led to t h e w i t h d r a w a l of the other u s e r s of
the s y s t e m w h o w e r e to h a v e t a k e n 7 5 % of
its c a p a c i t y . C o n s t r u c t i o n w a s a l r e a d y
under w a y a n d the t e a m c a r r i e d out a s w i f t
e v a l u a t i o n of the o p t i o n s a v a i l a b l e to t h e
c l i e n t . T h e client e l e c t e d to p r o c e e d w i t h
the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the full civil e n g i n e e r i n g
w o r k s but to i n s t a l l w i t h i n t h e m a s e a w a t e r
s y s t e m w i t h only s u f f i c i e n t c a p a c i t y for the
new b a n k h e a d q u a r t e r s . T h e s e a w a t e r pipe-
w o r k w a s to be c o n f i n e d to o n e half of the
t u n n e l l e a v i n g the other half a v a i l a b l e for
the i n s t a l l a t i o n of p i p e w o r k to s e r v e other
s i t e s a s a n d w h e n they a r e d e v e l o p e d .
At the t i m e of w r i t i n g t h e s e a w a t e r s y s t e m
h a s been r e d e s i g n e d , the c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g
w o r k s a r e under c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e
m e c h a n i c a l a n d e l e c t r i c a l e q u i p m e n t is
being o r d e r e d .
The seawater system
T h e a r r a n g e m e n t of the s e a w a t e r s y s t e m is
s h o w n in outline in F i g . 1 . A f u n d a m e n t a l
p r i n c i p l e of the d e s i g n is that e v e r y p i e c e of
plant a n d pipework in the s y s t e m i s
provided w i t h a b a c k u p unit. T h i s e n s u r e s
that the n e w b a n k h e a d q u a r t e r s c a n c o n -
t i n u e to o p e r a t e under all c o n d i t i o n s .
S e a w a t e r is d r a w n f r o m the harbour
t h r o u g h a f o r e b a y unit s e t in t h e s e a w a l l .
T h e w a t e r p a s s e s into the i n t a k e c h a m b e r
l o c a t e d b e h i n d the s e a w a l l a n d t h e n c e into
the two 9 0 0 m m d i a m e t e r i n t a k e p i p e s w h i c h
a r e c a s t into the rear of t h e c h a m b e r . T h i s
somewhat elaborate intake design is
n e c e s s a r y to o v e r c o m e the f a c t that at low
tide the w a t e r depth at the s e a w a l l is l e s s
t h a n 1m.
T h e c e n t r e of the s y s t e m is S h a f t No. 2
w h i c h s e r v e s a s both a p u m p h o u s e a n d a
m e a n s of a c c e s s to the t u n n e l . T h e t w o
i n t a k e p i p e s e n t e r the s h a f t 7 m below
g r o u n d level a n d turn t h r o u g h 90 d e g r e e s to
form the two intake s t a c k s . T h e three
identical pump s e t s are connected between
the i n t a k e s t a c k s a n d the d e l i v e r y s t a c k s at
t h r e e s e p a r a t e floor l e v e l s . F r o m t h e l o w e s t
level delivery p i p e s c o n t i n u e d o w n t h e s h a f t
a n d into t h e t u n n e l .
J o i n t third prize
'The Tank'
Ian Gardner
Shaft No. 1

-11.90 Basement Outfall

of 1Q.R.C.
+3.10

-0.82

-23.30 5.10

-9.10

devahon 33.80
-17.70

-24.00

-30.30

-34.50
-55.00
Plan at Y

-41.85

S T N . 0 + 355.0
+etuin -50.25
S T N . 0 t 347.1

-60.75
Section A-A

A s t r o n g e n g i n e e r i n g entry l o o k i n g for s o m e joy a n d a t t r a c t i o n - w h i c h s h o u l d be f o r t h c o m i n g ,

a s e s s e n t i a l l y the i d e a of m o v i n g a r o u n d i n s i d e t u b e s i n s i d e a t a n k h a s p o t e n t i a l ! A very i n t e r e s t i n g
s t a r t i n g i d e a but p e r h a p s the p u b l i c e n c l o s u r e s h o u l d not h a v e b e e n s o o p a q u e , s o that o n e w o u l d Return
k n o w o n e w a s under w a t e r . P e r h a p s the ' t u b e ' s h o u l d h a v e b e e n m o o r e d under the S e i n e .

-70.00

J o i n t third prize
'The Containers' V V V <7 X Fig. 1
Stuart * The seawater system S T N . 0 + 0.0
Richardson
- v M . . -

J i
* .1 r

; ,

'"1

I I
SHAFT
SHAFT N O . 1

m
J N E L

T h e upper half of the s h a f t , w h i c h h o u s e s 3 5 0 m a l o n g the t u n n e l to a point in the it p r o v i d e s a c o n v e n i e n t o u t f a l l c h a m b e r .

all of t h e plant, i s 12m in d i a m e t e r a n d h a s
a n o v e r a l l d e p t h of 4 0 m . T h e top t w o l e v e l s
in the s h a f t a r e s e t a s i d e for t r a n s f o r m e r s ,
e l e c t r i c a l s w i t c h g e a r , ventilation equip-
ment a n d c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t .
T h e t u n n e l ( F i g . 2) i s t h e conduit for both
the flow a n d return p i p e w o r k . In t h i s c l o s e d
loop t h e r e q u i r e m e n t for full s t a n d b y
E x c e l l e n t g r a p h i c p r e s e n t a t i o n - p r o b a b l y the b e s t entry in t h i s r e s p e c t . T h e e n g i n e e r i n g c o n c e p t a p p e a r s c a p a c i t y is met through the u s e of t h r e e
c u m b e r s o m e a n d u n g a i n l y , but very m u c h to h i s credit the e n t r a n t h a s in the f i n a l b u i l d i n g p r o d u c e d 700m d i a m e t e r s e a w a t e r p i p e s : o n e flow,
a n i n t e g r a t e d p i e c e of d e s i g n . O v e r a l l t h e r e i s too m u c h of a p a c k a g i n g c o n c e p t , not very a p p r o p r i a t e for
o n e return a n d o n e s p a r e pipe w h i c h c a n be
a m a j o r E x p o p a v i l i o n . T h e b u i l d i n g c o u l d never live up to t h e f a s c i n a t i o n of w a t c h i n g the e r e c t i o n in
p r o g r e s s ! T h e r e i s s o m e c o n c e r n that t h e i n g e n u i t y of the e r e c t i o n s y s t e m b e c o m e s ' m u t e ' o n c e f i n i s h e d . flow or return. T h e t h r e e p i p e s a r e c a r r i e d
30 P e r h a p s too the i m a g e is not s u i t a b l e for a n e x h i b i t i o n of s e v e r a l h i g h - t e c h c o m p a n i e s ; a little too M e c c a n o .
g r o u n d 4 0 m below the b a s e m e n t of the
building. T h e p i p e s r i s e into the b a s e m e n t
through S h a f t No. 1.
T h e return pipe f o l l o w s t h e s a m e route a s
the flow pipe. At the top of S h a f t No. 2 the
return p i p e s a r e t a k e n out t h r o u g h the s h a f t
w a l l a n d a r e c a r r i e d in t r e n c h to the old
i n t a k e c h a m b e r w h i c h s e r v e d the original
h e a d q u a r t e r s building. T h e c h a m b e r i s
l o c a t e d in t h e S t a r F e r r y c o n c o u r s e a n d is a
c o n c r e t e box s e t behind t h e s e a w a l l . O n c e
s t r i p p e d of its e x i s t i n g p u m p s a n d p i p e w o r k
T h e o u t f a l l p i p e s p a s s t h r o u g h the s e a w a l l
w i t h i n the c h a m b e r a n d t h e n d i s c h a r g e into
the s e a below the S t a r F e r r y Pier.
A c c e s s for m a i n t e n a n c e i s a c r i t i c a l a s p e c t
of t h e d e s i g n of t h e s y s t e m . A c c e s s for
p e r s o n n e l i s by i n d u s t r i a l h o i s t w i t h c a t -
l a d d e r s provided for e m e r g e n c i e s . V e r t i c a l
plant a c c e s s z o n e s a r e provided in b o t h
s h a f t s a n d a r e c o n n e c t e d by a h o r i z o n t a l
a c c e s s z o n e in the t u n n e l giving a n unre-
s t r i c t e d c o n t i n u o u s s p a c e for the move-
ment of plant a n d e q u i p m e n t .
The basic dimensions and characteristics
of t h e s e a w a t e r s y s t e m a r e a s f o l l o w s :
Intake temperature: 28
Outfall temperature: 34
F l o w rate: 1000 1/sec
Cooling capacity: 5500 t o n n e
refrigeration
Seawater pipes: 700mm diameter
c l a s s K 9 ductile
iron p i p e s w i t h
c e m e n t mortar
lining.
Seawater pumps: T h r e e 270 k W
d o u b l e volute
centrifugal pumps
e a c h delivering
500 l/sec at 350 k P a .
T h e s u p p o r t of the s e a w a t e r p i p e s
T h e f u n c t i o n of t h e civil e n g i n e e r i n g w o r k s
is to provide s p a c e a n d s u p p o r t for t h e pipe-
work a n d plant. T h e b e h a v i o u r in s e r v i c e of
the p i p e w o r k a n d plant i s largely deter-
m i n e d by t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h it i s sup-
ported. O n e of t h e first e x e r c i s e s to be
u n d e r t a k e n in t h e d e s i g n w a s t h e develop-
ment of a m e t h o d of s u p p o r t i n g t h e v e r t i c a l
pipe s t a c k s in t h e t w o s h a f t s .
T h e l o a d s a c t i n g on t h e s e a w a t e r p i p e s
o r i g i n a t e f r o m t h e m a s s of t h e p i p e s them-
s e l v e s a n d from t h e t h r u s t s i n d u c e d at
b e n d s a n d f i t t i n g s by t h e w a t e r p r e s s u r e s
a c t i n g i n s i d e t h e p i p e s . In t h i s s y s t e m t h e
w e i g h t of t h e p i p e s i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t in
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e t h r u s t s under s u r g e
conditions.
T h e d e s i g n of t h e support s y s t e m w a s dict-
a t e d by m a i n t e n a n c e p r o c e d u r e s . T h e s u p -
port s y s t e m h a d to permit a n y length of
pipe to be r e l e a s e d a n d r e p l a c e d without
a f f e c t i n g t h e rest of the s y s t e m . T h e s y s t e m
w h i c h e v o l v e d i s s h o w n in F i g . 3. T h e ver-
t i c a l pipe s t a c k s a r e divided into d i s c r e t e
l e n g t h s by s o c k e t j o i n t s i m m e d i a t e l y a b o v e
e a c h s u p p o r t floor. T h e length of pipe
b e n e a t h t h e s o c k e t is s u p p o r t e d in a s t e e l
c o l l a r w h i c h i s in turn c a r r i e d o n t h e s t e e l
floor b e a m s . H y d r a u l i c j a c k s b e t w e e n t h e
c o l l a r a n d t h e s o c k e t a l l o w a n y length of
pipe to be m o v e d v e r t i c a l l y r e l a t i v e to t h e
rest of t h e s y s t e m . To r e p l a c e a fitting
within the s t a c k one would release the
f l a n g e s either s i d e of it a n d then j a c k t h e
s t a c k a w a y from it, a l l o w i n g it to be
r e m o v e d . T h e n e w fitting w o u l d be i n s e r t e d
by the r e v e r s e p r o c e s s .
T h e v e r t i c a l f o r c e s a c t i n g in t h e pipe s t a c k s
a r e c a r r i e d into t h e s t e e l floor b e a m s
through the collar located immediately
a b o v e t h e point of a c t i o n of t h e f o r c e . T h e
s t e e l floor b e a m s s p a n b e t w e e n r e i n f o r c e d
c o n c r e t e w a l i n g b e a m s c a s t into t h e s h a f t
l i n i n g s . I t e m s of plant s u c h a s p u m p s a n d
surge v e s s e l s are supported on secondary
b e a m s s p a n n i n g b e t w e e n t h e primary floor
beams.
Within the tunnel the s e a w a t e r pipes are
s u p p o r t e d o n s i m p l e s t e e l f r a m e s bolted to
the t u n n e l lining ( F i g . 4). T h e p i p e w o r k in
the t u n n e l i s s o c k e t j o i n t e d at 5.5m inter-
v a l s a n d t h e f r a m e s a r e s p a c e d to lie
i m m e d i a t e l y b e h i n d e a c h s e t of s o c k e t s .
T h e f r a m e s a r e tied t o g e t h e r w i t h tie rods
a n d t u r n b u c k l e s to r e s i s t t h e longitudinal
t h r u s t s in t h e p i p e s .
P l a n n i n g of t h e u n d e r g r o u n d w o r k s
T h e first s t a g e in t h e p l a n n i n g of a n under-
g r o u n d e x c a v a t i o n i s to u n d e r s t a n d t h e
g e o l o g i c a l o r i g i n s of t h e s t r a t a in w h i c h it
will be built. C e n t r a l D i s t r i c t of H o n g K o n g
I s l a n d i s u n d e r l a i n by H o n g K o n g G r a n i t e
w h i c h f o r m s o n e l a r g e i n t r u s i o n c e n t r e d in
the harbour a n d e x p o s e d in t h e northern
part of H o n g K o n g I s l a n d , K o w l o o n a n d
Kwun Tong.
T h e t u n n e l a l i g n m e n t l i e s below r e c l a i m e d
land w i t h i n t h e n a t u r a l h a r b o u r ( F i g . 5). A s a
result of i t s protection from t h e e r o s i v e
f o r c e of t h e s e a , t h e rock in t h i s a r e a i s
o v e r l a i n by a c o n s i d e r a b l e t h i c k n e s s of
completely decomposed granite (CDG), The
C D G i s in turn o v e r l a i n by r e c e n t m a r i n e
s e d i m e n t s a n d r e c l a i m fill. In t h e r e c l a i m fill
the w a t e r table f o l l o w s t h e tide. In t h e other
strata the piezometric levels are generally
at + 1.0 m P D .
T h e g e n e r a l level of t h e t u n n e l w a s d i c t a t e d
by t w o f a c t o r s . T h e p r e s e n c e of C h a t e r
S t a t i o n , c o n s t r u c t e d t h r o u g h t h e C D G to
r o c k h e a d a n d r u n n i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e
h o r i z o n t a l a l i g n m e n t of t h e t u n n e l , pre-
c l u d e d t h e u s e of a s h a l l o w s o f t g r o u n d
t u n n e l . T h e relatively short t i m e a v a i l a b l e
for t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e t u n n e l required
that it be e x c a v a t e d by s i m p l e drill a n d
b l a s t t e c h n i q u e s in rock w h i c h required
m i n i m a l primary s u p p o r t .
T h e a p p r o x i m a t e v e r t i c a l a l i g n m e n t of t h e
tunnel w a s defined using information from
p r e l i m i n a r y s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d geo-
l o g i c a l s u r v e y s . W h e n t h i s h a d been d o n e a
final s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s c a r r i e d out to
d e f i n e t h e p r e c i s e v e r t i c a l a l i g n m e n t a n d to
provide t h e r e f e r e n c e c o n d i t i o n s required
for t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g
c o n t r a c t . In p l a n n i n g t h e f i n a l s i t e i n v e s -
t i g a t i o n t h e object w a s to o b t a i n s u f f i c i e n t
i n f o r m a t i o n o n rock m a s s q u a l i t y to a s s e s s
t h e n e e d for primary s u p p o r t a l o n g t h e
length of t h e t u n n e l . S e v e r a l m e t h o d s of
rock m a s s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w e r e c o n s i d e r e d
a n d that f i n a l l y s e l e c t e d w a s a s i m p l e
s y s t e m b a s e d o n t h e d e g r e e of w e a t h e r i n g
of t h e rock m a s s . T h i s s y s t e m , w h i c h h a s
b e e n d e s c r i b e d by R u x t o n a n d B e r r y
d i v i d e s t h e rock m a s s into z o n e s b a s e d on
its a p p e a r a n c e in e x p o s u r e s a n d c o r e s a n d
on a v i s u a l a s s e s s m e n t of i t s e n g i n e e r i n g
properties.
T h e d e s i g n of t h e horizontal a l i g n m e n t of
the t u n n e l ( F i g . 2) w a s r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e . T h e
v e r t i c a l a l i g n m e n t w a s more c o m p l i c a t e d
a n d w a s e s s e n t i a l l y a n e x e r c i s e in b a l a n -
cing several incompatible factors to
p r o d u c e a t u n n e l w h i c h c o u l d be c o n s t r u c -
ted by c o n v e n t i o n a l m e a n s in t h e t i m e a v a i l -
able. P e r h a p s the single most important
f a c t o r w a s that t h e c o n t r a c t o r w o u l d h a v e
a c c e s s only from S h a f t No. 2. T o s i m p l i f y
g r o u n d w a t e r control during c o n s t r u c t i o n
the a l i g n m e n t w a s g r a d e d t o w a r d s S h a f t
No. 2 a l t h o u g h t h e gradient w a s limited by
the n e e d to be a b l e to o p e r a t e v e h i c l e s for
t h e r e m o v a l of m u c k from t h e e x c a v a t i o n .
T h e level of t h e t u n n e l w a s d i c t a t e d by t h e
preliminary support design and w a s
g e n e r a l l y s e t to m a i n t a i n a ' c o v e r ' of 6 m of
Z o n e D g r a n i t e over t h e c r o w n of t h e
excavation.

1
p.p..

f 5500 y

Tie rods ,.
Collar

1
- - n ^
- Secondary beam t
1
- Primary beam i
L. 1
- Corbel
j
i
k

Shaft lining

Fig. 4
T h e pipe s u p p o r t s y s t e m in t h e t u n n e l s

Flanged joint
Shaft Des Voeux
No.2 Chater Chater Road 1, Q R C
- Socket joint <t Road Station Central Basement
Marine deposit
+10 -
.....j Shaft <{ ,
0- "r-ff-^^' Fill ' :

-10 - 1 | * - r
-20-
-30-
. ] . 1
1
* . .
Completely decomposed granite ,.,...^z-;: .''.. rr;;^ 0
L

-40-
-50- one C granite
-60- ^ Zone D gramte_ .
-70-
-80-
-90-

Fig. 3 Fig. 5
T h e pipe s u p p o r t s y s t e m in t h e s h a f t s Geological section through the underground w o r k s
S e c o n d prize:
'Paris/Aphrodite' At t h e p l a n n i n g s t a g e the need for s e c o n -
George Zintilis d a r y l i n i n g s w a s a s s e s s e d a n d outline
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w e r e p r e p a r e d for their
design. A s the tunnel and shaft e x c a v a t i o n s
T j j r + r
w e r e d e s i g n e d to be s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g the /
p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of t h e s e c o n d a r y l i n i n g s
... ..rc-.)
; w a s to c o n t r o l t h e flow of g r o u n d w a t e r in- u
to t h e p e r m a n e n t w o r k s . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s
s h o w e d that t h e o p t i m u m s o l u t i o n for both
s h a f t s a n d t u n n e l w a s a c a s t in situ /

pirodite "^7. , i concrete lining constructed after

c o m p l e t i o n of the e x c a v a t i o n .
T h e final s t a g e in t h e p l a n n i n g of t h e under-
ground w o r k s w a s to c o n f i r m that the
s h a f t s a n d t u n n e l c o u l d be c o n s t r u c t e d in
the time a v a i l a b l e in t h e overall p r o g r a m m e .
T h i s e x e r c i s e w a s c a r r i e d out by the c o n -
struction management consultants Bush
and Rennie International who prepared an
indicative construction method statement I
and programme.

177m D e s i g n of S h a f t No. 2
T h e d e s i g n of t h e upper half of S h a f t No. 2
96m w a s a g e o m e t r i c a l problem. T h e s i t e w a s
c o n s t r a i n e d on a l l four s i d e s by e x i s t i n g
lower floor
s e r v i c e s a n d t h e City H a l l Memorial
G a r d e n s ( F i g s . 6 a n d 7). C a l c u l a t i o n s h a d
s h o w n that if the d i a p h r a g m w a l l c o u l d be
constructed in a c i r c l e t h e e x t e r n a l
p r e s s u r e s from t h e s o i l a n d w a t e r c o u l d be
i>65rc
c a r r i e d in ring c o m p r e s s i o n w i t h i n t h e w a l l
10m s e c t i o n . If t h e layout of t h e s h a f t d e v i a t e d
too far from a c i r c l e it w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y //
BB to c o n s t r u c t h o r i z o n t a l d i a p h r a g m s w i t h i n
t h e s h a f t to s u p p o r t t h e w a l l p a n e l s .
a
o FRENCH P A V 1 L I 0 N O - A r m e d with t h e d i m e n s i o n s of s t a n d a r d in
translucent cladding diaphragm wall grabs, the design team set
E X P 0 89 PARIS everywhere
out to d e m o n s t r a t e that it w a s f e a s i b l e to
construct a circular diaphragm wall with an
/
V e r y s e n s u o u s , r o m a n t i c a n d F r e n c h (or at l e a s t a s t h e F r e n c h a r e p o p u l a r l y s e e n ) . internal d i a m e t e r of only 12.0m. B e f o r e long I
1.2m diaphragm H.V. cables
In e n g i n e e r i n g t e r m s , there a r e u n c e r t a i n t i e s a n d c o n t r a d i c t i o n s ; t h e s t r e n g t h l i e s in i t s it w a s c l e a r that t h e s o l u t i o n w o u l d vary
s o f t n e s s , c o l o u r , t e x t u r e , form a n d , to s o m e e x t e n t , i t s s y m b o l i s m - a n d l e s s in i t s from c o n t r a c t o r to c o n t r a c t o r d e p e n d i n g o n
e n g i n e e r i n g . A very b e a u t i f u l p r o p o s a l , t h e only r e s e r v a t i o n being that t h e a p p l e ' the s i z e of their e q u i p m e n t . T h e o b v i o u s l
i
m i g h t not be p e r c e i v e d at g r o u n d level - only from t h e E i f f e l T o w e r . B y far t h e m o s t s o l u t i o n w a s to invite c o n t r a c t o r s to s u b m i t
s e d u c t i v e of t h e e n t r i e s - a n d o n e m u s t b e w a r e of t h i s sort of s e d u c t i o n . B u t t h e
t e n d e r s for t h e d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n of
d r a w i n g s c o n v e y a c o n v i n c i n g f e e l i n g for t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d p o t e n t i a l of t h i s s c h e m e . /
the s h a f t . Limits on the
position of the
\ \VU

K\m
Ht ,'\KI> H r . V

NO 2i i>k<,
H PW I I H I S

: t i
T e n d e r s w e r e invited o n t h e b a s i s of geo-
metrical limits a n d a performance specifi-
/ /
/ diaphragm wall

c a t i o n . T h e c o n t r a c t w a s a w a r d e d to B a c h y
Soletanche Group who proposed a circular OF
Uvhrm.il l>iila
s h a f t c o n s t r u c t e d from 1.2m t h i c k dia-
OlAN OF < - * CMOM) H " p h r a g m w a l l p a n e l s ( F i g . 7). T h e s h a f t
nM a-! .. or **c - e s rioo* MaVa.l
MCTKM *-* m m l u i m !I'IH*r iHinti'>'
( required no i n t e r n a l h o r i z o n t a l s u p p o r t s Fig. 7
provided that it w a s c o n s t r u c t e d a s a c i r c l e . C o n s t r a i n t s o n t h e l o c a t i o n of S h a f t No. 2
On* smuriuM | M M * , i * . c i
HAM MtOuNO LOO lU^Ott flt Iff*. T h e r e w a s c o n c e r n that if t h e d i a p h r a g m
w a l l p a n e l s w e r e not v e r t i c a l t h e h o r i z o n t a l
s e c t i o n at the b a s e of t h e s h a f t c o u l d
d e v i a t e s o f a r f r o m a c i r c l e a s to i n v a l i d a t e
the a s s u m p t i o n of pure ring c o m p r e s s i o n . 3b0 1520 1520 3SU

T h i s led to a r e q u i r e m e n t that t h e w a l l
panels be c o n s t r u c t e d to a v e r t i c a l % 00
i
t o l e r a n c e of 1/160.
W a l i n g b e a m s a r e required in S h a f t No. 2 i Horiz.
for t h e s u p p o r t of the s t e e l floor b e a m s . In
a d d i t i o n a t r a n s i t i o n c o l l a r i s provided at O'-e !0 5

i
r o c k h e a d to r e d u c e t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e
s h a f t to 8 m . B o t h of t h e s e e l e m e n t s w e r e \0\ m
designed as conventional reinforced
concrete members connected to t h e
1. Space requirement for 2. Tender design
d i a p h r a g m w a l l p a n e l s by r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s the original system
DETAILS < H it SI PPOBI
bent out from t h e m a i n c a g e s .
PtTAItS 01 CAUMOID,LLIPSi M W O K )
D e s i g n of t h e t u n n e l lining
T h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of t h e t u n n e l lining i s
CP
to r e d u c e to a n a c c e p t a b l e level t h e flow of
w a t e r into t h e p e r m a n e n t w o r k s . I t s s e c -
o n d a r y f u n c t i o n i s to s u p p o r t t h e p i p e s a n d 1 Space i Horiz.
Q
other s e r v i c e s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n it.
for cess | /~\
other ace i
space l^s
T h e first s t a g e in t h e d e s i g n of the tunnel i
.. users
s e c t i o n ( F i g . 8) w a s to d e f i n e t h e s p a c e r o
o
required w i t h i n it. In t h e o r i g i n a l s y s t e m the
a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e s e a w a t e r p i p e s w a s dic-
t a t e d by t h e m e t h o d of i n s t a l l i n g t h e m . T h e
management contractor advised the design
t e a m that if t h e p i p e s w e r e to be i n s t a l l e d 3. Contractor's alternative 4. Final design
circular lining
Q U E w i t h i n t h e t i m e a v a i l a b l e it w a s e s s e n t i a l Fig. 8
that they w e r e s t a c k e d either s i d e of a n T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e t u n n e l lining
INTUNAI m s K C T I V I EllllM ENTRANCE
1)1 I M I S Of JOIN I \Stl SIM l( I unrestricted a c c e s s way.
Ol M\IN I ( ARDIOII) I AREA
Fig. 9
S h a f t No 2: C o n c r e t i n g a d i a p h r a g m w a l l p a n e l
v
13
At the d e s i g n s t a g e s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e
tunnel s e c t i o n s were investigated. T h e
o b j e c t i v e w a s to d e s i g n a lining s e c t i o n
w h i c h c o n t a i n e d the m i n i m u m v o l u m e of ex-
c a v a t i o n , required little or no r e i n f o r c e m e n t
a n d provided the c o n t r a c t o r w i t h a flat
invert in the e x c a v a t i o n to a c t a s a r o a d w a y
during construction. T h e tender design (Fig.
8) w a s a h o r s e s h o e s e c t i o n w i t h r e i n f o r c e d
invert s l a b a n d a n u n r e i n f o r c e d a r c h .
H a v i n g b e e n a w a r d e d the s u b - c o n t r a c t t h e
c o n t r a c t o r p r o p o s e d that the t u n n e l lining
be c h a n g e d to a n u n r e i n f o r c e d c i r c u l a r s e c -
tion. T h e c o n t r a c t o r c o n s i d e r e d t h a t the
i n c r e a s e in t h e v o l u m e s of e x c a v a t i o n a n d
c o n c r e t e w e r e m o r e t h a n b a l a n c e d by t h e
e l i m i n a t i o n of the r e i n f o r c e m e n t in the
invert s l a b . T h e c o n t r a c t o r ' s p r o p o s a l w a s
e v a l u a t e d a n d h a s b e e n a d o p t e d . T h e lay-
out of the s e r v i c e s w i t h i n the t u n n e l h a s
b e e n r e d e s i g n e d for the r e d u c e d m e c h -
anical system.
T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of S h a f t No. 2
T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the d i a p h r a g m w a l l for
the upper half of S h a f t No. 2 c o m m e n c e d in
M a y 1982 a n d w a s c o m p l e t e d in F e b r u a r y
1983. It w a s a r o u t i n e e x e r c i s e in d i a p h r a g m
wall construction, starting with the drilling
of p r e b o r e s to d e f i n e the f i n a l d e p t h of e a c h
p a n e l a n d e n d i n g w i t h the e x c a v a t i o n a n d
c o n c r e t i n g of the f i n a l p a n e l .
T h e key to the s a f e c o n s t r u c t i o n of dia-
p h r a g m w a l l s in s e n s i t i v e a r e a s i s a n
e f f e c t i v e s y s t e m of m o n i t o r i n g a n d a n a -
lyzing the r e s p o n s e of the g r o u n d to the
e x c a v a t i o n of e a c h p a n e l . At S h a f t No. 2 the
e x c e s s h e a d of b e n t o n i t e w i t h i n t h e p a n e l
being e x c a v a t e d w a s m a i n t a i n e d by de-
F i g . 10
S h a f t No 2: C o n s t r u c t i o n of a w a l i n g b e a m
F i g . 11
S h a f t No 2: T h e s t a r t of e x c a v a t i o n
F i g . 12
S h a f t No 2: T h e upper s e c t i o n
F i g . 13
E x c a v a t i o n of a top h e a d i n g in the t u n n e l
F i g . 14
Drilling c h a r g e h o l e s w i t h a n air leg drill
watering f r o m w e l l s i n s i d e the shaft.
P i e z o m e t e r s w e r e i n s t a l l e d in the C D G
a r o u n d the w a l l p a n e l s to e n s u r e that the
head w a s maintained without e x c e s s i v e
drawdown. Inclinometers were installed
a d j a c e n t to c r i t i c a l p a n e l s to monitor the
l a t e r a l m o v e m e n t of the g r o u n d d u r i n g
panel excavation.
T h e m o n i t o r i n g of g r o u n d s u r f a c e settle-
ment p o i n t s s h o w e d that d u r i n g the c o n -
c r e t i n g of the primary p a n e l s the g r o u n d
n e a r b y s e t t l e d by up to 7 5 m m . I n v e s t i g a t i o n
s h o w e d that t h i s w a s c a u s e d by the re-
m o v a l of t h e 4 0 m long s t o p - e n d t u b e s a s
the c o n c r e t e w a s p o u r e d . ( F i g . 9). T h e j a c k s
u s e d to lift the t u b e s w e r e e x e r t i n g very
large r e a c t i o n s on t h e g u i d e w a l l s a n d
e f f e c t i v e l y j a c k i n g t h e m into the g r o u n d .
O n c e r e c o g n i z e d , the p r o b l e m w a s s o l v e d
by c a r e f u l c o n t r o l of the j a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n .
On c o m p l e t i o n of t h e d i a p h r a g m wall
p a n e l s , the toe of t h e w a l l w a s g r o u t e d
t h r o u g h t u b e s c a s t into t h e p a n e l s a n d
b o r e h o l e s drilled a r o u n d the o u t s i d e of the
w a l l . T h e o b j e c t of t h i s e x e r c i s e w a s to
c r e a t e a s e a l b e t w e e n the b o t t o m of the
w a l l a n d the u n d e r l y i n g b e d r o c k . A p u m p
test w a s c a r r i e d out to c o n f i r m that the
c o m p l e t e d w a l l met the r e q u i r e m e n t s of the
p e r f o r m a n c e s p e c i f i c a t i o n a n d all w a s t h e n
ready for the s h a f t to be e x c a v a t e d .
T h e e x c a v a t i o n of the s h a f t w a s a n e x c i t i n g
t i m e on s i t e . F o r the first t i m e the t e a m
c o u l d s e e the s t r a t a w h i c h h i t h e r t o h a d
been o b s c u r e d with bentonite. T h e e x c a v a -
tion c o m m e n c e d w i t h t h e b r e a k i n g out of
the i n n e r g u i d e w a l l ( F i g . 10). A h y d r a u l i c
e x c a v a t o r w a s t h e n p l a c e d in the s h a f t to
' ; d
dig t h e soil a n d load it into s k i p s to be lifted
to the s u r f a c e . A s e a c h w a l i n g b e a m level
w a s r e a c h e d the e x c a v a t i o n w a s tem-
porarily h a l t e d , the c o n n e c t i n g r e i n f o r c e -
ment bent out f r o m the d i a p h r a g m w a l l a n d
the w a l i n g b e a m c a s t ( F i g . 11).
A f t e r 12 w e e k s of e x c a v a t i o n t h e t o e s of the
diaphragm wall panels were finally
r e a c h e d . T h e e x p o s e d rock s u r f a c e w a s
c l e a n e d a n d a large c o n c r e t e c o l l a r f o r m e d
on it to d e f i n e the t r a n s i t i o n to the lower
half of the s h a f t . T h e upper half of S h a f t No.
2 w a s c o m p l e t e ( F i g . 12).
T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the t u n n e l
Aoki Construction C o m p a n y Ltd. moved
o n t o s i t e in F e b r u a r y 1983. T h e i r first t a s k
w a s to e s t a b l i s h the s i t e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
n e c e s s a r y for the s h a f t s i n k i n g a n d t u n n e l -
ling w o r k s ( F i g . 6). T h e key to t h e p l a n n i n g
of the i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w a s t h e m e t h o d of
r e m o v i n g b r o k e n rock f r o m the under-
ground works. T h e sub-contractor installed
a s k i p s y s t e m in S h a f t No. 2. T h e s k i p is
h o i s t e d on g u i d e r a i l s by a w i n c h h o u s e d in
a h e a d g e a r at t h e top of the s h a f t . T h e s k i p
d i s c h a r g e s into a h o l d i n g bin at s u r f a c e .
F r o m the bin the rock i s c a r r i e d by c o n v e y o r
to a b a r g e m o o r e d a d j a c e n t to t h e s i t e .
T h e lower s e c t i o n of S h a f t No. 2 w a s s u n k
by drill a n d b l a s t t e c h n i q u e s to i t s f i n a l
depth of 8 0 m . S h o t h o l e s w e r e drilled w i t h
h a n d - o p e r a t e d air leg d r i l l s . A f t e r the b l a s t
the m u c k w a s l o a d e d into the s k i p w i t h a
small hydraulic excavator.
W h e n the e x c a v a t i o n r e a c h e d the s h a f t
invert a 20m l e n g t h of t u n n e l w a s driven to
c r e a t e s p a c e for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the
 1 W\ *0
Arup Ideas In April t h i s y e a r a n I d e a s C o m p e t i t i o n ,
thought up by S t u a r t Richardson of
w e r e required to d e v e l o p their i d e a s on a
m a x i m u m of three s h e e t s of A 1 paper. T h e
Charged holes:
Rtliet holes
125
NIL
i 1

Competition B u i l d i n g E n g i n e e r i n g G r o u p 2, w a s held c o m p e t i t i o n c l o s e d on 1 A u g u s t , w h e n t h e '3 ' 1

11
Drilled length: 1.8 - 2.4m 11
w i t h over 1,000 prize m o n e y on o f f e r for e n t r i e s w e r e given to t w o a r c h i t e c t s , T e r r y '3

Farrell and T o m Heneghan who acted a s Total explosives: 90kg

d e s i g n s for the m o s t o r i g i n a l p a v i l i o n at
E x p o ' 89 in P a r i s . ( T h i s w a s b e f o r e the E x p o guest judges. Their decision c a m e within a Max. per delay: 9kg
w a s c a n c e l l e d . ) T h e r e w e r e 8 3 e n t r i e s , from f e w d a y s a n d in late S e p t e m b e r the w i n n i n g ':

F i r s t prize: w h i c h 11 w e r e c h o s e n at the p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n s w e r e put on d i s p l a y .

'The R e d B a l l o o n ' j u d g i n g s t a g e in J u n e to go f o r w a r d to the T h e top s i x are f e a t u r e d h e r e , t o g e t h e r w i t h :
:
Alastair Hughes s e c o n d s t a g e , w h e n the s u c c e s s f u l o n e s the j u d g e s ' c o m m e n t s .
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s u b - c o n t r a c t o r ' s u n d e r g r o u n d plant. T h i s pile at the b a s e of the s h a f t . A c r a w l e r for the s e a w a t e r s y s t e m will t h e n r a i s e t h e
CONTR u T I O N TB THE CT OF THE PRDoRCT
length of t u n n e l w a s e x c a v a t e d in t w o loader t r a n s f e r s the rock f r o m the s t o c k p i l e r e m a i n i n g 2 0 m of s h a f t f r o m t h e t u n n e l . T h e
s t a g e s . F i r s t a top h e a d i n g w a s e x c a v a t e d into t h e s k i p for h o i s t i n g to s u r f a c e . r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l height of t h e r a i s e pre-
in t h e upper half of the t u n n e l s e c t i o n ( F i g . To d a t e the p r i m a r y s u p p o r t in the t u n n e l c l u d e s the u s e of s o p h i s t i c a t e d b o r i n g
13). T h e b e n c h in the l o w e r half of t h e e x c a v a t i o n h a s b e e n limited to o c c a s i o n a l e q u i p m e n t . It is p r o b a b l e t h a t the r a i s e w i l l
A s i m p l e i d e a , t h e s i m p l i c i t y of w h i c h w o u l d t r a n s l a t e into r e a l i t y . Very w e l l p r e s e n t e d , both at the b a s i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n section w a s then removed. r o c k b o l t s r e q u i r e d to s t a b i l i z e individual be e x e c u t e d by drill a n d b l a s t u s i n g a
level a n d g r a p h i c a l l y (without r e s o r t i n g to e x t r a o r d i n a r y d r a u g h t s m a n s h i p ) ; the key n o t i o n s a r e very e f f e c t i v e l y e x p l a i n e d .
T h e m a i n t u n n e l e x c a v a t i o n is being c a r r i e d r o c k w e d g e s . S t e e l s e t s a r e kept on s i t e in s i m p l e c l i m b i n g s t a g e for a c c e s s .
T h e b u i l d i n g w o u l d be s o s i m p l e a n d m e m o r a b l e ( a n d b e a u t i f u l ) . B r i l l i a n t l y r e s o l v e s the q u e s t i o n of future u s e u n d e r the
out by drilling a n d b l a s t i n g full f a c e . E a c h c a s e they a r e n e e d e d for t h e s u p p o r t of On c o m p l e t i o n of the e x c a v a t i o n the s h a f t s
p a r a g r a p h ' Q u a n t i t y S u r v e y i n g ' - a h e a d i n g s o r e s o u n d i n g l y dull a n d i n a p p r o p r i a t e that it d r e w t h e e y e i m m e d i a t e l y .
E n g i n e e r i n g p r o w e s s i s a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d in t h i s entry, but not at the e x p e n s e of popular i m a g e r y . T h e i d e a of m a k i n g c y c l e of e x c a v a t i o n c o m m e n c e s w i t h the l o c a l i z e d z o n e s of highly w e a t h e r e d rock. a n d t u n n e l will b e lined w i t h c a s t in s i t u
f l a g s from the b a l l o o n s a p p e a l s e n o r m o u s l y - a s the h u g e red s y m b o l w o u l d a f t e r the event be d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h the c o u n t r y . s e t t i n g out on the f a c e of the p a t t e r n of 125 In the e x c a v a t i o n of a t u n n e l in t h e s e c o n - c o n c r e t e l i n i n g s a n d the m e c h a n i c a l a n d
A very s y m b o l i c g e s t u r e , a s i n d e e d the w h o l e c o n c e p t i s s t r o n g s y m b o l i c a l l y a n d very a p p r o p r i a t e for a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p o . c h a r g e h o l e s ( F i g . 15). T h e a r r a n g e m e n t of d i t i o n s it i s i m p o r t a n t to i n v e s t i g a t e the e l e c t r i c a l w o r k s will be i n s t a l l e d . T h e
h o l e s , the c h a r g e in e a c h a n d the s e q u e n c e g r o u n d a h e a d of the f a c e to d e t e c t poten- s y s t e m is p r o g r a m m e d to be c o m p l e t e d in
of d e t o n a t i o n is d e s i g n e d to r e m o v e a n d t i a l h a z a r d s b e f o r e they a r e e x p o s e d . At S e p t e m b e r 1984.
f r a g m e n t the required a m o u n t of r o c k w i t h approximately weekly intervals three
the m i n i m u m of o v e r b r e a k . T h e s e q u e n c i n g Acknowledgements
h o r i z o n t a l p r o b e h o l e s a r e d r i l l e d a d e p t h of
of d e t o n a t i o n s using standard delays D o u g l a s P a r k e s for h i s a d v i c e a n d a s s i s -
2 0 m into the f a c e . T h e r a t e s of p e n e t r a t i o n
e n s u r e s that the e n e r g y t r a n s m i t t e d into t a n c e in the p l a n n i n g of t h e u n d e r g r o u n d
of the drill b i t s a r e m e a s u r e d a s a
the g r o u n d i s s p r e a d over a period of works.
c o m p a r a t i v e i n d i c a t i o n of the s t r e n g t h of
several s e c o n d s , thereby minimizing the Neil F a r r i n , M e r e t e H e n r i c h s e n , O Y K w a n ,
t h e r o c k m a s s . T h e r a t e s of f l o w of w a t e r
v i b r a t i o n l e v e l s e x p e r i e n c e d at g r o u n d C h r i s N u n n s , C a n W o n g a n d W P Y e u n g for
out of the probe h o l e s a r e a l s o r e c o r d e d .
surface. their c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the p r e p a r a t i o n of
W h e r e s i g n i f i c a n t f l o w s of w a t e r a r e en-
t h i s paper.
T h e c h a r g e h o l e s a r e drilled w i t h t w o three- c o u n t e r e d , the g r o u n d a h e a d of t h e f a c e is
b o o m j u m b o s ( F i g . 16). T h e s e m a c h i n e s a r e g r o u t e d before being e x c a v a t e d . Credits
t r a c k e d p l a t f o r m s on w h i c h a r e m o u n t e d Future work Client:
three hydraulically-positioned drills. T h e At the t i m e of w r i t i n g , the t u n n e l f a c e is 1 Queens Road Central Ltd.
p l a t f o r m s a r e large e n o u g h to a l l o w the 150m f r o m S h a f t No. 2. A f u r t h e r 2 0 5 m of Architect:
d r i l l s to r e a c h all p a r t s of the f a c e . T h e d r i l l s t u n n e l r e m a i n to be e x c a v a t e d . It i s in- Foster Associates
t h e m s e l v e s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y more p o w e r f u l t e n d e d that t h e b a s i c m e t h o d of e x c a v a t i o n
than the alternative hand-operated drills Mechanical and electrical consultants:
will be u n c h a n g e d a l t h o u g h the m u c k i n g
a n d c a n a c h i e v e m u c h f a s t e r drilling r a t e s . J Roger Preston & Partners
operations will be affected by the
increasing haulage d i s t a n c e s and steeper Quantity surveyors:
After the holes have been charged and the
g r a d i e n t s a s the e x c a v a t i o n a p p r o a c h e s Levett & Bailey
round fired, t h e f a c e is v e n t i l a t e d to r e m o v e
r e s i d u a l g a s e s . A c c e s s c a n t h e n be g a i n e d S h a f t No. 1. Management contractor:
for barring d o w n l o o s e r o c k to m a k e s a f e S h a f t No. 1 i s p l a n n e d to be e x c a v a t e d in J o h n Lok/Wimpey Joint Venture
the a r e a a r o u n d the m u c k pile. M u c k i n g out two operations. T h e sub-contractor respon- Sufi-conrracfors:
is b e i n g d o n e w i t h a n L H D ( F i g . 17). T h i s s i b l e for the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the b a s e m e n t Bachy Soletanche Group
rubber-tyred e x c a v a t o r l o a d s the b r o k e n will s i n k the s h a f t to a d e p t h of a b o u t 15m Aoki Construction C o m p a n y Ltd.
rock a n d t r a n s p o r t s it to a t e m p o r a r y s t o c k - b e l o w b a s e m e n t level. T h e s u b - c o n t r a c t o r Haden International Ltd.
Seminar on wind effects on buildings
These two papers by David Croft and Michael Willford formed part of the above Ove Arup Partnership seminar, held in London in May 1983

Surface pressures W i t h the c i r c u l a r s h a p e the flow is a t t a c h e d on the w i n d w a r d f a c e

David Croft
SYNOPSIS
In t h i s paper the g e n e r a l p a t t e r n of w i n d flow a r o u n d b u i l d i n g s is
d i s c u s s e d briefly a n d s o m e of the d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h the u s e of
pressure c o e f f i c i e n t s identified.
Most of the paper, h o w e v e r , is c o n c e r n e d w i t h w i n d t u n n e l
t e s t i n g , in p a r t i c u l a r the n e e d to s p e c i f y the t e s t properly a n d to
interpret the r e s u l t s c o r r e c t l y , if m e a n i n g f u l d e s i g n v a l u e s a r e to
be o b t a i n e d . T o t h i s e n d s o m e s t a t i s t i c a l t h e o r y i s p r e s e n t e d .
During the l a s t y e a r a n u m b e r of w i n d t u n n e l t e s t s h a v e b e e n
c a r r i e d out for v a r i o u s p a r t s of the firm. O n e s u c h t e s t i s
d e s c r i b e d in d e t a i l a n d is u s e d to i l l u s t r a t e the v a r i o u s s t a t i s t i c a l
concepts.
T h e t r e a t m e n t of i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s is d i s c u s s e d , s o m e w h a t
i n c o n c l u s i v e l y , a n d the v a r i o u s o t h e r a s p e c t s that s h o u l d be
c o n s i d e r e d w h e n d e t e r m i n i n g d e s i g n p r e s s u r e s are identified.
It s h o u l d be n o t e d that the p a p e r is b a s e d p r i m a r i l y on e x p e r i e n c e
g a i n e d on high r i s e b u i l d i n g s a n d m a y not be d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e
e i t h e r to s h e d s a n d other low r i s e s t r u c t u r e s or to tall m a s t s a n d
towers.
WIND FLOW AROUND BUILDINGS
F o r a g e n e r a l t r e a t m e n t of w i n d e f f e c t s on b u i l d i n g s , L a w s o n
recommended.
F i g . 1 s h o w s t y p i c a l flow p a t t e r n s a r o u n d t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s h a p e s
of body.
W i t h a s t r e a m l i n e d body t h e f l o w r e m a i n s a t t a c h e d ' over the
whole s u r f a c e and positive and negative pressures occur a s
shown.
but s e p a r a t e s ' at s o m e point a r o u n d the s u r f a c e . In the a t t a c h e d
r e g i m e both p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e p r e s s u r e s o c c u r ; in the a r e a of
s e p a r a t e d flow the p r e s s u r e s are g e n e r a l l y n e g a t i v e only.
T h e point at w h i c h the f l o w s e p a r a t e s is d e p e n d e n t on t h e
R e y n o l d s N u m b e r (defined a s R e = DV/v w h e r e D is the d i a m e t e r ,
V the v e l o c i t y a n d v the v i s c o s i t y ) , the s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s a n d to a
l e s s e r e x t e n t the level of t u r b u l e n c e .
T h e w i n d f l o w a r o u n d a bluff body s u c h a s a b u i l d i n g is s o m e w h a t
more c o m p l e x . O n t h e w i n d w a r d f a c e , a b o v e the ' s t a g n a t i o n
point' w h i c h i s n o r m a l l y a b o u t of the w a y up, the flow t u r n s
u p w a r d s over the top of the b u i l d i n g . B e l o w the s t a g n a t i o n point
the a i r p a s s e s d o w n w a r d s a s s h o w n . T o w a r d s e a c h front e d g e the
w i n d p a s s e s h o r i z o n t a l l y a r o u n d the s i d e s .
T h e flow i s u s u a l l y a t t a c h e d on the w i n d w a r d f a c e a n d s e p a r a t e d
on t h e l e e w a r d f a c e . O n the s i d e f a c e s it will d e p e n d on the a n g l e
of i n c i d e n c e ; w i t h the w i n d n o r m a l to o n e f a c e , the flow on both
s i d e s will be s e p a r a t e d , a l t h o u g h if the d i m e n s i o n in the d i r e c t i o n
of the w i n d is l a r g e the flow m a y ' r e a t t a c h ' .
W i t h the w i n d on one c o r n e r the flow w i l l g e n e r a l l y be a t t a c h e d on
t w o f a c e s a n d s e p a r a t e d on t h e other t w o .
T h e a b o v e c o m m e n t s a p p l y m a i n l y to s m o o t h flow. T u r b u l e n t f l o w
i n t r o d u c e s f l u c t u a t i o n s a s i l l u s t r a t e d d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 2
a n d d e p e n d i n g on the d e g r e e of t u r b u l e n c e , s m a l l n e g a t i v e g u s t
p e a k s m a y o c c u r on the w i n d w a r d f a c e a n d p o s i t i v e p e a k s on the
l e e w a r d f a c e a l t h o u g h the m e a n v a l u e s will g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w the
above pattern.
1
is
PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
T h e p r e s s u r e at a point on t h e s u r f a c e of a b u i l d i n g s u b j e c t e d to
w i n d a c t i o n c a n be e x p r e s s e d a s f o l l o w s :
P ='/2pV2C p (1)
w h e r e p is the d e n s i t y of air
V is t h e w i n d s p e e d
C p i s the p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t .

T h e d e n s i t y of a i r in the s t a n d a r d a t m o s p h e r e c o n d i t i o n ( 1 0 1 . 3 k P a
a n d 15C) is 1.225kg/m a n d CP3: Chapter Vis b a s e d on t h i s .
3

T h e A u s t r a l i a n a n d S o u t h A f r i c a n C o d e s are b a s e d o n a n a m b i e n t
t e m p e r a t u r e of 2 0 C giving a 2 % r e d u c t i o n in d e n s i t y . T h e d e n s i t y
of air in the C a n a d i a n C o d e c o r r e s p o n d s to a t e m p e r a t u r e of 0 C ,
Streamlined body Circulor bluff body
a n i n c r e a s e of 6 % in d e n s i t y .
T h e S o u t h A f r i c a n C o d e a l s o a l l o w s a r e d u c t i o n in d e n s i t y w i t h
altitude a s follows:

H e i g h t a b o v e s e a level (m) Factor

500 0.93
1000 0.88
1500 0.83
2000 0.78

T h e v a r i o u s w i n d c o d e s d e f i n e how E q u a t i o n (1) i s to be a p p l i e d
Pressure distribution a l t h o u g h not a l l c o d e s a p p l y it in the s a m e w a y . T h e s i t u a t i o n i s
Rectangulor bluff body on section obc
s o m e w h a t m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d w h e n r e s u l t s of w i n d t u n n e l t e s t s
are considered, a s different laboratories define pressure
Fig. 1
T y p i c a l w i n d flow p a t t e r n s

l 0 s e c o n d vtervals 10 second tfiter vals

I 11 ' '"'

1 mmule f armoscneie - 0 6 0 seconds in wind tunnel -

Fig. 2
D i a g r a m m a t i c t r a c e of v a r i a t i o n
of p r e s s u r e w i t h t i m e
 T h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s Generalized Force Fi (t) c o r r e s p o n d i n g to m o d e c o e f f i c i e n t s in different w a y s . F o r e x a m p l e , the w i n d s p e e d c a n be e x a m p l e the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the a n n u a l m a x i m a ; s e c o n d l y , to
Mode s h a p e at a p a r t i c u l a r node not on r e f e r e n c e a x i s j i s d e f i n e d in t e r m s of t h e a p p l i e d l o a d s w a n d T a n d t h e m o d e d e f i n e d a s a n y o n e of the f o l l o w i n g : d e s c r i b e the o c c u r r e n c e of a p e a k g u s t v a l u e , for e x a m p l e the
x Component ip j X if/ x
s h a p e \i\ (a) T h e m e a n or g u s t s p e e d at the height under c o n s i d e r a t i o n in m a x i m u m p r e s s u r e that will o c c u r in a n y o n e hour.
y Component i/jyj i^y the f r e e a i r s t r e a m u p w i n d T h e C P F of the F T - 1 d i s t r i b u t i o n is given by
6 Component i^9j 1+19 F](t) = J"w H x d z
+ ciz (1) (b) T h e m e a n or g u s t s p e e d at the r e f e r e n c e height ( u s u a l l y 10m)
x - a (x - u)
either at the s i t e or r e d u c e d to a s t a n d a r d e x p o s u r e
0 0
(c) T h e m e a n gradient w i n d s p e e d P = e " e
(4)
V a l u e s of \t at z = H (d) T h e m e a n or g u s t at either the top or mid-height of the
In t h i s e x p r e s s i o n the m o d e s h a p e a n d the f o r c e s s h o u l d r e l a t e to
x Component a
x j a t h e r e f e r e n c e a x i s s y s t e m , for e x a m p l e the g e o m e t r i c c e n t r e a x i s building under c o n s i d e r a t i o n either w i t h or without t h e w h e r e P is the probability that x will nor be e x c e e d e d .
x

y Component of the building. ( T h e m o d e s h a p e s n e e d not be n o r m a l i z e d ) . building t h e r e . u is the m o d e

a
yj a y

If a f o r c e b a l a n c e t e s t i s c a r r i e d out t h e n the g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e c a n T h e p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t w h e n a p p l i e d to the m e a n w i n d s p e e d l/a is the d i s p e r s i o n

6 Component a6j a 8
b e o b t a i n e d from the t e s t r e s u l t s , a s d e s c r i b e d in the s e c t i o n b e l o w may a l s o either give a m e a n or a gust p r e s s u r e , a s different c o d e s It is o f t e n c o n v e n i e n t to r e a r r a n g e E q u a t i o n (4)
on d e t e r m i n a t i o n of g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e . treat the e f f e c t s of g u s t s in d i f f e r e n t w a y s . C o n s i d e r a b l e c a u t i o n thus
M a s s / u n i t height m(z) m m u s t t h e r e f o r e be e x e r c i s e d w h e n a p p l y i n g E q u a t i o n (1) in
T h e Generalized Mass Mj c o r r e s p o n d i n g to m o d e j is c a l c u l a t e d iog iog ( / )
e e
1
p (5)
s i t u a t i o n s not e x p l i c i t l y c o v e r e d by the r e l e v a n t c o d e , p a r t i c u l a r l y
R o t a t i o n a l inertia/unit height me (z) f r o m the m a s s a n d r o t a t i o n a l i n e r t i a per unit height a n d the mode W h e n a p p l y i n g the F T - 1 d i s t r i b u t i o n it i s u s u a l l y c o n v e n i e n t to
me w h e n u s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n from p u b l i s h e d literature.
shape u thus: w o r k w i t h the mode a n d d i s p e r s i o n . T h e m e a n a n d s t a n d a r d
T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a f u n d a m e n t a l d e f e c t in E q u a t i o n (1) in that it
W i n d load/unit height t r e a t s the p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t in a d e t e r m i n i s t i c w a y . A l t h o u g h d e v i a t i o n , h o w e v e r , c a n be e x p r e s s e d a s f o l l o w s :
H
x Component w (z,t) w (2) the w i n d s p e e d itself i s u s u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d by a p r o b a b i l i s t i c
x
x 0.577
1j = J" rriLi d z + J " m u y d z + Jx
2 2
mQfAQ dz 2
approach, application of E q u a t i o n (1) i m p l i e s a unique (6)
y Component w (z,t)
relationship between velocity and pressure.
y

9 Component T (Z.t) T
T h e c o d e a p p r o a c h , w h e n a p p l i c a b l e , s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s a 1.282
In t h i s e x p r e s s i o n it is a s s u m e d that the c e n t r e of m a s s is on the (7)
w a y of a c h i e v i n g s e n s i b l e upper b o u n d v a l u e s for s t r e n g t h a
G e n e r a l i z e d M a s s in m o d e j r e f e r e n c e a x i s at all l e v e l s . If t h i s i s not the c a s e the f o l l o w i n g m o r e
d e s i g n . H o w e v e r , it m a y b e a r little r e s e m b l a n c e to w h a t h a p p e n s
g e n e r a l e x p r e s s i o n ( e x p r e s s e d here for s i m p l i c i t y for a l u m p e d The Weibull distribution
in reality a n d will u s u a l l y be of limited u s e in s e r v i c e a b i l i t y
m a s s model) s h o u l d be u s e d : W h i l e the F T - 1 d i s t r i b u t i o n is n o r m a l l y a p p l i e d to the e x t r e m e
G e n e r a l i z e d S t i f f n e s s in m o d e j K
) calculations.
v a l u e s of a p o p u l a t i o n , for e x a m p l e t h e m a x i m a o c c u r r i n g e a c h
[Mi : M J iMji (3) F u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s is a v a i l a b l e in the y e a r , the W e i b u l l (or F i s h e r - T i p p e t t T y p e 3) d i s t r i b u t i o n i s o f t e n
Background gust factor 9B E S D U p u b l i c a t i o n s a l t h o u g h t h e s e a l s o tend to be d e t e r m i n i s t i c
2

u s e d to d e s c r i b e the p o p u l a t i o n a s a w h o l e . T h e C P F is given by
where I ] is the v e c t o r of node d i s p l a c e m e n t s d e f i n i n g the m o d e in a p p r o a c h .
Resonant gust factor S R s h a p e a n d I M ] is the m a s s m a t r i x ( c o n t a i n i n g o f f - d i a g o n a l t e r m s
a s a p p r o p r i a t e ) w i t h r e s p e c t to the r e f e r e n c e a x i s .
If it is r e q u i r e d to i n v e s t i g a t e p r e s s u r e s further, t h e n t h i s is best
d o n e by m e a n s of a w i n d t u n n e l t e s t . T h e r e m a i n d e r of t h i s p a p e r
- ' (X c)

C r i t i c a l d a m p i n g ratio i T h e Generalized Stiffness K j c o r r e s p o n d i n g to m o d e j is r e l a t e d to P= e (8)

d i s c u s s e s w h a t is involved.
the g e n e r a l i z e d m a s s t h u s H e r e P i s the probability that x will be e x c e e d e d , c a n d k a r e
Cycle frequency V
K = (2nn )2M (4) WIND TUNNEL T E S T P R O C E D U R E constants.
j j j
T h e first s t e p i s to m a k e a s c a l e m o d e l of the p r o j e c t e d develop- If k = 1 t h e n the d i s t r i b u t i o n i s e x p o n e n t i a l a n d if k = 2 it i s k n o w n
T h e f o l l o w i n g q u a n t i t i e s w h i c h v a r y w i t h t i m e a r e t r e a t e d in t e r m s w h e r e nj is the f r e q u e n c y of that m o d e . m e n t . T h i s n e e d not be a n e x a c t r e p l i c a of w h a t is to be built a s the R a y l e i g h D i s t r i b u t i o n . E x p r e s s i o n s for the m e a n a n d
of m e a n , R M S a n d p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y v a l u e s . (generally t h i s i s not p o s s i b l e a n y w a y during the initial d e s i g n s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n do e x i s t but they a r e in t e r m s of g a m m a
T h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s Generalized Displacement Aj(t) c o r r e s p o n d i n g
s t a g e s w h e n the d e s i g n i n f o r m a t i o n i s required), but s h o u l d f u n c t i o n s a n d require t a b l e s to e v a l u a t e .
to m o d e j i s f o u n d from the g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e a n d s t i f f n e s s t h u s
c o n t a i n t h o s e e l e m e n t s that will h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t . S o m e
Inst. V a l u e Mean RMS PSD Other distributions
A
i<t) = F
j(l)'Kj (5) simplification is indeed of benefit w h e n interpreting the
at t i m e t at f r e q . n r e s u l t s , a s it i s l e s s likely that s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s will be o b s c u r e d O t h e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s s o m e t i m e s m e n t i o n e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e a r e the
T h e g e n e r a l i z e d d i s p l a c e m e n t v a r i e s with time a n d c a n be c o n - by s u p e r f i c i a l e f f e c t s . S i m i l a r l y , the s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a need only L o g n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ( w h i c h is a n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n a p p l i e d to
Generalized Force s i d e r e d in three c o m p o n e n t s : be m o d e l l e d in a very g e n e r a l i z e d w a y . the l o g a r i t h m of x) a n d the F T - 2 (or F r e c h e t ) d i s t r i b u t i o n ( w h i c h i s
Fj(t) Fj S F ) mi
(a) A m e a n v a l u e A j w h i c h is given by a F T - 1 d i s t r i b u t i o n a p p l i e d to the l o g a r i t h m of x ) .
T h e model is t h e n m o u n t e d in the w i n d t u n n e l on a t u r n t a b l e s o
B a s e balance forces: _ F| that w i n d f r o m all d i r e c t i o n s c a n be m o d e l l e d . T h e s i z e of the
(6) m o d e l is n a t u r a l l y limited by the d i m e n s i o n s of the w i n d t u n n e l a s V a r i a t i o n of p r e s s u r e w i t h t i m e
F o r c e in x-dirn FxB<*>
F
x B FxB s
FxB( > n
the ' b l o c k a g e f a c t o r ' (i.e. t h e ratio of the a r e a in e l e v a t i o n of the T h e v a r i a t i o n of p r e s s u r e at a point on the s u r f a c e of a building i s
m o d e l to t h e a r e a of c r o s s - s e c t i o n of the t u n n e l ) m u s t be kept s h o w n d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 2. T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of g u s t
(b) A f l u c t u a t i n g c o m p o n e n t d u e to the b a c k g r o u n d (or b r o a d b a n d )
s u f f i c i e n t l y low, o t h e r w i s e the edge e f f e c t s of t h e s i d e s of the p r e s s u r e s about the m e a n v a l u e is u s u a l l y w e l l d e s c r i b e d a s a
F o r c e in y-dirn FyBW F
y B 0
F y B SFyB< > n
e x c i t a t i o n . T h i s is c a u s e d by the t u r b u l e n c e of the w i n d l o a d i n g , in
o t h e r w o r d s the g u s t s , a n d o c c u r s i r r e s p e c t i v e of a n y d y n a m i c tunnel become significant.
r e s p o n s e of the s t r u c t u r e . T h e b a c k g r o u n d R M S v a l u e of A j (t) is It i s a l s o e s s e n t i a l that the w i n d s t r u c t u r e is c o r r e c t l y m o d e l l e d
M o m e n t about x - a x i s M x B (t) M
x B MxB SfVlxB( ) n

g i v e n by a n d the p r o f i l e s of t h e v a r i a t i o n of m e a n w i n d s p e e d a n d
t u r b u l e n c e w i t h height s h o u l d be s p e c i f i e d . It is a l s o n e c e s s a r y to
0
A Bj = (7)
Moment about y - a x i s MyB(0 My B
MyB s
MyB> > n
F
i'Ki s p e c i f y the P o w e r S p e c t r a l D e n s i t y w h i c h d e f i n e s how t h e
t u r b u l e n c e i s s p r e a d a c r o s s the r a n g e of g u s t f r e q u e n c i e s .
(c) A f l u c t u a t i n g c o m p o n e n t due to the r e s o n a n c e of the s t r u c t u r e .
Torque F u r t h e r d e t a i l s on the p r o c e d u r e s a r e c o n t a i n e d in R e f e r e n c e s 3
M8B> M9B M8B SM9B< ) n
T h e R M S of t h i s is given by
and 4.

Generalized displace- Aj(t) ABJ (background) * A i =

>/itK*\ n
J Fj<nj)
S (8)
STATISTICAL THEORY
ment in m o d e j
{ ARJ (resonant)
w h e r e i is the c r i t i c a l d a m p i n g ratio a n d S F j is the p o w e r s p e c t r a l
Probability distributions
F i g . 3 s h o w s three probability d i s t r i b u t i o n s that a r e c o m m o n l y
d e n s i t y ( P S D ) of F(t) at t h e f r e q u e n c y nj of the m o d e under c o n - NORMAL D I S T R I B U T I O N
X - d i s p l a c e m e n t in u s e d in w i n d e n g i n e e r i n g .
sideration.
mode j Xj(t) X It i s i m p o r t a n t to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n the P r o b a b i l i t y D e n s i t y
x In order to c a l c u l a t e the m e a n a n d R M S v a l u e s of the g e n e r a l i z e d
F u n c t i o n ( P D F ) a n d the C u m u l a t i v e P r o b a b i l i t y F u n c t i o n ( C P F ) .
d i s p l a c e m e n t it is n e c e s s a r y to d e t e r m i n e the m e a n , R M S a n d P S D
Y - d i s p l a c e m e n t in T h e C P F i s t h e integral of t h e P D F .
of the g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e F . T h i s is d i s c u s s e d in the next s e c t i o n .
mode j Yj(t) Y y
D e t e r m i n a t i o n of g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e The Normal distribution
G e n e r a l i z e d a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s c a n be e s t i m a t e d a n a l y t i c a l l y or T h e P D F of t h e N o r m a l (or G a u s s i a n ) d i s t r i b u t i o n is given by
R o t a t i o n in m o d e j 6j(t) 6 e by p e r f o r m i n g w i n d t u n n e l t e s t s . T h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s how
g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e s in m e a n , R M S a n d P S D c o m p o n e n t s a r e deter-
x-acceleration *(t) m i n e d f r o m the r e s u l t s of f o r c e b a l a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s on a rigid
x
(2)
m o d e l in a w i n d t u n n e l t e s t , (in w h i c h no s t r u c t u r a l d y n a m i c e f f e c t s FISHER TIPPETT TYPE I DISTRIBUTION
y-acceleration y(t) Oy are m o d e l l e d ) . T h e b a s e f o r c e s a n d m o m e n t s m e a s u r e d a r e purely (3)
a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s w h i c h c a n be e x p r e s s e d a s : where
ox
9-acceleration e'(t) 9
F o r c e in x-dirn (9)
x = the m e a n of x
:
xB> =
x = the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of x.
Modal a n a l y s i s
T h e first s t e p is to c a r r y out a d y n a m i c m o d a l a n a l y s i s of the s t r u c - E q u a t i o n (2) m u s t be i n t e g r a t e d n u m e r i c a l l y to o b t a i n the C P F .
ture to d e t e r m i n e t h e f r e q u e n c i e s a n d m o d e s h a p e s of the s t r u c - The Fisher-Tippett Type 1 distribution
ture in free v i b r a t i o n . F o r c e in y-dirn F (t) = J"w dz (10)
y B y
F i s h e r a n d T i p p e t t i n v e n t e d three d i s t r i b u t i o n s w h i c h they c a l l e d
WEIBULL DISTRIBUTION
Generalized quantities T y p e s 1 to 3. G u m b e l w a s the first to a p p l y the T y p e 1 d i s t r i b u t i o n
T h e r e s p o n s e of a s t r u c t u r e to w i n d e x c i t a t i o n is m o s t e a s i l y s o l v e d to n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g p h e n o m e n a a n d t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s there-
by c o n s i d e r i n g g e n e r a l i z e d q u a n t i t i e s a s d e s c r i b e d below. T h e fore s o m e t i m e s referred to a s the G u m b e l d i s t r i b u t i o n . Fig. 3
m e t h o d i s m e r e l y s t a t e d here a n d , for further information, Moment about x-axis M g(t) = J " w z d z
x y
(11) T h e F T - 1 d i s t r i b u t i o n i s c o m m o n l y u s e d in t w o w a y s in w i n d Probability distributions
r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d be m a d e to the literature. e n g i n e e r i n g : first to d e s c r i b e the o c c u r r e n c e of w i n d s p e e d s , for
w h o l e by a n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ( F i g . 4) ( a l t h o u g h a s d i s c u s s e d
b e l o w it d o e s not a l w a y s hold for the e x t r e m e t a i l s ) .
T h e f l u c t u a t i n g p r e s s u r e c a n be e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of a m e a n
v a l u e ( u s u a l l y the m e a n hourly v a l u e ) a n d the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n
(often referred to a s t h e r o o t - m e a n - s q u a r e or R M S v a l u e ) . T h e s e
v a l u e s c a n be m e a s u r e d in a w i n d t u n n e l t e s t .

Averaging interval
W h e n c o n s i d e r i n g the p r e s s u r e on a b u i l d i n g it is n e c e s s a r y to
d e t e r m i n e the a p p r o p r i a t e a v e r a g i n g i n t e r v a l . T h i s will d e p e n d on
t h e s i z e of t h e e l e m e n t under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , for e x a m p l e w h e t h e r
it is t h e w h o l e b u i l d i n g or a s i n g l e c l a d d i n g unit.
It c a n be s e e n f r o m F i g . 4 that t h e s h o r t e r the a v e r a g i n g interval
t h e h i g h e r the p e a k v a l u e will be. O n l y the w i n d e d d i e s that a r e
l a r g e e n o u g h to e n c o m p a s s the w h o l e e l e m e n t or b u i l d i n g w i l l
h a v e a n e f f e c t . S m a l l e r e d d i e s will not be c o r r e l a t e d a c r o s s the
w h o l e s u r f a c e a n d will c a n c e l e a c h other out. T h e a p p r o p r i a t e
a v e r a g i n g interval T (in s e e s ) is given by the f o l l o w i n g e m p i r i c a l Fig. 4
relationship. P D F of f l u c t u a t i n g p r e s s u r e
4.5 L
T = 0)

w h e r e L i s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e length in m e t r e s
V is the m e a n hourly v e l o c i t y in m / s e c . 1 E.err* vau
l e i Not "lit ia>i i
In CP3: Chapter ( / C l a s s e s A , B, a n d C c o r r e s p o n d to a v e r a g i n g
i n t e r v a l s of 3, 5 a n d 15 s e c o n d s r e s p e c t i v e l y . ( T h e 3 s e c o n d s for
C l a s s A i s a n h i s t o r i c a l a n o m a l y a n d s h o u l d be s h o r t e r . J i
A l l o w a n c e for t h i s is m a d e in t h e v a l u e s of the p r e s s u r e i 1
i
c o e f f i c i e n t s in the c o d e . ) Parem populate" <
1 1
Extreme values A '
F o r t h e p u r p o s e of d e s i g n w e a r e i n t e r e s t e d in the m a x i m u m g u s t
p r e s s u r e a n d , h a v i n g d e t e r m i n e d t h e m e a n hourly v a l u e a n d the

s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n , w e n e e d to find t h e m a x i m u m p e a k v a l u e that 1
p.~~..
will o c c u r during a n y o n e hour.
O n e w a y of d e t e r m i n i n g t h i s in the w i n d t u n n e l is to run t h e test Fig. 5
for o n e hour a n d m e a s u r e the l a r g e s t v a l u e that o c c u r s . Unfor- P D F ' s of parent a n d e x t r e m e p r e s s u r e s
t u n a t e l y , t h e r e i s a d i f f i c u l t y here a s w h a t m a y h a p p e n in o n e hour
m a y not h a p p e n in a n o t h e r . F o r e x a m p l e o n e s a m p l e m a y c o n t a i n
a ' r o g u e ' high v a l u e w h i c h might o c c u r only o n c e in s a y 100 h o u r s .
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , a high p e a k m a y not o c c u r .
O n e w a y of o v e r c o m i n g t h i s p r o b l e m i s to t a k e a n u m b e r of one-
hour s a m p l e s a n d t h e n c a r r y out a n e x t r e m e v a l u e a n a l y s i s to
d e t e r m i n e the e x p e c t e d m a x i m u m v a l u e . T h i s , h o w e v e r , is
e x p e n s i v e in t u n n e l time a n d is not n o r m a l l y j u s t i f i e d .
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , the e x p e c t e d m a x i m u m v a l u e c a n be e s t i m a t e d by
m a k i n g a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t the s t a t i s t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of the
distribution. F i g . 5 s h o w s d i a g r a m a t i c a l l y the p r o b a b i l i t y
d i s t r i b u t i o n of all g u s t s a n d a l s o the p r o b a b i l i t i e s of the
m a x i m u m p r e s s u r e that will o c c u r d u r i n g a given period.
It c a n be s h o w n that if the parent p o p u l a t i o n i s n o r m a l l y
4

d i s t r i b u t e d ( E q u a t i o n s 2 & 3), t h e n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of the m a x i m u m

v a l u e i s c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a t e d by a F T - 1 d i s t r i b u t i o n ( E q u a t i o n 4)
w i t h m o d e a n d d i s p e r s i o n given by

-.x+o \f x |2log vTI e (10)

a = 7 0 \/"l2log vT| e (11) Averaging interval (Seconds)

Fig. 6
w h e r e v is the c y c l e f r e q u e n c y a n d T is t h e length of time V a r i a t i o n of v T w i t h a v e r a g i n g interval
c o n s i d e r e d (ie 3600 s e e s ) .
T h e c y c l e f r e q u e n c y v is given by the e x p r e s s i o n
It c a n be s h o w n that, for the exponential tail Equation (13) a l s o
4

oo holds but with Equation (14) replaced by

J n 1 S
n d n
r j , = (log v T + 0.577)/1.35 (16)
' = ~ (12) In order to determine t h e s e v a l u e s it is n e c e s s a r y first to evaluate vl.
J s d n n
P u b l i s h e d d a t a s e e m s to indicate that vT normally lies in the range
100-1000 but more detailed information on the subject is s c a r c e . For
the present purpose it h a s been evaluated by applying Equation (12)
w h e r e S is the P o w e r S p e c t r a l Density at f r e q u e n c y n ( w h i c h c a n
n
to the E S D U f o r m u l a for the Power S p e c t r a l Density for the free air
2

be m e a s u r e d in the w i n d tunnel test) a n d is a m e a s u r e of the flow but truncated at the frequency corresponding to the averaging
d i s t r i b u t i o n of different g u s t f r e q u e n c i e s . interval. T h e results are s h o w n in F i g . 6.
T h e product v T i s , in e f f e c t , the number of s t a t i s t i c a l l y independent
T y p i c a l v a l u e s for ri, a n d n-, obtained in t h i s w a y , a r e s h o w n in
g u s t s that will o c c u r during a period of one hour. T h e m a x i m u m
T a b l e 1.
e x p e c t e d v a l u e that will o c c u r will be given by the m e a n of the
e x t r e m e v a l u e distribution. S u b s t i t u t i n g in E q u a t i o n (6) then g i v e s Table 1
(13) Averaging
: x + r),o
I n t e r v a l (t s e e s ) vT 1i 12
0.577
where , -\f |2 log.i/Ti +
sf[2 log v T | (14) 0.5 1400 3.95 5.78
1 950 3.86 5.51
A s already noted, however, in a r e a s of s e p a r a t e d flow the 3 450 3.66 4.95
a s s u m p t i o n of the normal distribution d o e s not hold for the extreme 5 300 3.55 4.65
tails of the distribution and L a w s o n s u g g e s t s an exponential 1

10 180 3.40 4.27

relationship (above r) = 2.7) of the form 15 130 3.31 4.03
- 1.35rj 30 70 3.11 3.57
P= (15) 60 35 2.87 3.04
 C A S E STUDY: EXCHANGE SQUARE, HONG KONG

PDF
4^ Project description
T h e s i t e for t h e E x c h a n g e S q u a r e D e v e l o p m e n t is l o c a t e d in
(relative
f r e q u e n c y of c e n t r a l H o n g K o n g c l o s e to the S t a r F e r r y t e r m i n a l a n d the
amplitudes)
e x i s t i n g C o n n a u g h t T o w e r ( F i g . 7).
J I JV L
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t c o m p r i s e s t w o 5 0 - s t o r e y a n d o n e 37-storey

0
o f f i c e t o w e r s a b o v e a n o p e n p l a z a at first floor level. B e n e a t h the
p l a z a a r e the b u s s t a t i o n s for T h e C h i n a Motor B u s C o m p a n y a n d
r t h e P u b l i c Light B u s C o m p a n y . A l s o i n c l u d e d in the d e v e l o p m e n t
Rayleigh Distribution o
amplitudes
)
i
in n a r r o w - b a n d r a n d o m r e s p o n s e
is a n e w S t o c k E x c h a n g e t r a d i n g h a l l .

Test details
\ x
W i n d t u n n e l t e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d out by t h e D e p a r t m e n t of
A e r o n a u t i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g at B r i s t o l U n i v e r s i t y during the period
S e p t e m b e r - N o v e m b e r 1982. T h e s e t e s t s i n c l u d e d p r e s s u r e
m e a s u r e m e n t s on the t w o 50-storey t o w e r s a n d a r o u n d t h e b a s e
\ a n d a l s o on the C o n n a u g h t T o w e r . A n e n v i r o n m e n t a l w i n d t e s t
5o Amplitude
i note o = i
w a s a l s o c a r r i e d out.
T h e model ( F i g . 8) w a s m a d e to a s c a l e of 1:500. T h e d e t a i l s of t h e
s u r r o u n d i n g b u i l d i n g s w e r e b a s e d on p h o t o g r a m m e t r i c r e a d i n g s
t a k e n f r o m a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s s u p p l e m e n t e d by a d d i t i o n a l infor-
of A m a t i o n on n e a r b y b u i l d i n g s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e t o t a l
r e s o nl ,a n t
response
n u m b e r s of p r e s s u r e t a p p i n g p o i n t s w e r e 297 on E x c h a n g e
S q u a r e a n d 180 on C o n n a u g h t C e n t r e . T h e t i m e s c a l e w a s 1:100.
T h e w i n d s i m u l a t i o n w a s b a s e d on the w o r k c a r r i e d out at the
Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Laboratory, Ontario, C a n a d a
Fig. 7
( B L W T L ) in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the H o n g k o n g a n d S h a n g h a i B a n k .
E x c h a n g e S q u a r e : s i t e plan
T h e r e s u l t s of t h o s e s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d that the w i n d p r o f i l e s from
all d i r e c t i o n s c a n be m o d e l l e d w i t h five a l t e r n a t i v e e x p o s u r e s a s
s h o w n in F i g . 9.
O b t a i n e d from d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e / P r e s s u r e s at e a c h t a p p i n g point w e r e m e a s u r e d for w i n d
wind climate integration
d i r e c t i o n s at 15 i n t e r v a l s . F o r s o m e d i r e c t i o n s t w o or m o r e
e x p o s u r e s w e r e s p e c i f i e d a n d the w o r s t c a s e t a k e n s o that t h e r e
w e r e a total n u m b e r of 33 p e r m u t a t i o n s of d i r e c t i o n a n d e x p o s u r e .
F u r t h e r d e t a i l s a r e given in r e f e r e n c e (4).
No ot h o u r s p a
that rms r e s p o n s e
Results
is e x c e e d e d
C o n t o u r s of peak p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e o n e - s e c o n d g u s t
II the n a t u r a l p e r i o d ? of t h e s t r u c t u r e is 4 s e e s I hour is e q u i v a l e n t p r e s s u r e s for t h e t w o t o w e r s A 1 a n d A 2 a r e s h o w n in F i g . 10.
to 3 6 0 0 / T = 9 0 0 c y c l e s of o s c i l l a t i o n
E x a m i n e d i s t r i b u t i o n ot a m p l i t u d e s tor 1 hour s h a d e d a b o v e T h e s e r e s u l t s all c o r r e s p o n d to t h e 50-year w i n d ( m e a n hourly
for w h i c h o 20 g r a d i e n t v e l o c i t y 47.1 m/s) a c t i n g in t h e w o r s t d i r e c t i o n for e a c h
l o c a t i o n . P o l a r plots s h o w i n g the v a r i a t i o n of p r e s s u r e w i t h w i n d
d i r e c t i o n at four c r i t i c a l l o c a t i o n s a r e s h o w n in F i g . 1 1 .
T h e m a x i m u m n e g a t i v e o n e - s e c o n d g u s t p r e s s u r e o c c u r r e d at
l o c a t i o n 15 w h i c h i s at the top level on t h e north c y l i n d e r on T o w e r
A 2 . T h e r e a s o n for t h i s is the c u r v e d s u r f a c e to w h i c h the f l o w
s t i c k s rather t h a n s e p a r a t i n g at a s h a r p e d g e a n d t h i s in t u r n
i n d u c e s a higher s u r f a c e s p e e d a n d h e n c e a higher s u c t i o n .
I n t e g r a l ot P D F g i v e s p r o p o r t i o n ot Fig. 8 H i g h s u c t i o n s a l s o o c c u r r e d at L o c a t i o n s 38 a n d 6 0 w h i c h w e r e
amplitudes e x c e e d i n g given levels
E x c h a n g e S q u a r e : w i n d t u n n e l model d i r e c t l y below L o c a t i o n 15. It is i n t e r e s t i n g to note that t h e

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F i g . 17
Hongkong and Shanghai Bank
v a r i a t i o n of N-S m o m e n t r e s p o n s e F i g . 18 Fig. 9 0 02 0_06 08 >0
with w i n d s p e e d a n d d a m p i n g D e v e l o p m e n t of fatigue load C e n t r a l Hong K o n g w i n d p r o f i l e s
m a x i m u m o n e - m i n u t e s u c t i o n o c c u r r e d at L o c a t i o n 60 a n d the o v e r e s t i m a t e , o f t e n quite s i g n i f i c a n t l y , the v a l u e s that will o c c u r
m a x i m u m m e a n s u c t i o n at L o c a t i o n 38, i n d i c a t i n g that t h e at e a c h l o c a t i o n o n c e in 50 y e a r s . F o r e x a m p l e , if the m a x i m u m
g e n e r a l flow pattern i s s i m i l a r for m o s t of the height. T h e m e a n p r e s s u r e o c c u r s over only a s m a l l r a n g e of w i n d d i r e c t i o n s ( F i g .
p r e s s u r e w a s a m a x i m u m n e a r m i d h e i g h t w h i l e the t u r b u l e n c e 11) a n d if t h e latter c o i n c i d e w i t h t h o s e from w h i c h s t r o n g w i n d s
i n c r e a s e d both a b o v e a n d b e l o w that level. do not o c c u r , t h e n the probability of a high p r e s s u r e o c c u r i n g at
T h i s b a n d of high s u c t i o n w a s quite n a r r o w in both s i z e a n d w i n d that l o c a t i o n will be greatly r e d u c e d .
d i r e c t i o n a s d e m o n s t r a t e d by F i g s . 10 a n d 1 1 .
Hong Kong wind climate
T h e s a m e e f f e c t did not o c c u r at the c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o s i t i o n on T h e r e s u l t s of the B L W T L H o n g K o n g C l i m a t e s t u d y i n d i c a t e d
T o w e r A 1 . T h i s w a s b e c a u s e of the s h i e l d i n g by the C o n n a u g h t that the high w i n d s p e e d s a p p r o p r i a t e to s t r e n g t h d e s i g n a r e
T o w e r for the c r i t i c a l w i n d d i r e c t i o n . i n v a r i a b l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t y p h o o n s . T h e r e s u l t s of the B L W T L
T h e r e w a s a n i n t e r e s t i n g high s u c t i o n at l o c a t i o n 160 n e a r the t y p h o o n m o d e l c a n be fitted by a W e i b u l l f u n c t i o n ( s e e a b o v e )
b a s e of the s o u t h - e a s t f a c a d e of T o w e r A 1 . T h i s w a s probably d u e thus
to the p r o x i m i t y of the C o n n a u g h t T o w e r c a u s i n g a ' V e n t u r i '
e f f e c t in the g a p b e t w e e n . T h e f a c t that it o c c u r r e d n e a r g r o u n d
N = Ae
(V (17)
level m a y be d u e to the s p e e d - u p of the w i n d a n d s e p a r a t i o n f r o m
the roof of the t r a d i n g hall at the b a s e of the t o w e r s . w h e r e N i s the number of h o u r s / y e a r on a v e r a g e that V is
In c o m p a r i s o n , the p r e s s u r e s in the g a p b e t w e e n the T o w e r A 1 exceeded.
a n d A 2 w e r e very m u c h a non-event, i n d i c a t i n g that t h i s g a p is
V is t h e g r a d i e n t m e a n hourly v e l o c i t y .
s u f f i c i e n t l y s m a l l to m a k e the w i n d p a s s round the o u t s i d e s of the
two towers rather than in-between. A, C a n d k a r e c o n s t a n t s for e a c h w i n d d i r e c t i o n a n d are a v a i l a b l e
t a b u l a t e d for 15 a z i m u t h i n t e r v a l s . E q u a t i o n (17) i s s h o w n plotted
T h e m a x i m u m p o s i t i v e g u s t p r e s s u r e o c c u r r e d at l o c a t i o n 166 in F i g . 12.
near the b a s e of T o w e r A 1 .
I n t e g r a t i o n by a z i m u t h
E F F E C T O F WIND C L I M A T E
F r o m E q u a t i o n (17) a n d a s s u m i n g that t h e p r e s s u r e at e a c h point
General
is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the s q u a r e of the gradient v e l o c i t y , the n u m b e r
T h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d a b o v e a r e for the s i t u a t i o n of the 50-year
of h o u r s / y e a r N that a p r e s s u r e X is e x c e e d e d is given by
x
w i n d (from all d i r e c t i o n s c o m b i n e d ) a c t i n g in t h e w o r s t d i r e c t i o n
for e a c h l o c a t i o n .
/V, A v
T h e s e v a l u e s a r e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the d e f i n i t i o n of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 360 - f / 1
or w o r k i n g w i n d l o a d s implied by CP3:Chapter V w h e n u s e d in N =
x 2 A e
e ^ x - . V (18)
c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h CP110, CP114 or BS449. T h e y w i l l , h o w e v e r , 9 =0

+ ve Pressures

F i g . 10
Exchange Square: -ve Pressures
gust p r e s s u r e s
 E q u a t i o n (19) i m p l i e s that in a t y p h o o n t h e r e a r e . on a v e r a g e , 14.8
s t a t i s t i c a l l y d e p e n d e n t h o u r s of w i n d .
EXCHANGE SQUARE L DC AT ON 15 EXCHANGE SQUARE UXAIION 160

T h e a b o v e a p p r o a c h i s greatly s i m p l i f i e d a n d a more r i g o r o u s
t r e a t m e n t a s u s e d at B L W T L is p r e s e n t e d by S u r r y ef a / . R e s u l t s 6

from the a b o v e m e t h o d , h o w e v e r , h a v e b e e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h o s e
o b t a i n e d by B L W T L a n d a g r e e m e n t g e n e r a l l y f o u n d to be w i t h i n
2%.

T h e r e s u l t s for s o m e of the c r i t i c a l l o c a t i o n s on E x c h a n g e S q u a r e
a r e s h o w n plotted in F i g . 13 a n d the 50 y e a r event v a l u e s a r e
s h o w n plotted a g a i n s t the v a l u e s w i t h the 50 y e a r w i n d in the
w o r s t d i r e c t i o n in F i g . 14.

Expected maximum values

H a v i n g f o u n d v a l u e s of the p r e s s u r e X for v a r i o u s return p e r i o d s
(R), w e c a n now c o n s i d e r the m a x i m u m v a l u e that c a n be
e x p e c t e d to o c c u r w i t h i n a given lifetime.

It is evident from F i g 13 that the p r e s s u r e X is e f f e c t i v e l y a linear

f u n c t i o n of log R, i.e.

Scale: 1 cm = 2 kPa X = X. + 1 '/ ' a l o g ( R / 5 n )e

(20)

w h e r e X, is the 50-year return period v a l u e a n d a is a c o n s t a n t

EXCHANGE SQUARE LOCATION 166 C0NNAUGHT LOCATION I.S from w h i c h

N= /R =
l l
/ 5 0 e - a ( X
- X
" (21)

w h e r e N i s t h e a v e r a g e number of o c c a s i o n s per y e a r that X will

be e x c e e d e d . (N here is the n u m b e r of s t a t i s t i c a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t
e v e n t s a n d s h o u l d not be c o n f u s e d w i t h N w h i c h i s the t o t a l x

n u m b e r of e v e n t s per year.)

T h e e x p e c t e d n u m b e r of s u c h o c c u r r e n c e s in T y e a r s is t h u s NT.
A s s u m i n g a P o i s s o n d i s t r i b u t i o n for the a r r i v a l s , then the
probability Pj of X not being e x c e e d e d in T y e a r s is given by

a(X-X)
- NT -T/ 5 0 e
Pj = e = e (22)

w h i c h , for a d e s i g n lifetime of 50 y e a r s , r e d u c e s to

Fig. 11 - a(X-X.)
V a r i a t i o n of p r e s s u r e with w i n d d i r e c t i o n - e
P, = e (23)

w h e r e V is the 50 y e a r gradient v e l o c i t y ( 4 7 J m/s)

H l E q u a t i o n (23) will be r e c o g n i z e d a s a n F T - 1 d i s t r i b u t i o n , E q u a t i o n
x
, , 8 is the p r e s s u r e at the point w i t h V< at 9 (4). T h e e x p e c t e d m a x i m u m v a l u e X that will o c c u r during the
A 9 , Cg a n d kg a r e the W e i b u l l c o e f f i c i e n t s for a n g l e 8. d e s i g n lifetime will be the m e a n of t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n w h i c h , from
E q u a t i o n (18) g i v e s the n u m b e r of h o u r s on average that a given E q u a t i o n (6) is given by
v a l u e X will be e x c e e d e d . If e a c h hour of w i n d w a s s t a t i s t i c a l l y
i n d e p e n d e n t then the return period R (in y e a r s ) for a given v a l u e of 0.577
X w o u l d be given by R = 1/N . S u c c e s s i v e h o u r s of w i n d h o w e v e r , x = x, + (24)
X

a r e not i n d e p e n d e n t a n d o n e typhoon will p r o d u c e s e v e r a l h o u r s

of high w i n d s . It c a n be s h o w n that, for the Hong K o n g t y p h o o n
5

c l i m a t e a s given by E q u a t i o n (17), t h e return period R of X T h e v a l u e of a c a n be f o u n d c o n v e n i e n t l y from E q u a t i o n (20) t h u s

o c c u r r i n g is given by
'/a = (X -X,)/log 2 e

14.8
R =
N v (19) .-. X = 0 . 1 6 8 X , + 0.832 X , (25)

V /

<&/ /
1 s =
/ y y
L. 1 "
I
s I 0
?
&
t 0 8
^^^^^ '
I

10 W 100 10 2 0 30 40 50

Relu>i petHjd ea>&

RADIAL SCALt External pressure 50 year wmd m wcxsi direction kPa

- Inward
0 Outward
Average No of '>.', ".!* V * eiceeOeo
within a 15* sector from eatri cVecton

s mean hou'i, a/*tMnl velocity

F i g . 12 Fig- 13 Fig. 14
Hong Kong Extreme pressures External pressures:
typhoon climate at s e l e c t e d l o c a t i o n s 50 y e a r v a l u e s
 o _

7 " i!
,

' -
Tower A 2
i
I .
UJ - i mean pressure n K P a
1 s e c o n d gust p r e s s u r e m k P a

10 2 0 3 0 4 0

E x t e r n a l pressure 5 0 yea> wind m worst direction k P a i-109

i,.204
* Inward
o * Outward

O p e n i n g al
F i g . 15 F i g . 16 location 10
External pressures: Internal p r e s s u r e s :
equivalent working loads possible design scenario

A l l o w a n c e for u n c e r t a i n t y
T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l definition of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w i n d load a s
noted a b o v e i s that load w h i c h o c c u r s w i t h the 50-year w i n d
a c t i n g in the w o r s t direction for the m e m b e r under c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
It i s evident that t h i s will a l w a y s be a n upper bound to the load
w h i c h will o c c u r o n c e in 50 y e a r s . ( T h e t w o v a l u e s w o u l d be the
s a m e if the p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t at the point w a s the s a m e for all
w i n d d i r e c t i o n s , for e x a m p l e , at t h e top of a c i r c u l a r dome.) It
f o l l o w s that a l t h o u g h the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e of the p r e s s u r e , if
d e f i n e d in t h i s w a y , is not a very good e s t i m a t e , it will tend to be
on the s a f e s i d e a n d t h e probability that it will be e x c e e d e d will be
correspondingly reduced.
In c o n t r a s t , the e x p e c t e d m a x i m u m v a l u e during a s p e c i f i e d
d e s i g n lifetime a s derived a b o v e w i l l , by d e f i n i t i o n , be a better
prediction. It w i l l , in f a c t , h a v e roughly a 5 0 % probability of being
e x c e e d e d (the e x p e c t e d v a l u e is t a k e n here a s t h e m e a n of the
e x t r e m e v a l u e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d the m e a n a n d the m e d i a n are not
very different). T h i s l o g i c a l l y r e q u i r e s a larger f a c t o r of s a f e t y to
be applied in the d e s i g n .
In order to d e t e r m i n e a n a p p r o p r i a t e load f a c t o r to u s e in t h i s
c a s e the m e t h o d c o n t a i n e d in the draft Part 2 of the r e v i s e d CP110 3 '
and d e s c r i b e d in more d e t a i l in r e f e r e n c e (7) h a s b e e n u s e d . T h e
b a s i s of that m e t h o d is that the required u l t i m a t e s t r u c t u r a l
r e s i s t a n c e R i s related to the e x p e c t e d m a x i m u m load e f f e c t S
u

as follows:

R J> 0.94S (1 + 4.8^(0.01 + 0.77v

u (26) 1 0 2 0 3 0

External pressure kPa

w h e r e v is the c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n of S . = Inward = Outward

In t h i s c a s e the e x p e c t e d v a l u e i s given by E q u a t i o n (24) a n d all
that is required is to find a n a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e for v.
T h e u n c e r t a i n t y i s m a d e up of t w o p a r t s :
(a) T h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a n e x t r e m e w i n d o c c u r r i n g in a c r i t i c a l
d i r e c t i o n a s s u m i n g that the s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s i s c o r r e c t : i.e. the
v a r i a b i l i t y of the w i n d c l i m a t e itself.
(b) T h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s in the s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s , the w i n d
s i m u l a t i o n a n d the p r e s s u r e r e a d i n g s , i.e. the u n c e r t a i n t y in our
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the w i n d c l i m a t e .
T h e e f f e c t s of (a) c a n be d e t e r m i n e d from the p r o p e r t i e s of the
F T - 1 d i s t r i b u t i o n for w h i c h t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n is given by
E q u a t i o n (7).
For (b) a v a l u e of 1 0 % h a s been t a k e n :
C o m b i n i n g the u n c e r t a i n t i e s
'- I 1.282 yL 2 0.1 2
r
' ax '
In order to c o m p a r e t h i s a p p r o a c h w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l definition
of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e , the r e s u l t s from E q u a t i o n (26) h a v e
been divided by a load f a c t o r of 1.6 to p r o d u c e e q u i v a l e n t w o r k i n g
l o a d s a n d t h e s e a r e s h o w n plotted in F i g . 15.
T h e r e s u l t s , in t h i s c a s e , s h o w that the t r a d i t i o n a l definition i s
g e n e r a l l y quite a d e q u a t e for the bulk of the r e s u l t s . H o w e v e r , it
o v e r e s t i m a t e s the higher s u c t i o n s , w h e r e the e f f e c t s d e s c r i b e d
a b o v e will be m o s t p r o n o u n c e d , by up to 2 0 % .
INTERNAL PRESSURES
General
In a d d i t i o n to the e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s a s m e a s u r e d in the w i n d
t u n n e l t e s t , a l l o w a n c e m u s t be m a d e for the i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s
14 w i t h i n the building.
F i g . 17
T o t a l p r e s s u r e s v. e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s
F o r the c a s e of full a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g a n d c l a d d i n g w h i c h is
n o m i n a l l y airtight, the p e r m e a b i l i t y of the o u t e r s k i n of t h e
building, under n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s , will be very low. T h e internal
p r e s s u r e will t h e r e f o r e be largely g o v e r n e d by the d i s p o s i t i o n of
the A / C i n t a k e a n d e x h a u s t , the e f f e c t of w h i c h i s d i f f i c u l t to
q u a n t i f y , e v e n w h e n t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e .
CP3 Chapter V s u g g e s t s , in s u c h c a s e s w h e n t h e r e i s a ' n e g l i g i b l e
probability' of a dominant opening occurring, pressure
c o e f f i c i e n t s of +0.2/-0.3, w h i c h e v e r is m o r e o n e r o u s . C o m p a r i n g
t h e s e with t h e m a x i m u m relevant c o e f f i c i e n t s for the e x t e r n a l
p r e s s u r e s in the s a m e c o d e ( - 1.2/+ 0.8) i n d i c a t e s a n e x t r a 1 7 %
or 3 8 % on n e g a t i v e a n d p o s i t i v e e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s r e s p e c t i v e l y .
G u i d a n c e on internal p r e s s u r e s is a l s o given by t h e C a n a d i a n
(27) W i n d C o d e , w h i c h for t h i s c a s e i n d i c a t e s p r e s s u r e s of the order of
0.5 k P a for the c a s e w i t h o u t d o m i n a n t o p e n i n g s .
T h e H K W i n d C o d e r e q u i r e s a v a l u e of + 0 . 6 P / - 0 . 5 P ( w h e r e P i s
the b a s i c p r e s s u r e ) for n o m i n a l l y airtight s u r f a c e s a n d 0.9P for
s u r f a c e s w h i c h a r e o p e n a b l e or b r e a k a b l e .
If d o m i n a n t o p e n i n g s c a n o c c u r (in t h i s c o n t e x t a s i n g l e broken
w i n d o w c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a s a d o m i n a n t o p e n i n g ) t h e n the
C a n a d i a n c o d e s u g g e s t s a p p l y i n g a g u s t f a c t o r of 2.5 to the
f i g u r e s quoted a b o v e i.e. 1.25 k P a .
T h e U K c o d e for t h i s c o n d i t i o n g i v e s v a r i o u s v a l u e s for p r e s s u r e
c o e f f i c i e n t s d e p e n d i n g on w h e r e t h e o p e n i n g o c c u r s , up to a
m a x i m u m of + 0 . 6 / - 0 . 9 l e a d i n g to e x t r a p r e s s u r e s of 5 0 % a n d
110% respectively.
T w o d e s i g n c a s e s c a n t h u s be identified: first the n o r m a l
s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h the outer s k i n of the building r e m a i n s i n t a c t ,
the s e c o n d when a dominant opening o c c u r s .
T h e e f f e c t of a n o p e n i n g o c c u r r i n g in a c r i t i c a l p o s i t i o n h a s been
s t u d i e d u s i n g the E x c h a n g e S q u a r e test r e s u l t s by s u b - d i v i d i n g
t h e m into g r o u p s in e a c h t o w e r a n d at the s a m e level. F o r e a c h
l o c a t i o n a n d for e a c h w i n d d i r e c t i o n the e f f e c t of a n o p e n i n g
o c c u r r i n g at e a c h other l o c a t i o n at the s a m e level is c o n s i d e r e d
a n d the w o r s t c a s e f o u n d .
F i r s t , h o w e v e r , it is n e c e s s a r y to d e t e r m i n e the r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n t h e p r e s s u r e i n s i d e a n d the p r e s s u r e i m m e d i a t e l y
o u t s i d e a n o p e n i n g . T h i s will d e p e n d on how q u i c k l y the internal
p r e s s u r e c a n follow the c h a n g e in p r e s s u r e o u t s i d e . T h i s is
e x a m i n e d in d e t a i l in R e f e r e n c e (5) w h e r e it is s h o w n that the t i m e
t in s e c o n d s to r e a c h e q u i l i b r i u m is given by
t = 2.5x10"'(V/A)vSp (28)
w h e r e V is t h e v o l u m e ( m ) , in t h i s c a s e of o n e floor of
1
the
building.
A is the a r e a ( m ) of the o p e n i n g .
2
Ap i s t h e initial p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n i n s i d e a n d
outside (Pa).
T a k i n g V = 4000 m ' , A = 2 m a n d c o n s i d e r i n g , for e x a m p l e ,
2
l o c a t i o n 15 w i n d d i r e c t i o n 4 5 , t h e t i m e t a k e n for the internal
p r e s s u r e to c h a n g e from the m e a n v a l u e ( 8 0 0 P a ) to the m a x i m u m
n e g a t i v e v a l u e (4370 P a ) will be
t = 2.5 X 10"'x ^P\/3570
4
= 3secs.
If, h o w e v e r , the floor is s u b d i v i d e d by p a r t i t i o n s the v o l u m e will be
d e c r e a s e d a n d h e n c e the time t a k e n to r e a c h e q u i l b r u m c o u l d be
somewhat less.
T h e c o n s e r v a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n c a n t h e r e f o r e be m a d e that the
internal p r e s s u r e s will be e q u a l to the o n e - s e c o n d e x t e r n a l
pressures immediately outside an opening.
H a v i n g d e t e r m i n e d the i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e it is n e c e s s a r y to d e c i d e
how it will c o m b i n e w i t h the e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e at a n o t h e r l o c a t i o n .
T h i s will d e p e n d on w h e t h e r or not the p r e s s u r e s a r e c o r r e l a t e d . In
t h i s c a s e it s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e z e r o c o r r e l a t i o n a n d the
t o t a l p r e s s u r e p c a n t h e n be e s t i m a t e d f r o m
p = p + Pj + V\ (Pe - P e ) + (Pi - Pi> l
e
2 2
(29)
where p e p e a r e the e x t e r n a l m e a n a n d g u s t v a l u e s
Pi Pi a r e the i n t e r n a l m e a n a n d g u s t v a l u e s .
T h e m a x i m u m r e s u l t a n t p r e s s u r e o b t a i n e d in t h i s w a y o c c u r s
a g a i n at l o c a t i o n 15 w i t h a n o p e n i n g at l o c a t i o n 10 a s i l l u s t r a t e d
in F i g . 16. T h e m a x i m u m o u t w a r d o n e - s e c o n d p r e s s u r e i s given by
p = 0.8 + 1 . 0 9 + v/"l (4.37 - 0 . 8 ) + (2.04 - 1.09) I
2 2
= 5.58 k P a
T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a n i n c r e a s e of 2 8 % on the e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e ,
w h i c h by c o i n c i d e n c e a g r e e s w e l l w i t h t h e v a l u e of 3 0 %
s u g g e s t e d by the A m e r i c a n c l a d d i n g c o n s u l t a n t on the project a s
being c o m m o n p r a c t i c e in the U S A .
T h e r e i s a c o r o l l a r y , h o w e v e r , to t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n . If a n o p e n i n g
o c c u r s at l o c a t i o n 15 t h e n , for t h e s a m e w i n d d i r e c t i o n (45), t h e
r e s u l t a n t i n w a r d p r e s s u r e at l o c a t i o n 10 will a l s o be 5.58 k P a , a n
i n c r e a s e of 1 7 0 % on the e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e .
C o m m o n s e n s e , h o w e v e r , s u g g e s t s that if l o c a t i o n 15 is d e s i g n e d
for a g r e a t e r p r e s s u r e t h a n l o c a t i o n 10 t h e n the p r o b a b i l i t y of a n
o p e n i n g at l o c a t i o n 15 will be l e s s t h a n that at 10 a n d t h e r e f o r e
the d e s i g n p r e s s u r e at the latter s h o u l d be lower. T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n s t r e n g t h required to that provided c l e a r l y a f f e c t s the
p r o b a b i l i t i e s in a w a y that is d i f f i c u l t to q u a n t i f y .
In F i g . 17 t o t a l p r e s s u r e s at e a c h point a r e plotted a g a i n s t
e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s . It will be s e e n that in virtually all c a s e s the
ratio e x c e e d s the s u g g e s t e d v a l u e of 1.3. T h e e f f e c t i s more
p r o n o u n c e d for i n w a r d p r e s s u r e s a n d it is a p p a r e n t that a c r i t i c a l
c o n d i t i o n w i l l , in theory, a r i s e if a n o p e n i n g o c c u r s at a point of
high s u c t i o n . It s h o u l d , h o w e v e r , be noted that b r e a k a g e i s itself
a n unlikely event a n d if a c c o u n t c o u l d be t a k e n of t h i s p r o b a b i l i t y
the design values would be correspondingly reduced.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s is not r e a d i l y q u a n t i f i a b l e .
T h e c o n c l u s i o n s that c a n be d r a w n f r o m t h i s a r e , to a c e r t a i n
e x t e n t , p h i l o s o p h i c a l . On the o n e h a n d it c a n be a r g u e d that the
d e s i g n p r e s s u r e at a n y o n e level s h o u l d be the s a m e a n d t h i s is
c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the b e n e f i t s of m a i n t a i n i n g u n i f o r m i t y of
s t r e n g t h a n d d e t a i l . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , it c a n be a r g u e d that the best
protection is to s t r e n g t h e n t h e s e c r i t i c a l a r e a s a n d h e n c e r e d u c e
the p o s s i b i l i t y of b r e a k a g e o c c u r r i n g there. F u r t h e r m o r e , s h o u l d a
b r e a k a g e o c c u r t h e n it c o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s a n e x t r e m e c a s e in
w h i c h a r e d u c e d f a c t o r of s a f e t y w o u l d be j u s t i f i e d .
H o w e v e r , a s d i s c u s s e d in the n e x t s e c t i o n , internal p r e s s u r e s a r e
not the only d i f f i c u l t y .
DESIGN V A L U E S
T h e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s that c a n l o g i c a l l y be c o n s i d e r e d in deter-
m i n i n g d e s i g n p r e s s u r e i n c l u d e the f o l l o w i n g :
(1) V a r i a t i o n of p r e s s u r e at e a c h l o c a t i o n w i t h w i n d d i r e c t i o n
(2) V a r i a t i o n of p r o b a b i l i t y of w i n d s p e e d s o c c u r r i n g w i t h w i n d
direction
(3) Internal p r e s s u r e s and design s c e n a r i o s
(4) P o s s i b i l i t y of k n o c k - o n e f f e c t s , i.e. d a m a g e to other p a n e l s
c a u s e d by the f a i l u r e of o n e p a n e l
(5) T h e v a r i a b i l i t y of c l a d d i n g s t r e n g t h i n c l u d i n g t i m e - d e p e n -
dency
(6) T h e d e s i g n life of the c l a d d i n g
(7) A c c e p t a n c e c r i t e r i a . A s s u m i n g s o m e f a i l u r e s (e.g. b r o k e n
w i n d o w s ) during the d e s i g n lifetime a r e a c c e p t a b l e , h o w
m a n y , how o f t e n ? W h a t level of s a f e t y is r e q u i r e d ?
(8) Statutory requirements
(9) O t h e r f a c t o r s b e s i d e s s t r e n g t h will o f t e n g o v e r n the d e s i g n ,
e.g. u n i f o r m i t y of g l a s s t h i c k n e s s , c o l o u r a n d f l a t n e s s ,
repetition of d e t a i l s , light a n d heat t r a n s m i s s i o n , d u r a b i l i t y ,
etc.
(10) C o n t r a c t u a l m a t t e r s i n c l u d i n g the s p e c i f i c a t i o n , d e s i g n
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d g u a r a n t e e s , load test r e q u i r e m e n t s e t c .
Of t h i s list I t e m s 1-3 h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d in the s e c t i o n s on w i n d
c l i m a t e a n d i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s a b o v e . Item 4 i s not r e a d i l y
q u a n t i f i a b l e a n d i t e m s 8-10 a r e b e y o n d the s c o p e of t h i s paper.
Under Item 5 it i s w o r t h n o t i n g that w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g the s t r e n g t h
of g l a s s , the a p p r o p r i a t e a v e r a g i n g interval m a y w e l l be of a
longer d u r a t i o n b e c a u s e of t h e r e d u c t i o n in s t r e n g t h w i t h
d u r a t i o n of l o a d . F o r e x a m p l e , the ratio of the o n e - s e c o n d
s t r e n g t h to the o n e - m i n u t e s t r e n g t h m a y well be g r e a t e r t h a n the
ratio of o n e - s e c o n d to o n e - m i n u t e p r e s s u r e s .
I t e m s 6 a n d 7 c a n , in theory at l e a s t , be d e c i d e d by the d e s i g n e r
although d e s i g n e r s are notoriously (and justifiably) coy about
d e f i n i n g d e s i g n l i f e t i m e s for their b u i l d i n g s . ( I n c i d e n t a l l y , it i s
w o r t h noting that if a b u i l d i n g h a s 500 w i n d o w s e a c h e x a c t l y
d e s i g n e d for the 50-year e v e n t , it d o e s not f o l l o w , a s is s o m e t i m e s
s u g g e s t e d , that 10 w i n d o w s will b r e a k e a c h y e a r . T h e l o a d s on
individual e l e m e n t s a r e not s t a t i s t i c a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t e v e n t s . )
CONCLUSIONS
A n u m b e r of c o n c l u s i o n s c a n be s u m m a r i z e d a s f o l l o w s :
(1) T h e d e c i s i o n to e m b a r k on a w i n d t u n n e l t e s t i s not o n e that
s h o u l d be t a k e n lightly. A l t h o u g h s u c h t e s t s w i l l u s u a l l y give a
better q u a l i t a t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the e f f e c t s of w i n d on the
building, clients and a r c h i t e c t s normally expect more tangible
b e n e f i t s . If the r e s u l t s a r e to be u s e d q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , g r e a t c a r e
m u s t be t a k e n w h e n s p e c i f y i n g the t e s t a n d in i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e
r e s u l t s a s the latter w i l l , to a large e x t e n t , r e f l e c t the v a r i o u s
assumptions made.
(2) T h e w i n d t u n n e l path l e a d s i m m e d i a t e l y a w a y f r o m t h e c o s y
w o r l d of d e t e r m i n i s t i c p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s a n d the d e s i g n e r
m u s t be p r e p a r e d to a c c e p t that the r e s u l t s w i l l be in the f o r m of
p r o b a b i l i s t i c s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h m a y not readily be a s s i m i l a t e d
into the d e s i g n p r o c e s s . In p a r t i c u l a r it r e q u i r e s a c c e p t a n c e
c r i t e r i a that a r e a l s o p r o b a b i l i s t i c in form.
(3) In s o m e c a s e m o r e benefit will be a c h i e v e d at l e s s e x p e n s e a n d
in a s h o r t e r time by a s t u d y of the l o c a l c l i m a t e a n d the e f f e c t s of
l o c a l topology t h a n by c a r r y i n g out a w i n d t u n n e l t e s t .
(4) If i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e on the d i r e c t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s of t h e
w i n d c l i m a t e t h e n l o w e r d e s i g n p r e s s u r e s c a n be o b t a i n e d by
i n t e g r a t i n g the w i n d t u n n e l r e s u l t s w i t h t h e w i n d c l i m a t e .
H o w e v e r , if t h i s i s d o n e t h e n c a u t i o n m u s t be e x e r c i s e d a s
c o n v e n t i o n a l load f a c t o r s m a y not be a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e r e s u l t i n g
pressures.
(5) Internal p r e s s u r e s a r e d i f f i c u l t to d e a l w i t h in a l o g i c a l m a n n e r
a n d t h e q u e s t i o n of the a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n s c e n a r i o r e q u i r e s
resolution.
References
(1) L A W S O N , T V . W i n d e f f e c t s on b u i l d i n g s : V o l u m e 1: D e s i g n
a p p l i c a t i o n s . A p p S c i e n c e P u b l i s h e r s , 1980.
(2) E N G I N E E R I N G S C I E N C E D A T A U N I T ( E S D U ) . V a r i o u s d a t a
i t e m s . ( S e t s of t h e s e a r e held by D a v i d C r o f t a n d J o h n T y r r e l l ) .
(3) C R O F T , D.D. T s u e n W a n w i n d t u n n e l t e s t s , The Arup Journal,
14(A), pp. 14-18, 1979.
(4) O V E A R U P P A R T N E R S H I P J o b 11575/52: E x c h a n g e S q u a r e
w i n d t u n n e l t e s t , R e p o r t No. 3, F e b 1983.
(5) Ibid, Report No. 4, F e b 1983.
(6) S U R R Y , D. et al. W i n d i n d u c e d e x t e r i o r s u c t i o n s a n d p r e s s u r e s
on the n e w H o n g k o n g a n d S h a n g h a i B a n k B u i l d i n g , H o n g K o n g .
Univ. of W e s t e r n O n t a r i o . E n g . S c i e n c e R e s e a r c h R e p o r t , B L W T -
SS14-1981 (Prelim).
(7) C R O F T D.D. A n a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h to u l t i m a t e limit s t a t e
d e s i g n , The Arup Journal, 17(2), pp. 1 3 - 1 8 , 1 9 8 2 .
Structural response
Michael Willford
SYNOPSIS
T h e trend in building d e s i g n t o w a r d s taller, lighter a n d more flexible
f o r m s h a s led to buildings that c a n be s u s c e p t i b l e to s i g n i f i c a n t
d y n a m i c wind r e s p o n s e s . T h e r e s p o n s e s that are of primary c o n c e r n
are
(a) P e a k s t r u c t u r a l l o a d s ( e n h a n c e d by d y n a m i c m a g n i f i c a t i o n )
(b) Peak s w a y d e f l e c t i o n s ( e n h a n c e d by d y n a m i c m a g n i f i c a t i o n )
(c) Fatigue cycling
(d) M o v e m e n t s that are perceptible to o c c u p a n t s .
T r a d i t i o n a l q u a s i - s t a t i c m e t h o d s c a n n o t a d e q u a t e l y predict
behaviour of d y n a m i c a l l y s e n s i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s .
T h e a i m of this paper is to outline the b a s i c principles involved a n d to
d e s c r i b e s o m e of the m e t h o d s that a r e currently a v a i l a b l e a s d e s i g n
tools. It is s e e n that the prediction p r o c e d u r e is a three-part p r o c e s s :
T h i s is a problem that c a n be e n c o u n t e r e d in slender c h i m n e y s a n d
long-span s u s p e n s i o n bridge d e c k s for e x a m p l e . It is not normally a
c o n s i d e r a t i o n in buildings.
In the a b s e n c e of a e r o e l a s t i c e f f e c t s the total r e s p o n s e of a building
c a n be c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s m e a s u r e d on rigid
m o d e l s (or e s t i m a t e d a n a l y t i c a l l y ) a n d the s t r u c t u r a l d y n a m i c pro-
p e r t i e s of the building, a s will be illustrated later. In this c a l c u l a t i o n
a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s a r e required in m e a n a n d fluctuating c o m -
p o n e n t s , not s i m p l y p e a k v a l u e s . F l u c t u a t i n g c o m p o n e n t s are
e x p r e s s e d a s r m s v a l u e s (giving the total m a g n i t u d e of f l u c t u a t i o n s )
a n d the power s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y (giving the frequency distribution of
fluctuations).
T h e e f f e c t s of wind g u s t s on the drag f o r c e a r e now d i s c u s s e d for a
building with a nominal s i z e B a n d drag c o e f f i c i e n t C D .
If the i n s t a n t a n e o u s total wind s p e e d is V = V + v
the
where V m e a n hourly
and v gust s p e e d
then total i n s t a n t a n e o u s drag force is
F D = Vi p V 2
B 2
C D

(1) Determine the properties of the w i n d at the s i t e

(2) Determine the overall a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s on the building ;pB ColV2 2
+ 2Vvi ignoring s e c o n d order t e r m s
including the s p e c t r u m of the f l u c t u a t i n g c o m p o n e n t s
(3) Determine the d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e of the building to t h e s e F (1 D + ^ w h e r e FQ is the m e a n d r a g f o r c e
forces.
WIND F O R C E S ON B U I L D I N G S It c a n be s e e n that the f l u c t u a t i o n s in F D a r e e x p e c t e d to be propor-
W i n d flow around buildings is d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 2 of David C r o f t ' s tional to the f l u c t u a t i o n s in v. In p r a c t i c e this is not the c a s e over the
paper on s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e s , a n d in more detail by L a w s o n . 1

full f r e q u e n c y range of g u s t s for the following r e a s o n s :

A building s t a n d i n g in a flow of turbulent w i n d will be s u b j e c t e d to
randomly f l u c t u a t i n g a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s in the along-wind (drag),
c r o s s - w i n d (lift) a n d t o r s i o n a l d i r e c t i o n s a s illustrated in F i g . 1. All
t h e s e f o r c e s will d e p e n d on the direction, velocity profile a n d tur-
b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the incident w i n d , a n d a l s o on the s h a p e
of the building. A l t h o u g h a n a l y t i c a l m e t h o d s e x i s t to predict the
along-wind f o r c e s (provided the wind c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d drag coef-
ficient of the building, including a n y variation with height, are
known) in g e n e r a l , model testing t e c h n i q u e s a r e required to obtain
full information. Rigid m o d e l s m o u n t e d on b a s e b a l a n c e s may be
u s e d for this p u r p o s e w i t h the following q u a l i f i c a t i o n s :
(I) Reynold's number effects
O n e of the c o m p r o m i s e s invariably required in the wind tunnel
modelling of s t r u c t u r e s in s i m u l a t e d boundary layer f l o w s is a mis-
m a t c h of R e y n o l d ' s number. T h i s is not important w h e n d e a l i n g with
sharp-edged s t r u c t u r e s (e.g. r e c t a n g u l a r buildings) b e c a u s e the flow
s e p a r a t i o n points a r e defined by the geometry of the s t r u c t u r e .
H o w e v e r for more s t r e a m l i n e d bodies, s u c h a s c y l i n d r i c a l c h i m n e y s ,
the s e p a r a t i o n points a r e related to R e y n o l d ' s number a n d it is not
normally p o s s i b l e to obtain r e a l i s t i c r e s u l t s from a s m a l l - s c a l e test.
(i) D r a g c o e f f i c i e n t C Q is o b s e r v e d to v a r y s o m e w h a t w i t h g u s t fre-
quency.
(ii) L a c k of c o r r e l a t i o n of s m a l l g u s t s (i.e. s m a l l e r in s c a l e t h a n the
b u i l d i n g s i z e ) over the b u i l d i n g s u r f a c e c a u s e s a r e d u c t i o n of drag
f o r c e f l u c t u a t i o n s at higher f r e q u e n c i e s . T h i s is k n o w n a s the
a e r o d y n a m i c a d m i t t a n c e e f f e c t , a n d its m o d i f i c a t i o n to the e f f e c -
tive d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 2.
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
A brief d i s c u s s i o n of the p r i n c i p l e s a n d t e r m i n o l o g y of s t r u c t u r a l
d y n a m i c s is given b e l o w , a s a n e c e s s a r y p r e l i m i n a r y to the d e s c r i p -
t i o n of r e s p o n s e to f l u c t u a t i n g w i n d f o r c e s .
Simple one-degree of freedom structure
R e f e r e n c e is first m a d e to a very s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e i l l u s t r a t e d in
F i g . 3 , c o n s i s t i n g of a m a s s M at the top of a light v e r t i c a l e l a s t i c
c a n t i l e v e r . T h e l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of the tip of the c a n t i l e v e r is K (i.e.
its l a t e r a l d e f l e c t i o n under s t a t i c l a t e r a l load P is P / K ) . If the m a s s
i s d i s p l a c e d l a t e r a l l y a n d then r e l e a s e d , the s y s t e m will o s c i l l a t e
f r o m s i d e to s i d e w i t h f r e q u e n c y n w h e r e
0

(it) Aeroelastic effects 'M (Hzi

2n
A e r o e l a s t i c i t y is the p h e n o m e n o n of the interaction of a e r o d y n a m i c
f o r c e s a n d s t r u c t u r a l m o v e m e n t s . T h i s c a n lead to a e r o d y n a m i c inst- T h i s is the n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y of the s t r u c t u r e . T h e d e f l e c t e d s h a p e
ability w h e r e s u c c e s s i v e o s c i l l a t i o n s of a s t r u c t u r e a f f e c t the of the s t r u c t u r e w h e n v i b r a t i n g in a s i n g l e mode is referred to a s the
a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s in s u c h a w a y a s to further e x c i t e the o s c i l l a t i o n . modeshape.

L a r g e g u s t s fully c o r r e l a t e d Small gusts become less

c o r r e l a t e d over s u r f a c e

Along - wind Id'*g I

B a s e d on m e a s u r e m e n t s on s q u a r e p l a t e s in t u r b u l e n t flow

Wind dirtc'ion X J
(n)

In this F r e q u e n c y r a n g e
effective drag coefficient
r e d u c e d by a factor of
t/io = 10
2

Reduced ^
frequency
ID''

I n c r e a s i n g gust f r e q u e n c y
Fig. 1 Fig. 2 d e c r e a s i n g gust size

Wind-response directions Aerodynamic admittance

 i x = X s i n ( 2 n n t +*)
Mass M I

p = P stn 2 n n t

Light e l a s t i c cantileve
stiffness K
-
2TT v M
Hi

J M
Hi

'/////////' Critical damping

11.

odeshape

i
2-"

C y c l e number

1 +2 etc
/

Steady ate response

Time

Decay of f r e e o s c i l l a t i o n

V of
applied fu'i.e

Fig. 3 Fig. 4
One degree-of-freedom structure Mechanical admittance

If the s t r u c t u r e i s left to o s c i l l a t e the a m p l i t u d e of its m o t i o n will Practical building structures

g r a d u a l l y d e c a y a s e n e r g y is d i s s i p a t e d in d a m p i n g . D a m p i n g is
u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d a s w h i c h is the proportion of the c r i t i c a l d a m p -
ing of the s t r u c t u r e ( c r i t i c a l d a m p i n g is the m i n i m u m d a m p i n g
n e c e s s a r y to c a u s e the s t r u c t u r e to m o v e in o n e d i r e c t i o n to rest
a f t e r being r e l e a s e d , w i t h no o s c i l l a t i o n ) . P r a c t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e
lightly d a m p e d w i t h t y p i c a l l y 0 . 5 % to 2 % of c r i t i c a l d a m p i n g .
S t r u c t u r a l d a m p i n g c a n be e s t i m a t e d from the d e c a y rate of f r e e
oscillation a s follows:
T h e l o g a r i t h m i c d e c r e m e n t 6 is d e f i n e d a s
0 _ | | a m p l i t u d e in c y c l e N
o
T h e d y n a m i c p r o p e r t i e s of p r a c t i c a l b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e s lead to the
s a m e general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s those described above. However,
the p r e c i s e f o r m u l a t i o n is m o r e c o m p l e x b e c a u s e
(a) M a s s , s t i f f n e s s a n d loading a r e c o n t i n u o u s l y d i s t r i b u t e d , not
conveniently separated and localized.
(b) Buildings are three-dimensional.
T h e c o n t i n u o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n of m a s s a n d s t i f f n e s s m e a n s that
m a n y m o d e s of vibration a r e p o s s i b l e , e a c h w i t h its o w n n a t u r a l
f r e q u e n c y . A f a m i l y of l a t e r a l m o d e s h a p e s for one p r i n c i p a l direc-
tion of a u n i f o r m tall b u i l d i n g is s h o w n in F i g . 5 in order of i n c r e a s -
ing n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y . A s e c o n d f a m i l y of s i m i l a r m o d e s h a p e s will

e
a m p l i t u d e In c y c l e N + 1
be p r e s e n t for a s e c o n d p r i n c i p a l t r a n s l a t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n , a n d third
and i = 6 12* f a m i l y for t o r s i o n a l m o d e s . In other w o r d s for a p r a c t i c a l 3-D s t r u c -
If the s t r u c t u r e is n o w s u b j e c t e d to a h a r m o n i c f o r c e p = P s i n 2 n n t ture there a r e t h r e e 'first m o d e s ' , three s e c o n d m o d e s ' , etc., w h e r e
a p p l i e d to the m a s s , its r e s p o n s e will vary with the f r e q u e n c y of the f i r s t ' a n d ' s e c o n d ' d e s c r i b e the g e n e r a l e l e v a t i o n a l s h a p e of the
f o r c e , n. a s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 4. mode.

F o r f r e q u e n c i e s w e l l b e l o w the n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y of the s t r u c t u r e If the m a s s a n d s t i f f n e s s c e n t r e s do not c o i n c i d e in plan

the r e s p o n s e i s q u a s i - s t a t i c , the i n s t a n t a n e o u s f o r c e a n d d e f l e c - t h r o u g h o u t the s t r u c t u r e the m o d e s will not be s i m p l e t r a n s l a -
tion being t i o n a l a n d t o r s i o n a l m o d e s . T h e r e will still be three 'first m o d e s '
but e a c h m a y c o n t a i n a m i x t u r e of t r a n s l a t i o n a n d t o r s i o n . T h i s is
p = Psin2rrnt i l l u s t r a t e d by F i g s . 10 to 12 s h o w i n g t h e a r r a n g e m e n t a n d
x = Xsin2rrnt where X = P/K m o d e s h a p e s of t h e H o n g k o n g a n d S h a n g h a i B a n k B u i l d i n g .
In p r a c t i c e it is f o u n d that g e n e r a l l y only the first m o d e s m a k e a n y
As n approaches n a resonance occurs causing dynamic
0 s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n to w i n d - i n d u c e d r e s p o n s e of tall b u i l d i n g s .
m a g n i f i c a t i o n of the r e s p o n s e a m p l i t u d e . W h e n a s t e a d y s t a t e h a s S e c o n d m o d e s m a y h o w e v e r b e c o m e s i g n i f i c a n t n e a r the top of a
been reached: building.
X = mP/K

where m m a x = ^ at n - n 0

F o r lightly d a m p e d s t r u c t u r e s t h i s r e s o n a n c e o c c u r s over a n a r r o w
b a n d of f r e q u e n c i e s w i t h a high r e s o n a n c e m a g n i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r .
Note that a s the d a m p i n g ratio t e n d s to zero the m a g n i f i c a t i o n
t e n d s to infinity. T h e s t e a d y s t a t e r e s p o n s e t a k e s s o m e time to
build up. A f r a c t i o n R of the s t e a d y s t a t e r e s p o n s e will be a c h i e v e d
a f t e r N c y c l e s of s t e a d y e x c i t a t i o n w h e r e

N ^-io 9 e (i-R)
2*4

A s the a p p l i e d f r e q u e n c y is i n c r e a s e d beyond n the r e s p o n s e 0

a m p l i t u d e d e c r e a s e s rapidly. T h e i n e r t i a of the s y s t e m i n c r e a s e s
its a p p a r e n t s t i f f n e s s to rapidly a l t e r n a t i n g f o r c e s .
T h e v a r i a t i o n of r e s p o n s e w i t h f r e q u e n c y i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 4 is
k n o w n a s the m e c h a n i c a l a d m i t t a n c e of the s y s t e m . A s i n d i c a t e d
a b o v e , w i n d - i n d u c e d f o r c e s c o n t a i n a w i d e s p e c t r u m of f r e q u e n - Ftrst mode Second mode Third mod* etc.

c i e s . T h e m e c h a n i c a l a d m i t t a n c e is a t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n ' by w h i c h Increasing natural frequency >v-

the r e s p o n s e s p e c t r u m c a n be o b t a i n e d f r o m the a e r o d y n a m i c Fig. 5

f o r c e s p e c t r u m . T h i s p r o c e d u r e is d e s c r i b e d b e l o w in the s e c t i o n M o d e s h a p e s of t a l l b u i l d i n g s
on c a l c u l a t i o n of r e s p o n s e s .
 s y s t e m a s there a r e d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m . In p r a c t i c e only the first
f e w m o d e s (i.e. t h o s e w i t h the l o w e s t f r e q u e n c i e s ) a r e r e l e v a n t to
wind response.
P o w e r s p e c t r u - n of i n c i d e n t
wind gust velocity
F o r p r a c t i c a l building s t r u c t u r e s a n u m b e r of a p p r o a c h e s a r e
possible which include:
(a) Simple methods
F o r n o r m a l l y p r o p o r t i o n e d b u i l d i n g s t h e first n a t u r a l period is
log.n u s u a l l y given a p p r o x i m a t e l y by T = H/50 s e c o n d s w h e r e H i s t o t a l
height in m e t r e s . T h i s is entirely e m p i r i c a l but is a u s e f u l c h e c k
a g a i n s t g r o s s e r r o r s in m o r e d e t a i l e d a s s e s s m e n t s .
Aerodynamic admittance A n o t h e r s i m p l e a p p r o a c h is given by T = \fA.
transfer function '20
w h e r e 6 is the top d e f l e c t i o n in m m under a d i s t r i b u t e d h o r i z o n t a l
l o a d e q u a l to the weight of the building.
(b) Tabulated data
log n
f
In g e n e r a l c l a s s i c a l ' s o l u t i o n s for e l a s t i c b e a m s a n d c a n t i l e v e r s
a r e of limited u s e for p r a c t i c a l b u i l d i n g f o r m s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e
E S D U d a t a i t e m s w h i c h g i v e a p p r o x i m a t e m e t h o d s of p r e d i c t i n g
3

Power s p e c t r u m of m o d e s a n d f r e q u e n c i e s for c o r e or s h e a r t y p e b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e s .
modal force
(c) Standard computer programs
T h e G L A D Y S d y n a m i c p r o g r a m c a l c u l a t e s n a t u r a l m o d e s a n d fre-
q u e n c i e s for c o r e or s h e a r t y p e multi-storey s t r u c t u r e s , provided
log. n
the m o d e s a r e p l a n a r . T h e S T A N finite e l e m e n t p r o g r a m c a n be
u s e d for more c o m p l e x s t r u c t u r e s .

quasi - static resonant

(d) Special computer programs
S o m e s t r u c t u r e s c a n be s o l v e d m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y by m a k i n g a s i m p l e
Mechanical admittance
transfer function lumped m a s s idealization. The m a s s matrix and s t i f f n e s s matrix
c a n be a s s e m b l e d a n d t h e e i g e n s o l u t i o n c a n be p e r f o r m e d d i r e c t l y
u s i n g s t a n d a r d m a t r i x r o u t i n e s in a p u r p o s e - w r i t t e n p r o g r a m . T h i s
i s i l l u s t r a t e d in the c a s e s t u d y .
log,n +
If t h e more d e t a i l e d m e t h o d s a r e to prove w o r t h w h i l e a n u m b e r of
p o i n t s s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d :
P o w e r s p e c t r u m of m o d a l (a) H o w will t h e ' r e a l ' s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v i o u r a f f e c t the s t i f f n e s s ( c o m -
displacement response

I _
p a r e d w i t h s i m p l i f i e d a s s u m p t i o n s m a d e for the p u r p o s e s of
area B = o|(X) s t r e n g t h d e s i g n ) ? T h e r e m a y be a d d i t i o n a l f r a m i n g e f f e c t s , a n d
background component non-structural elements may participate.
area 0 = o ( X )
(b) F o r a r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e b u i l d i n g the e l a s t i c m o d u l u s c h o s e n
resonant component
loa n
( 0 log. s h o u l d reflect d y n a m i c l o a d i n g r a t e s .
total a r e a o (X)
2

(c) H o w m u c h of the i m p o s e d load s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d in the m a s s

Fig. 6
C a l c u l a t i o n of d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e
Generalized modal properties
It i s c o n v e n i e n t to a s s e s s the total d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e of b u i l d i n g s
u n d e r w i n d loading in ' m o d a l c o m p o n e n t s ' , that is to d e t e r m i n e the
r e s p o n s e of the s t r u c t u r e to the f l u c t u a t i n g a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s
s e p a r a t e l y for e a c h n a t u r a l m o d e of the s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e n to c o m -
bine t h e r e s p o n s e s . E a c h m o d e m a y be a c o m p l e x 3-D s h a p e , but
t h e a n a l y s i s c a n be s i m p l i f i e d by i n t r o d u c i n g the c o n c e p t of
of the b u i l d i n g ?
Damping
T h e d e g r e e of d a m p i n g i s d i f f i c u l t to predict w i t h a c c u r a c y .
M e a s u r e m e n t s on c o m p l e t e d b u i l d i n g s h a v e s h o w n a w i d e v a r i a -
t i o n w h i c h h a s in s o m e c a s e s been a m p l i f i e d by the s e v e r a l
m e t h o d s of m e a s u r e m e n t a d o p t e d .
S t r u c t u r a l d a m p i n g is c a u s e d by the h y s t e r e s i s of the m a t e r i a l of
t h e s t r u c t u r e , a n d i n c r e a s e s w i t h v i b r a t i o n a m p l i t u d e a s the
m a t e r i a l ' w o r k s ' harder. In a d d i t i o n a e r o d y n a m i c d a m p i n g c a u s e d
by the r e l a t i v e m o v e m e n t of the air a n d the b u i l d i n g is p r e s e n t . T h i s
i n c r e a s e s w i t h the w i n d v e l o c i t y . G u i d a n c e on v a l u e s to be a d o p t e d
for t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s is g i v e n in E S D U 7 6 0 0 1 . but a more d e t a i l e d
4

generalized modal properties. E S D U d a t a item on s t r u c t u r a l d a m p i n g will s o o n be r e l e a s e d .

E a c h m o d e of vibration c a n be t r a n s f o r m e d a n d r e p r e s e n t e d by a
single generalized m a s s , a single generalized s t i f f n e s s and a
s i n g l e g e n e r a l i z e d d i s p l a c e m e n t , w h i c h a r e a n a l o g o u s to the
p a r a m e t e r s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e for a s i m p l e o n e - d e g r e e of f r e e d o m
s t r u c t u r e . T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n e n s u r e s that the o v e r a l l d y n a m i c
p r o p e r t i e s ( n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y , v i b r a t i o n a l e n e r g y , etc.) a r e unaf-
f e c t e d but it e l i m i n a t e s all the d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m e x c e p t o n e (the
generalized displacement). T h e forcing function (aerodynamic
f o r c e ) is a l s o t r a n s f o r m e d into a g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e .
T h e g e n e r a l i z e d d i s p l a c e m e n t , d e f i n i n g the m a g n i t u d e of the
m o d a l r e s p o n s e , is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m the g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e a n d t h e
CALCULATION OF RESPONSES
In t h i s s e c t i o n t h e term r e s p o n s e ' r e f e r s to a n y of the f o l l o w i n g eff-
e c t s m e a s u r e d or c a l c u l a t e d at a n y point of i n t e r e s t :
F o r c e s or m o m e n t s
Deflections
Accelerations.
A n u m b e r of c o d e m e t h o d s a r e a v a i l a b l e , notably the a l o n g - w i n d
r e s p o n s e m e t h o d of E S D U 76001 ( a v a i l a b l e in G L A D Y S D y n a m i c )
a n d the d e t a i l e d m e t h o d ' of the N a t i o n a l B u i l d i n g C o d e of
C a n a d a . T h e N B C C a l s o g i v e s g u i d a n c e on a c r o s s - w i n d
5

g e n e r a l i z e d d y n a m i c p r o p e r t i e s a c c o r d i n g to the p r i n c i p l e s given
a b o v e . T h e d e f l e c t i o n s at s p e c i f i c p h y s i c a l p o i n t s on the b u i l d i n g
a r e o b t a i n e d by m u l t i p l y i n g by the m o d e s h a p e f u n c t i o n \i, w h i c h
d e f i n e s the d e f l e c t i o n at e v e r y point r e l a t i v e to the g e n e r a l i z e d
d i s p l a c e m e n t of the m o d e being c o n s i d e r e d .
T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s a r e briefly given in A p p e n d i x A.
W a r b u r t o n gives a more rigorous and detailed treatment.
2
r e s p o n s e s b a s e d e m p i r i c a l l y on a e r o e l a s t i c w i n d t u n n e l s t u d i e s of
tall b u i l d i n g s . T h e p r i n c i p l e s of the c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e o u t l i n e d
b e l o w . S i m i l a r p r o c e d u r e s a r e required w h e n u s i n g w i n d t u n n e l
t e s t m e a s u r e m e n t s of a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s to p r e d i c t t o t a l
responses.
Information required

It i s n e c e s s a r y to e s t a b l i s h :
PREDICTION O F DYNAMIC P R O P E R T I E S O F BUILDINGS (a) T h e m e a n hourly d e s i g n w i n d s p e e d . A more d e t a i l e d w i n d
E s t i m a t e s of the n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s , m o d e s h a p e s a n d the d a m p - c l i m a t e s t u d y i n c l u d i n g d i r e c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s m a y be a p p r o p r i a t e
ing r a t i o s of a b u i l d i n g a r e pre-requisite for d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e when using wind tunnel t e s t s .
predictions.
(b) T h e u p s t r e a m terrain c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e s e d e f i n e the w i n d
Natural frequencies and m o d e s h a p e s velocity profiles and turbulence c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
N a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s a n d m o d e s h a p e s a r e f o u n d by s o l v i n g the (c) T h e d y n a m i c p r o p e r t i e s of the building.
equation
Mean r e s p o n s e s
[ K - a; M ] x = 0
2

M e a n f o r c e s , m o m e n t s , d e f l e c t i o n s , e t c . , a r e c a l c u l a t e d in a tradi-
w h e r e K is the s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x of the s t r u c t u r e t i o n a l s t a t i c w a y , u s i n g the m e a n w i n d v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e a n d b u i l d i n g
M is the m a s s m a t r i x d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t . A w i n d t u n n e l test will m e a s u r e the m e a n f o r c e s
a n d m o m e n t s directly.
X is t h e m o d e s h a p e v e c t o r
Fluctuating r e s p o n s e s
w 2
i s the v e c t o r of ( n a t u r a l c i r c u l a r f r e q u e n c i e s ) 2

T h e p r o c e d u r e i s to o b t a i n t h e r m s of the required r e s p o n s e f r o m
18 In t h e o r y there a r e a s m a n y m o d e s a n d f r e q u e n c i e s in a s t r u c t u r a l the r m s of the i n c i d e n t w i n d g u s t s . S i n c e the a e r o d y n a m i c a n d
m e c h a n i c a l a d m i t t a n c e s a r e f r e q u e n c y - d e p e n d e n t , t h i s h a s to be
d o n e by c o n s i d e r i n g the s p e c t r a . T h e c o m p l e t e p r o c e d u r e is illu-
s t r a t e d in F i g . 6. If w i n d t u n n e l t e s t s a r e u s e d , the s p e c t r a of t h e
a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s will be m e a s u r e d , s o the a e r o d y n a m i c admit-
t a n c e is i n c o r p o r a t e d by a n a l o g u e , not c a l c u l a t i o n .
T h e m e c h a n i c a l a d m i t t a n c e is u s u a l l y divided into t w o p a r t s :
c a l c u l a t i n g the b a c k g r o u n d (or b r o a d b a n d or q u a s i - s t a t i c ) o a n d
(e) S i m p l e c o d e m e t h o d s i n d i c a t e there c o u l d be a problem.
At t h i s point it i s w o r t h b e a r i n g in mind the i n v o l v e m e n t in t i m e a n d
c o s t that a w i n d tunnel i n v e s t i g a t i o n is likely to e n t a i l , a n d to c o n -
s i d e r other p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e s of error that m u s t a l s o be t a c k l e d to
m a k e it w o r t h w h i l e . T h e model test is only part of the p r o c e d u r e
and the v a l u e of the e n d r e s u l t a l s o d e p e n d s heavily on:
B

the r e s o n a n t (or n a r r o w b a n d ) o , c o m p o n e n t s . D
(a) Wind climate data
S e v e r a l m o d e s m a y c o n t r i b u t e to the t o t a l f l u c t u a t i n g r e s p o n s e . M e a n r e s p o n s e s i n c r e a s e a s V , but purely r e s o n a n t r e s p o n s e s
2

T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m e a c h mode (provided the m o d e s a r e s u f f i - (e.g. a c c e l e r a t i o n ) i n c r e a s e t y p i c a l l y a s V to V . A 1 0 % error in

3 3 5

c i e n t l y s e p a r a t e d in period) m a y be c o m b i n e d a s s u m i n g they a r e w i n d s p e e d m a y t h e r e f o r e give a 2 0 - 3 0 % error in peak l o a d s a n d a

uncorrelated. 3 0 - 4 0 % error in a c c e l e r a t i o n s .
(b) Structural properties
Oj = \j o t
2
+ o 2
2
+ o 3
2
+ etc T h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t s t r u c t u r a l p a r a m e t e r to e s t i m a t e is the d a m p i n g .
O n l y t h e r e s o n a n t r e s p o n s e is a f f e c t e d , but if the e s t i m a t e d d a m p -
w h e r e o , e t c . a r e the c o n t r i b u t i o n s from e a c h mode. ing is in error by a f a c t o r of 2, the a c c e l e r a t i o n level will be in error
Peak r e s p o n s e s by 4 1 % . T o t a l l o a d s a r e l e s s s e n s i t i v e b e c a u s e m e a n a n d
b a c k g r o u n d c o m p o n e n t s a l s o c o n t r i b u t e . H o w e v e r , it i s worth-
P e a k r e s p o n s e s a r e o b t a i n e d by a d d i n g e x t r e m e v a l u e s of the fluc-
w h i l e e x a m i n i n g a r a n g e of d a m p i n g r a t i o s in a s s e s s i n g the
t u a t i n g c o m p o n e n t s to the m e a n r e s p o n s e , a s d e s c r i b e d in E q u a -
results.
t i o n s 13 a n d 14 of D a v i d C r o f t ' s paper. T h e c y c l e f r e q u e n c y v of the
r e s o n a n t c o m p o n e n t is the n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y of v i b r a t i o n . A lower T h e p r i n c i p a l t y p e s of w i n d t u n n e l model a r e now d i s c u s s e d .
c y c l e f r e q u e n c y is a p p r o p r i a t e for the b a c k g r o u n d c o m p o n e n t s . Aeroelastic models
E S D U 76001 o b t a i n s p e a k r e s p o n s e s a s f o l l o w s : A e r o e l a s t i c m o d e l s a t t e m p t to s i m u l a t e c o m p l e t e l y the i n t e r a c t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e w i n d a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e . T h e building model h a s s c a l -
6

+ 7 I 3.5o (E)]2 + [ g o ( E ) | 2
ed d y n a m i c p r o p e r t i e s (inertia, s t i f f n e s s , d a m p i n g ) a n d the t e s t i s a
B D

0 577 direct a n a l o g u e of full s c a l e b e h a v i o u r . In t h i s w a y the t o t a l

w h e r e g =vM2 logenoT) +
\f ( 2 l o g n T ) e 0 r e s p o n s e of t h e building is m e a s u r e d , u s u a l l y by a b a s e b a l a n c e ,
and by a c c e l e r o m e t e r s in the m o d e l . T h e r e a r e t w o b a s i c t y p e s :
WIND T U N N E L T E S T S (a) Stick models
R e a s o n s for w i n d t u n n e l t e s t i n g T h e s e a r e rigid m o d e l s m o u n t e d on g i m b a l s at the b a s e , a s illus-
T h e l i m i t a t i o n s of c o d e - b a s e d m e t h o d s a r e o b v i o u s , s i n c e they trated in F i g . 7. Only t w o (linear) t r a n s l a t i o n a l m o d e s c a n be
n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e to g e n e r a l a n d uniform s i t u a t i o n s . T h e r e a r e simulated.
m a n y i n s t a n c e s w h e n it i s virtually i m p o s s i b l e to e s t i m a t e s o m e of
(b) Multi degree-of freedom models
the p a r a m e t e r s required w i t h a n y d e g r e e of c o n f i d e n c e .
T h e s e a r e c o m p l e x m o d e l s i n c o r p o r a t i n g l u m p e d m a s s e s a n d stiff-
W i n d t u n n e l t e s t i n g c a n give a more d e t a i l e d a n d c o n f i d e n t predic-
n e s s e l e m e n t s a s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 8. T o r s i o n , c o u p l e d t r a n s l a t i o n -
tion if properly s p e c i f i e d a n d c o n d u c t e d . T h e r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d
t o r s i o n m o d e s , a n d s e c o n d m o d e s c a n be s i m u l a t e d but the d e s i g n
in s t a t i s t i c a l form a n d a r e s u i t a b l e , in c o n j u n c t i o n with a w i n d
and c o n s t r u c t i o n of s u c h m o d e l s is very involved.
c l i m a t e m o d e l , to give r e s p o n s e level/probability p r e d i c t i o n s for
T h e multi degree-of-freedom model is t h e m o s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d
limit s t a t e d e s i g n b a s e d on reliability p r i n c i p l e s . W i n d t u n n e l
m e t h o d of predicting the r e s p o n s e of a tall building. T h e f o l l o w i n g
t e s t i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e if:
a d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a d v a n t a g e s s h o u l d be n o t e d .
(a) T h e building h a s a n u n u s u a l s h a p e , a n d t h e r e f o r e u n c e r t a i n
aerodynamic properties. Advantages:
(b) T h e building h a s u n u s u a l d y n a m i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s u c h a s (a) Direct m e a s u r e m e n t of total r e s p o n s e
c o u p l e d m o d e s , s t r o n g t o r s i o n , low d a m p i n g . (b) Aerodynamic damping/instability e f f e c t s are modelled.
(c) T h e i n c i d e n t w i n d is d i f f i c u l t to c h a r a c t e r i z e , e.g. m a j o r (c) C o m p l e x s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s , i n c l u d i n g e f f e c t s of s e c o n d
t o p o g r a p h i c a l f e a t u r e s or c h a n g e s in t e r r a i n r o u g h n e s s u p s t r e a m . m o d e s , c a n be s i m u l a t e d .
(d) S u r r o u n d i n g tall b u i l d i n g s a r e likely to interfere by w a k e buf- (d) R e a l - t i m e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n f o r c e s in d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s is
feting. obtained.

BALSA WOOD

DIAPHRAGMS

-M.li)

A S S U M E D MODE S H A P E :
FUNDAMENTAL X AND T
MOOES OF VIBRATION

'fi\

CROSS-SECTION OF TOWER
"' ' ' '

Fig. 7
S c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of c o n v e n t i o n a l Fig. 8
2 d e g r e e of f r e e d o m or ' s t i c k ' a e r o l a s t i c Multi-degree of
m o d e l of tall building f r e e d o m model of tall b u i l d i n g s
(after I z y u m o v ) 6
(after I z y u m o v ) 6

E W deflections
Possible
infill of
cut backs
RAttAL SCAlt
Wage No o" "o^'year MM v
- j 15." liorn each cj.
BANK S T R E E T
Fig. 9 Fig. 10
W i n d probability by d i r e c t i o n East-west section
(non-typhoons) m a s s distribution
Disadvantages:
(a) M o d e l s a r e t i m e - c o n s u m i n g a n d e x p e n s i v e to d e s i g n a n d c o n -
struct.
(b) C o n s i d e r a b l e test time i s required to o b t a i n r e s p o n s e s at dif-
ferent w i n d s p e e d s a n d with different d a m p i n g .
(c) Major c h a n g e s in d y n a m i c p r o p e r t i e s require re-testing w i t h
revised model.
Force b a l a n c e method
T h e c o n c e p t of the f o r c e b a l a n c e m e t h o d i s to m e a s u r e m e a n a n d
f l u c t u a t i n g a e r o d y n a m i c l o a d s on a rigid m o d e l w i t h o u t a n y s t r u c -
tural d y n a m i c m o d i f i c a t i o n . T h e r e s p o n s e s a r e then c a l c u l a t e d ,
t a k i n g a c c o u n t of m e c h a n i c a l a d m i t t a n c e u s i n g the n o r m a l m o d e
m e t h o d outlined a b o v e . T h e m a i n r e q u i r e m e n t of the b a s e b a l a n c e
is to m e a s u r e a c c u r a t e l y very s m a l l a n d rapidly f l u c t u a t i n g f o r c e s .
T h i s h a s p r e s e n t e d d e s i g n p r o b l e m s to a c h i e v e s u f f i c i e n t s t i f f n e s s
a n d s e n s i t i v i t y , but a n u m b e r of w i n d t u n n e l s now h a v e s u c h
b a l a n c e s m e a s u r i n g from t w o to s i x d i r e c t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t s . T h e
u s e of the five c o m p o n e n t b a l a n c e of the B o u n d a r y L a y e r W i n d
T u n n e l L a b o r a t o r y of the U n i v e r s i t y of W e s t e r n O n t a r i o is d e s -
c r i b e d in the c a s e s t u d y b e l o w .
The method h a s many attractions
(a) A l t h o u g h the b a l a n c e may be e x p e n s i v e a n d s o p h i s t i c a t e d , it i s
a s t a n d a r d r e - u s e a b l e item a n d the s t r u c t u r a l m o d e l s for s p e c i f i c
w i n d s t u d i e s a r e s i m p l e , rigid, q u i c k l y m a d e a n d i n e x p e n s i v e .
(b) V a r i a t i o n s in s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a n a l y t i c a l l y ,
a n d s o re-testing is not required for new d a m p i n g r a t i o s or n a t u r a l
m o d e s a n d f r e q u e n c i e s . C o u p l e d m o d e s c a n be dealt with.
(c) By m e a s u r i n g the s p e c t r a of f l u c t u a t i n g a e r o d y n a m i c l o a d s ,
t e s t i n g at only one w i n d v e l o c i t y is n e c e s s a r y , with c o n s e q u e n t
time s a v i n g .
C o m p a r e d w i t h a full a e r o e l a s t i c s t u d y the method h a s the follow-
ing d i s a d v a n t a g e s :
(a) A e r o d y n a m i c d a m p i n g or i n s t a b i l i t y a r e not i n c l u d e d .
(b) A p p r o x i m a t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y in c a l c u l a t i n g the torsional
response.
C A S E S T U D Y : H O N G K O N G AND S H A N G H A I B A N K B U I L D I N G
Introduction
T h e new H o n g k o n g a n d S h a n g h a i B a n k h e a d q u a r t e r s building in
Hong K o n g h a s been s u b j e c t e d to a w i n d e n g i n e e r i n g s t u d y of
u n u s u a l l y large s c o p e a n d d e t a i l . T h e s t u d y w a s c a r r i e d out at the
B o u n d a r y L a y e r W i n d T u n n e l L a b o r a t o r y of the U n i v e r s i t y of
W e s t e r n O n t a r i o , C a n a d a ( B L W T L ) , under the d i r e c t i o n of Pro-
f e s s o r A l a n Davenport. B o t h the terrain of H o n g K o n g a n d the form
of the building itself p r e s e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s in u s i n g a n a l y t i c a l
m e t h o d s . T h e s c o p e of the s t u d y is outlined below:
(a) A w i n d c l i m a t e s t u d y , d e f i n i n g a t y p h o o n c l i m a t e (for peak s t r u c -
tural l o a d i n g e f f e c t s ) a n d a non-typhoon c l i m a t e (for e n v i r o n m e n -
tal a n d o c c u p a n t comfort r e l a t e d e f f e c t s ) . S e e F i g . 9 a n d David
C r o f t ' s F i g . 12.
(b) A t o p o g r a p h i c a l s t u d y to o b t a i n w i n d p r o f i l e s at the s i t e for
20 v a r i o u s incident d i r e c t i o n s . S e e D a v i d C r o f t ' s F i g . 9.
it Ire*
N S deflections
F i g . 11
North-south s e c t i o n
m a s s distribution
(c) W i n d tunnel model for s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e s .
(d) W i n d t u n n e l model for o v e r a l l a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s (force
balance technique).
(e) E n v i r o n m e n t a l wind t e s t s .
T h i s work is d o c u m e n t e d in a s e r i e s of B L W T L r e p o r t s , from w h i c h
7
m u c h of the f o l l o w i n g d a t a i s t a k e n .
T h e s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n s d e s c r i b e the u s e of base balance
m e a s u r e m e n t s to obtain d e s i g n r e s u l t s .
Dynamic properties of the building
T h e g e n e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t of m a s s in the b u i l d i n g i s i l l u s t r a t e d in
F i g s . 10 a n d 11. T h e s t r u c t u r e is d e s i g n e d to a c c o m m o d a t e future
infilling of the set b a c k s ' on the e a s t s i d e ( F i g . 10) a n d c o n s e q u e n -
tly the p r i m a r y s t r u c t u r e is e s s e n t i a l l y s y m m e t r i c a l about the c e n -
tral N-S a x i s . S i n c e the c e n t r e of m a s s b e c o m e s o f f s e t from t h i s
a x i s in the higher z o n e s of the c u r r e n t l y p r o p o s e d building, signifi-
c a n t l a t e r a l t o r s i o n a l b e h a v i o u r is p r e s e n t in all the m o d e s h a p e s
( F i g . 12). All the first m o d e s h a v e a p p r o x i m a t e l y linear e l e v a t i o n a l
shapes.
T h e m o d e s a n d f r e q u e n c i e s w e r e o b t a i n e d by a n a l y z i n g a notional
five l u m p e d m a s s model a s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 13. E a c h m a s s h a s
t h r e e d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m , (in the x, y a n d t o r s i o n d i r e c t i o n s ) . A flex-
ibility m a t r i x w a s o b t a i n e d for the 15 d e g r e e of f r e e d o m s y s t e m by
a n a l y z i n g a d e t a i l e d finite e l e m e n t model of half the s t r u c t u r e
under a s e r i e s of unit l o a d s a p p l i e d at the m a s s c e n t r e l e v e l s . T h i s
w a s t r a n s f o r m e d a n d inverted to give a s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x (K) relating
f o r c e s to d e f l e c t i o n s for the total of 15 d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m at the
c e n t r e of m a s s l o c a t i o n s . M o d e s h a p e s a n d f r e q u e n c i e s w e r e
o b t a i n e d by direct e i g e n s o l u t i o n of the e q u a t i o n
| K - O J 2
M | X =0 w h e r e M is the d i a g o n a l m a s s m a t r i x
u s i n g a p u r p o s e written p r o g r a m i n c o r p o r a t i n g s t a n d a r d m a t r i x
r o u t i n e s . T h i s e n a b l e d the e f f e c t of m a s s a s y m m e t r y to be q u a n -
tified w i t h o u t developing a m u c h larger finite e l e m e n t model of the
w h o l e building. C h a n g e s in m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n (e.g. infilling the e a s t
side) c o u l d a l s o be e x a m i n e d e a s i l y .
D a m p i n g w a s e s t i m a t e d to lie b e t w e e n 1 % a n d 2 % of c r i t i c a l ,
b a s e d on p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e of s t e e l - f r a m e d b u i l d i n g s . T h e lower
v a l u e w a s a d o p t e d for d e s i g n p r e d i c t i o n s .
Test details
F r o m the w i n d t u n n e l s t u d i e s w i t h a 1:2500 s c a l e t o p o g r a p h i c a l
m o d e l of H o n g k o n g a n d i t s s u r r o u n d s , five u p s t r e a m w i n d
c a t e g o r i e s w e r e identified to c o v e r all w i n d d i r e c t i o n s at the s i t e
( D a v i d C r o f t ' s F i g . 9). T h e p r o n o u n c e d s h e l t e r i n g of the s i t e for
w i n d s from the s o u t h a n d s o u t h - w e s t is evident.
A rigid, light a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d e l of the building at 1:500 s c a l e w a s
m o u n t e d on B L W T L ' s 5-component b a s e b a l a n c e at the c e n t r e of a
proximity m o d e l , w h i c h i n c l u d e d d e t a i l e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of all
f e a t u r e s w i t h i n a 6 0 0 m r a d i u s of the s i t e . T h e w h o l e a s s e m b l y w a s
m o u n t e d on a t u r n t a b l e in t h e w i n d t u n n e l . W i n d p r o f i l e s a n d tur-
b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m e a s u r e d in the 1:2500 t o p o g r a p h i c a l
s t u d y w e r e s i m u l a t e d at t h i s larger s c a l e to p r o d u c e a p p r o p r i a t e
w i n d c o n d i t i o n s at the s i t e for e a c h prevailing w i n d d i r e c t i o n .
 + Geometric centre

# A x i s of rotation
moment -

N a 18-

Building
envelope 0 10-

// - ^ - / ^ 1

MODE 1 0-02-

Period = 4 4 s e c
\
/
1 1 \
\
1
\ -006. 1

D V H
I
1
1
1
\ V

V
1
\
/
MODE 2 - 0 I*-.
/
Period = 3 7 s e c \ 1
Z 27 3 m

-on-

f
V
4-4, MODE 3 1 90 160

Ej Period 3-1 s e c
Note M> = My

F i g . 12 F i g . 13 F i g . 14
Hongkong and Shanghai Bank N o t i o n a l five l u m p e d North-south
m o d e s h a p e s in plan m a s s model moment coefficients

Base balance measurements

B a s e f o r c e s in the m o d e l w e r e m e a s u r e d for w i n d s f r o m e a c h direc-
tion at 15 a z i m u t h i n t e r v a l s a n d p r e s e n t e d a s m e a n a n d r m s fluc-
t u a t i n g c o m p o n e n t s n o r m a l i z e d a s c o e f f i c i e n t s to e n a b l e full-
s c a l e f o r c e s to be d e t e r m i n e d . S p e c t r a of the f l u c t u a t i n g c o m -
p o n e n t s w e r e m e a s u r e d for key d i r e c t i o n s .

T h e five c o m p o n e n t s m e a s u r e d w e r e :
(a) N-S o v e r t u r n i n g m o m e n t
(b) E-W o v e r t u r n i n g m o m e n t
(c) N-S s h e a r f o r c e
(d) E-W s h e a r f o r c e
(e) Torsion moment.

D e t a i l s of the b a l a n c e a r e g i v e n in T c h a n z . 8

A t y p i c a l plot of m e a n a n d r m s c o e f f i c i e n t s a g a i n s t a z i m u t h is
given in F i g . 14. T h e s e a r e a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s only, w i t h no s t r u c -
tural d y n a m i c m a g n i f i c a t i o n s . F u l l s c a l e f o r c e s a n d m o m e n t s a r e
obtained a s : i J I if I ' n
1 J * 5 6 7 C 4 '
FHEQUFNCT
7 6 1

F x = CFx.W .H.q x g

NOTE (i) model scale frequency shown

Mx = CMx.Wx.H2.qg (n) spectra are smoothed and corrected before i
T = CT.Wx.Wy.H.qg F i g . 15
whereFx.Mx.T a r e s h e a r f o r c e , m o m e n t a n d torque P o w e r s p e c t r u m E-W b a s e m o m e n t a z i m u t h 285

CFX, CMX. C T a r e the c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s

w . Wy, H
x a r e t h e w i d t h s a n d height of the b u i l d i n g
2
a,g = v p g 2
v
= d y n a m i c w i n d p r e s s u r e at gradient height.
A t y p i c a l s p e c t r u m ( a s m e a s u r e d ) is s h o w n in F i g . 15. T h i s is
s m o o t h e d for ' n o i s e ' a n d c o r r e c t e d for m e c h a n i c a l r e s o n a n c e s of
the t e s t e q u i p m e n t a n d e l e c t r i c a l filtering c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s before
u s e in p r e d i c t i o n s .

P r e d i c t i o n of s t r u c t u r a l r e s p o n s e s
A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e a n a l y s i s of r e s p o n s e s is g i v e n in
A p p e n d i x A. T h e key c o n c e p t to note is that for a m o d e s h a p e linear
in e l e v a t i o n the m o d e g e n e r a l i z e d force is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to
the b a s e b e n d i n g moment m e a s u r e d in t h e w i n d t u n n e l .
F i g . 16 s h o w s the v a r i a t i o n of p e a k a c c e l e r a t i o n w i t h a z i m u t h a n d
w i n d s p e e d . F i g . 17 s h o w s the v a r i a t i o n of b a s e m o m e n t w i t h
a z i m u t h , w i n d s p e e d a n d d a m p i n g . S i m i l a r r e s u l t s c a n be o b t a i n e d
for o t h e r r e s p o n s e s .

F r e q u e n c y o l o c c u r r e n c e of r e s p o n s e l e v e l s
Having established response/azimuth/windspeed relationships
the w i n d c l i m a t e m o d e l is i n t r o d u c e d to m a k e p r e d i c t i o n s of the
f r e q u e n c y of e x c e e d a n c e of c h o s e n r e s p o n s e l e v e l s .
T o i l l u s t r a t e the p r o c e d u r e , F i g . 9 s h o w s the n u m b e r of h o u r s per ISC 270 360
y e a r that V g v a l u e s a r e e x c e e d e d (by a z i m u t h ) in the non-typhoon AZIMUTH LOC 1 %- 0 Y- 0
m o d e l . F r o m F i g . 16 it is p o s s i b l e to e s t a b l i s h for e a c h a z i m u t h the . LOC 2 X= -36 Yr 0
F i g . 16
LCC 3 X= -24 Y= -9.3
v a l u e s of V g required to c a u s e a s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s e level to be ex- V a r i a t i o n of p e a k a c c e l e r a t i o n
c e e d e d . It is t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l e to predict the total n u m b e r of h o u r s with azimuth and windspeed
per y e a r that the r e s p o n s e will be e x c e e d e d .
 PDF
(relative
f r e q u e n c y of
amplitudes)

Rayleigh Distribution o
amplitudes
)

in n a r r o w - b a n d r a n d o m r e s p o n s e

5o Amplitude
i note o = i

of A
r e s o nl ,a n t
response

O b t a i n e d from d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e /
wind climate integration

No ot h o u r s p a
that rms r e s p o n s e
is e x c e e d e d

II the n a t u r a l p e r i o d ? of t h e s t r u c t u r e is 4 s e e s I hour is e q u i v a l e n t
to 3 6 0 0 / T = 9 0 0 c y c l e s of o s c i l l a t i o n
E x a m i n e d i s t r i b u t i o n ot a m p l i t u d e s tor 1 hour s h a d e d a b o v e
for w h i c h o 20

I n t e g r a l ot P D F g i v e s p r o p o r t i o n ot
amplitudes e x c e e d i n g given levels

Amplitude
at r e s o n a n
est >nse

1 per annum

12 U H
^r 1

k. S

10 O H
'
^ *^
s
/ y \

I
x
x^ '
\
f, -
/ >
/ /
/ ' /
\ V

T
No of c y c l e s p a
that a m p l i t u d e
is e x c e e d e d

F i g . 17
Hongkong and Shanghai Bank
v a r i a t i o n of N-S m o m e n t r e s p o n s e F i g . 18
with w i n d s p e e d a n d d a m p i n g D e v e l o p m e n t of fatigue load
 B A S E SHEAR
AMPLITUDE

\
3 \
3.: \
\
\
\
\ \
\
2.( \ \
\ \ \
\ \
\ \

1.C
'.

1 10 itf 1C* 10* 1CP OOJ 0C6 Ot 02 0 5 1 3 5 W T O W 100 MO 500

NUMBER OF CYCLES PER ANNUM
AMPLITUDE IS E X C E E D E D

F i g . 20
F i g . 19 Predicted peak a c c e l e r a t i o n s
C y c l e s of r e s o n a n t r e s p o n s e at a height of 159 m ( 1 % d a m p i n g )

T h i s d a t a c a n t h e n be u s e d to predict: In H o n g K o n g t y p h o o n s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s t r o n g w i n d s a n d
(a) R e t u r n p e r i o d s of p e a k loading e f f e c t s . T h i s i n v o l v e s the c y c l e d a m a g e a n d for t h i s r e a s o n o c c u p a n t r e a c t i o n s to b u i l d i n g move-
f r e q u e n c y of t h e w i n d to o b t a i n the n u m b e r of h o u r s that c o n s t i t u t e ment will be d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e in n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s ;
a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t o r m or ' e v e n t ' , a s d e s c r i b e d in David C r o f t ' s t y p h o o n s h a v e t h e r e f o r e been d i s r e g a r d e d for c o m p a r i s o n w i t h
paper. n o r m a l a c c e p t a n c e c r i t e r i a . It c a n be s e e n that the e x p e c t e d per-
f o r m a n c e of the b u i l d i n g under non-typoon w i n d s is g o o d .
(b) T h e n u m b e r of c y c l e s of o s c i l l a t i o n at p a r t i c u l a r a m p l i t u d e
l e v e l s e a c h y e a r , for u s e in f a t i g u e a s s e s s m e n t s . In t h i s c a s e only References
the r e s o n a n t r e s p o n s e c o m p o n e n t m a k e s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u - (1) L A W S O N , T . V . W i n d e f f e c t s on b u i l d i n g s : V o l u m e 1 : D e s i g n
t i o n . T h e r e a r e 3600/T c y c l e s of o s c i l l a t i o n per hour ( w h e r e T = a p p l i c a t i o n s . A p p l i e d S c i e n c e P u b l i s h e r s , 1980.
n a t u r a l period in s e c o n d s ) a n d for e a c h r m s r e s p o n s e level there is
(2) W A R B U R T O N , G . B . , T h e d y n a m i c a l b e h a v i o u r of s t r u c t u r e s ,
a k n o w n ( R a y l e i g h ) d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l a m p l i t u d e p e a k s . T h i s
P e r g a m o n P r e s s , 1964.
e n a b l e s the t o t a l n u m b e r of c y c l e s in e a c h a m p l i t u d e r a n g e to be
d e t e r m i n e d , a s in F i g . 18. (3) E S D U d a t a i t e m s
79005, U n d a m p e d n a t u r a l vibration of s h e a r b u i l d i n g s .
F i g . 19 s h o w s the n u m b e r of c y c l e s per a n n u m of b a s e s h e a r 81036, U n d a m p e d n a t u r a l vibration of c o r e b u i l d i n g s .
a m p l i t u d e s , a n d F i g . 20 the v a r i a t i o n of p e a k a c c e l e r a t i o n w i t h 82019, U n d a m p e d n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n of s w a y f r a m e b u i l d i n g s a n d
return period. frame structures.
Member design (4) E S D U d a t a item 7 6 0 0 1 , T h e r e s p o n s e of f l e x i b l e s t r u c t u r e s to
A n u m b e r of a p p r o a c h e s a r e p o s s i b l e to o b t a i n d e s i g n l o a d s for atmosphere turbulence
individual m e m b e r s . (In the c a s e of the H o n g k o n g a n d S h a n g h a i
(5) N A T I O N A L B u i l d i n g C o d e of C a n a d a , O t t a w a , 1980 a n d S u p -
B a n k project the p e a k b a s e f o r c e r e s p o n s e s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
p l e m e n t to N B C 1980.
lower t h a n t h o s e o b t a i n e d by a p p l y i n g the H o n g K o n g s t a t u t o r y
w i n d p r e s s u r e s , a n d the s t a t u t o r y l o a d s w e r e u s e d for the s t r e n g t h (6) I Z Y U M O V , N. T h e a e r o e l a s t i c m o d e l l i n g of tall b u i l d i n g s , P r o c .
d e s i g n . ) A l t h o u g h the f o r c e b a l a n c e m e t h o d d o e s not d e f i n e fully I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o r k s h o p on W i n d T u n n e l T e s t i n g . U . S . N a t i o n a l
the d i s t r i b u t i o n of e f f e c t i v e loading w i t h height, the ratio of p e a k B u r e a u of S t a n d a r d s , 1982.
m o m e n t to p e a k s h e a r g i v e s a n e f f e c t i v e c e n t r e of l o a d i n g . T h i s (7) D A V E N P O R T , A . G . , et at. B L W T L R e p o r t s on the H o n g k o n g a n d
c a n be a u g m e n t e d by i n t e g r a t i n g m e a n p r e s s u r e s o b t a i n e d from a S h a n g h a i B a n k P r o j e c t . ( C o p i e s held by M i c h a e l W i l l f o r d )
p r e s s u r e t a p p e d m o d e l to give a n e s t i m a t e of the m e a n load (8) T C H A N Z . T. M e a s u r e m e n t of t o t a l d y n a m i c l o a d s u s i n g e l a s t i c
d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e r e s o n a n t c o m p o n e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n c a n be o b t a i n e d m o d e l s w i t h high n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s . P r o c . International
by c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the i n e r t i a f o r c e s . A n ' e f f e c t i v e ' q u a s i - s t a t i c W o r k s h o p on W i n d T u n n e l T e s t i n g . U . S . N a t i o n a l B u r e a u of S t a n -
l o a d i n g d i a g r a m c a n be put t o g e t h e r f r o m t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s , a n d d a r d s , 1982.
a n o r m a l s t a t i c a n a l y s i s u s e d to o b t a i n individual m e m b e r f o r c e s .
T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of s i m u l t a n e o u s loading f r o m t w o t r a n s l a t i o n a l
a n d the t o r s i o n a l d i r e c t i o n s h a s b e e n s t u d i e d u s i n g a e r o e l a s t i c
m o d e l s by B L W T L w h o r e c o m m e n d the f o l l o w i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s a s A P P E N D I X A:
design loadcases: CALCULATION OF TOTAL RESPONSES
BY T H E NORMAL MODE METHOD
(1) LOFxoM.OFy
Introduction
(2) 0.8Fx 0.8Fy T h i s a p p e n d i x d e s c r i b e s the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s required to obtain
(3) 0 . 6 F x 0.6 F y 0.6 F 8 g e n e r a l i z e d m o d a l p r o p e r t i e s a n d i l l u s t r a t e s how the n o r m a l mode
w h e r e F x , F y , F 9 are the m e m b e r load e f f e c t s o b t a i n e d under p e a k m e t h o d c a n be u s e d to predict t o t a l r e s p o n s e s u s i n g t h e r e s u l t s of
b a s e f o r c e b a l a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s on a rigid m o d e l in a w i n d tun-
x, y and 8 effective loads acting alone.
nel t e s t .
A n a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h , p o s s i b l e for s i m p l e s t r u c t u r a l f o r m s , is to
u s e the m o d a l a n a l y s i s d i r e c t l y . T h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p ( i n f l u e n c e Notation
coefficient) between any member force and the generalized In s o m e c a s e s s i m p l i f i e d n o t a t i o n i s u s e d in order to r e d u c e c o m -
d i s p l a c e m e n t of a p a r t i c u l a r m o d e , j u s t a s there is for a n o v e r a l l plexity in the v a r i o u s e q u a t i o n s .
b a s e s h e a r or c o r n e r a c c e l e r a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e a m e m b e r f o r c e c a n
be t r e a t e d in e x a c t l y the s a m e w a y a s a b a s e s h e a r a n d the v a r i a -
Full Simplified
t i o n of peak m e m b e r f o r c e w i t h return period c a n be o b t a i n e d
notation notation
d i r e c t l y by c o n s i d e r i n g all the r e l e v a n t m o d e s .
Occupant comfort
Height of b u i l d i n g H
T h e a c c e l e r a t i o n r e s p o n s e s at the top of the b u i l d i n g a r e given in
F i g . 20, t o g e t h e r w i t h the a c c e p t a n c e c r i t e r i a p r o p o s e d by Daven- Height Z
port. It c a n be s e e n that for f r e q u e n t e v e n t s the a c c e p t a b l e level is F r e q u e n c y of m o d e j n
the t h r e s h o l d of p e r c e p t i o n for a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of the oc- "i
c u p a n t s , w h e r e a s for rare e v e n t s limited p e r c e p t i b l e m o t i o n s are
c o n s i d e r e d a c c e p t a b l e . It h a s to be borne in mind that a c c e l e r a t i o n Mode s h a p e of m o d e j on a r e f e r e n c e a x i s
p r e d i c t i o n s a r e very s e n s i t i v e to a n u m b e r of input p a r a m e t e r s , a n d x Component Mx
s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a s i n d i c a t i v e only. C o m f o r t c r i t e r i a a l s o are
y Component Myj M My
i n d i c a t i v e , b a s e d on s u b j e c t i v e r e a c t i o n s of b u i l d i n g o c c u p a n t s to
i n f r e q u e n t e v e n t s . D a v e n p o r t ' s c r i t e r i a a r e in line w i t h other 9 Component ^0
workers' recommendations.
 T h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s Generalized Force Fi (t) c o r r e s p o n d i n g to m o d e
Mode s h a p e at a p a r t i c u l a r node not on r e f e r e n c e a x i s j i s d e f i n e d in t e r m s of t h e a p p l i e d l o a d s w a n d T a n d t h e m o d e
x Component ip j X if/ x
s h a p e \i\
y Component i/jyj i^y
6 Component i^9j 1+19 F](t) = J"w x H x d z
+ ciz (1)

0 0

V a l u e s of \t at z = H
In t h i s e x p r e s s i o n the m o d e s h a p e a n d the f o r c e s s h o u l d r e l a t e to
x Component a
x j a x
t h e r e f e r e n c e a x i s s y s t e m , for e x a m p l e the g e o m e t r i c c e n t r e a x i s
y Component a of the building. ( T h e m o d e s h a p e s n e e d not be n o r m a l i z e d ) .
a
yj y

6 Component a6j a 8 If a f o r c e b a l a n c e t e s t i s c a r r i e d out t h e n the g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e c a n

b e o b t a i n e d from the t e s t r e s u l t s , a s d e s c r i b e d in the s e c t i o n b e l o w
m on d e t e r m i n a t i o n of g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e .
M a s s / u n i t height m(z)
T h e Generalized Mass Mj c o r r e s p o n d i n g to m o d e j is c a l c u l a t e d
R o t a t i o n a l inertia/unit height me (z) f r o m the m a s s a n d r o t a t i o n a l i n e r t i a per unit height a n d the mode
me
shape u thus:
W i n d load/unit height
H
x Component w (z,t) x w x
(2)
1j = J" rriLi d z + J " m u y d z + Jx
2 2
mQfAQ dz 2

y Component w (z,t) y

9 Component T (Z.t) T

In t h i s e x p r e s s i o n it is a s s u m e d that the c e n t r e of m a s s is on the

G e n e r a l i z e d M a s s in m o d e j r e f e r e n c e a x i s at all l e v e l s . If t h i s i s not the c a s e the f o l l o w i n g m o r e
g e n e r a l e x p r e s s i o n ( e x p r e s s e d here for s i m p l i c i t y for a l u m p e d
m a s s model) s h o u l d be u s e d :
G e n e r a l i z e d S t i f f n e s s in m o d e j K
)
[Mi : M J iMji (3)
Background gust factor 9B
where I ] is the v e c t o r of node d i s p l a c e m e n t s d e f i n i n g the m o d e
Resonant gust factor S R s h a p e a n d I M ] is the m a s s m a t r i x ( c o n t a i n i n g o f f - d i a g o n a l t e r m s
a s a p p r o p r i a t e ) w i t h r e s p e c t to the r e f e r e n c e a x i s .
C r i t i c a l d a m p i n g ratio i T h e Generalized Stiffness K j c o r r e s p o n d i n g to m o d e j is r e l a t e d to
the g e n e r a l i z e d m a s s t h u s
Cycle frequency V
K = (2nn )2M
j j j (4)

T h e f o l l o w i n g q u a n t i t i e s w h i c h v a r y w i t h t i m e a r e t r e a t e d in t e r m s w h e r e nj is the f r e q u e n c y of that m o d e .
of m e a n , R M S a n d p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y v a l u e s . T h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s Generalized Displacement Aj(t) c o r r e s p o n d i n g
to m o d e j i s f o u n d from the g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e a n d s t i f f n e s s t h u s
Inst. V a l u e Mean RMS PSD A
i<t) = F
j(l)'Kj (5)
at t i m e t at f r e q . n
T h e g e n e r a l i z e d d i s p l a c e m e n t v a r i e s with time a n d c a n be c o n -
Generalized Force s i d e r e d in three c o m p o n e n t s :
Fj(t) Fj S F ) mi
(a) A m e a n v a l u e A j w h i c h is given by

B a s e balance forces: _ F|
(6)
F o r c e in x-dirn FxB<*>
F
x B FxB s
FxB( > n

(b) A f l u c t u a t i n g c o m p o n e n t d u e to the b a c k g r o u n d (or b r o a d b a n d )

F o r c e in y-dirn FyBW F
y B 0
F y B SFyB< > n
e x c i t a t i o n . T h i s is c a u s e d by the t u r b u l e n c e of the w i n d l o a d i n g , in
o t h e r w o r d s the g u s t s , a n d o c c u r s i r r e s p e c t i v e of a n y d y n a m i c
r e s p o n s e of the s t r u c t u r e . T h e b a c k g r o u n d R M S v a l u e of A j (t) is
M o m e n t about x - a x i s M x B (t) M
x B MxB SfVlxB( ) n

g i v e n by
0
A Bj = (7)
Moment about y - a x i s MyB(0 My B
MyB s
MyB> > n
F
i'Ki

(c) A f l u c t u a t i n g c o m p o n e n t due to the r e s o n a n c e of the s t r u c t u r e .

Torque M8B> M9B M8B SM9B< ) n
T h e R M S of t h i s is given by

Generalized displace- Aj(t) ABJ (background) * A i =

>/itK*\ n
J Fj<nj)
S (8)
ment in m o d e j
{ ARJ (resonant)
w h e r e i is the c r i t i c a l d a m p i n g ratio a n d S F j is the p o w e r s p e c t r a l
d e n s i t y ( P S D ) of F(t) at t h e f r e q u e n c y nj of the m o d e under c o n -
X - d i s p l a c e m e n t in
sideration.
mode j Xj(t) X
x In order to c a l c u l a t e the m e a n a n d R M S v a l u e s of the g e n e r a l i z e d
d i s p l a c e m e n t it is n e c e s s a r y to d e t e r m i n e the m e a n , R M S a n d P S D
Y - d i s p l a c e m e n t in of the g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e F . T h i s is d i s c u s s e d in the next s e c t i o n .
mode j Yj(t) Y y
D e t e r m i n a t i o n of g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e
G e n e r a l i z e d a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s c a n be e s t i m a t e d a n a l y t i c a l l y or
R o t a t i o n in m o d e j 6j(t) 6 e by p e r f o r m i n g w i n d t u n n e l t e s t s . T h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s how
g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e s in m e a n , R M S a n d P S D c o m p o n e n t s a r e deter-
x-acceleration *(t) m i n e d f r o m the r e s u l t s of f o r c e b a l a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s on a rigid
x
m o d e l in a w i n d t u n n e l t e s t , (in w h i c h no s t r u c t u r a l d y n a m i c e f f e c t s
y-acceleration y(t) Oy are m o d e l l e d ) . T h e b a s e f o r c e s a n d m o m e n t s m e a s u r e d a r e purely
a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s w h i c h c a n be e x p r e s s e d a s :

9-acceleration e'(t) 9
F o r c e in x-dirn :
xB> = (9)

Modal a n a l y s i s
T h e first s t e p is to c a r r y out a d y n a m i c m o d a l a n a l y s i s of the s t r u c -
ture to d e t e r m i n e t h e f r e q u e n c i e s a n d m o d e s h a p e s of the s t r u c -
ture in free v i b r a t i o n . F o r c e in y-dirn F y B (t) = J"w dz
y
(10)

Generalized quantities
T h e r e s p o n s e of a s t r u c t u r e to w i n d e x c i t a t i o n is m o s t e a s i l y s o l v e d
by c o n s i d e r i n g g e n e r a l i z e d q u a n t i t i e s a s d e s c r i b e d below. T h e
m e t h o d i s m e r e l y s t a t e d here a n d , for further information, Moment about x-axis M g(t) = J " w z d z
x y
(11)
r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d be m a d e to the literature.
 w h e r e the s u m m a t i o n is for all m o d e s c o n s i d e r e d . T h e R M S d e f l e c -

Seminar on wind effects on buildings Moment about y-axis M y B (t) = J"w zdz
0
x
(12) t i o n s a r e given by

vO<
V > +2< v ) l 2 2

These two papers by David Croft and Michael Willford formed part of the above Ove Arup Partnership seminar, held in London in May 1983 >rxi: A B j x j A R j x |

(21)
y = V l 2 < V 2(ARj yi l A B j y j
+ v ) 2

Surface pressures W i t h the c i r c u l a r s h a p e the flow is a t t a c h e d on the w i n d w a r d f a c e

but s e p a r a t e s ' at s o m e point a r o u n d the s u r f a c e . In the a t t a c h e d
Torque
"SB") (13)
etc
E q u a t i o n s (21) imply z e r o c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the b a c k g r o u n d a n d
r e g i m e both p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e p r e s s u r e s o c c u r ; in the a r e a of 0
r e s o n a n t r e s p o n s e a n d a l s o b e t w e e n the d i f f e r e n t m o d e s . T h i s i s
David Croft s e p a r a t e d flow the p r e s s u r e s are g e n e r a l l y n e g a t i v e only.
T h e point at w h i c h the f l o w s e p a r a t e s is d e p e n d e n t on t h e
M e a n , R M S a n d P S D v a l u e s a r e m e a s u r e d . In p r a c t i c e they a r e n o r m a l l y found to be a r e a s o n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n .
m e a s u r e d in model s c a l e u n i t s but c a n t h e n be f a c t o r e d up to full T h e e x p e c t e d m a x i m u m (or p e a k ) v a l u e s a r e g i v e n by
R e y n o l d s N u m b e r (defined a s R e = DV/v w h e r e D is the d i a m e t e r ,
SYNOPSIS s c a l e v a l u e s , a n d it is the latter that a r e referred to here.
V the v e l o c i t y a n d v the v i s c o s i t y ) , the s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s a n d to a *max = * + v r
i 2 ( g o v ) 2
+ S ( g o (22)
U s u a l l y m o s t of the c o n t r i b u t i o n of the r e s p o n s e of a tall b u i l d i n g
B A B j x j R A F

In t h i s paper the g e n e r a l p a t t e r n of w i n d flow a r o u n d b u i l d i n g s is l e s s e r e x t e n t the level of t u r b u l e n c e .

d i s c u s s e d briefly a n d s o m e of the d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h the u s e of c o m e s from the t h r e e f u n d a m e n t a l , ' f i r s t ' m o d e s . E a c h f u n d a m e n - ymax = y+ v l 2 ( g
r
B o A B j V y j ) 2

^ ( g R O A R j ^ y , ) 2
)
T h e w i n d f l o w a r o u n d a bluff body s u c h a s a b u i l d i n g is s o m e w h a t tal m o d e m a y c o n t a i n x, y a n d 9 c o m p o n e n t s in its m o d e s h a p e (if
pressure c o e f f i c i e n t s identified. etc.
more c o m p l e x . O n t h e w i n d w a r d f a c e , a b o v e the ' s t a g n a t i o n c o u p l i n g is p r e s e n t ) a n d for e a c h s u c h m o d e the g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e
Most of the paper, h o w e v e r , is c o n c e r n e d w i t h w i n d t u n n e l
point' w h i c h i s n o r m a l l y a b o u t of the w a y up, the flow t u r n s The peak factors g a n d g for the b a c k g r o u n d a n d r e s o n a n t c o m
t e s t i n g , in p a r t i c u l a r the n e e d to s p e c i f y the t e s t properly a n d to c a n be e s t i m a t e d by a s s u m i n g a linear f o r m for the x a n d y c o m - B R

u p w a r d s over the top of the b u i l d i n g . B e l o w the s t a g n a t i o n point p o n e n t s are given by

interpret the r e s u l t s c o r r e c t l y , if m e a n i n g f u l d e s i g n v a l u e s a r e to p o n e n t s a n d a c o n s t a n t v a l u e for the 9 c o m p o n e n t , i.e.,
the a i r p a s s e s d o w n w a r d s a s s h o w n . T o w a r d s e a c h front e d g e the
be o b t a i n e d . T o t h i s e n d s o m e s t a t i s t i c a l t h e o r y i s p r e s e n t e d . 0.577
w i n d p a s s e s h o r i z o n t a l l y a r o u n d the s i d e s . g = v (2log ,T)
r (23)
During the l a s t y e a r a n u m b e r of w i n d t u n n e l t e s t s h a v e b e e n (14) e + v r ( 2 | o g e i ) T )

c a r r i e d out for v a r i o u s p a r t s of the firm. O n e s u c h t e s t i s
d e s c r i b e d in d e t a i l a n d is u s e d to i l l u s t r a t e the v a r i o u s s t a t i s t i c a l
concepts.
T h e t r e a t m e n t of i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s is d i s c u s s e d , s o m e w h a t
T h e flow i s u s u a l l y a t t a c h e d on the w i n d w a r d f a c e a n d s e p a r a t e d Mx M =
"9 9
V
H r
i H w h e r e v is the c y c l e f r e q u e n c y a n d T is the length of t i m e c o n -
on t h e l e e w a r d f a c e . O n the s i d e f a c e s it will d e p e n d on the a n g l e
s i d e r e d ( u s u a l l y o n e hour, i.e. 3600 s e e s ) .
of i n c i d e n c e ; w i t h the w i n d n o r m a l to o n e f a c e , the flow on both
w h e r e a , a y , a ^ a r e t h e v a l u e s of J , ny. M9 r e s p e c t i v e l y at z = H .
s i d e s will be s e p a r a t e d , a l t h o u g h if the d i m e n s i o n in the d i r e c t i o n
x x
F o r the r e s o n a n t c o m p o n e n t , v is t a k e n a s the f r e q u e n c y n j of t h e
of the w i n d is l a r g e the flow m a y ' r e a t t a c h ' . S u b s t i t u t i n g in E q u a t i o n (1) m o d e c o n s i d e r e d w h i c h l e a d s to v a l u e s of g in the r a n g e 3.5-4.5. R

i n c o n c l u s i v e l y , a n d the v a r i o u s o t h e r a s p e c t s that s h o u l d be F o r the b a c k g r o u n d c o m p o n e n t , v is given t h e o r e t i c a l l y by

W i t h the w i n d on one c o r n e r the flow w i l l g e n e r a l l y be a t t a c h e d on H H
c o n s i d e r e d w h e n d e t e r m i n i n g d e s i g n p r e s s u r e s are identified. H

It s h o u l d be n o t e d that the p a p e r is b a s e d p r i m a r i l y on e x p e r i e n c e
t w o f a c e s a n d s e p a r a t e d on t h e other t w o .
T h e a b o v e c o m m e n t s a p p l y m a i n l y to s m o o t h flow. T u r b u l e n t f l o w
Fj(t) = ^ fw zdz x + ^ J w zdz y + ae J T C J ;

g a i n e d on high r i s e b u i l d i n g s a n d m a y not be d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e J"n SFj(n)dn

2

i n t r o d u c e s f l u c t u a t i o n s a s i l l u s t r a t e d d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 2 (24)
e i t h e r to s h e d s a n d other low r i s e s t r u c t u r e s or to tall m a s t s a n d
a n d d e p e n d i n g on the d e g r e e of t u r b u l e n c e , s m a l l n e g a t i v e g u s t
towers.
p e a k s m a y o c c u r on the w i n d w a r d f a c e a n d p o s i t i v e p e a k s on the
3 X M
yB(') +
J M
xB<!> + a
9M8B)
(15)
l e e w a r d f a c e a l t h o u g h the m e a n v a l u e s will g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w the H

S (n)dn
WIND FLOW AROUND BUILDINGS above pattern.
F j

F o r a g e n e r a l t r e a t m e n t of w i n d e f f e c t s on b u i l d i n g s , L a w s o n 1
is T h e m e a n , R M S a n d P S D v a l u e s of F c a n t h u s be e x p r e s s e d in
recommended. t e r m s of the m e a n , R M S a n d P S D v a l u e s of the b a s e b a l a n c e but is u s u a l l y t a k e n a s a c o n s t a n t 3.5 w h i c h is a t y p i c a l a v e r a g e
PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
F i g . 1 s h o w s t y p i c a l flow p a t t e r n s a r o u n d t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s h a p e s T h e p r e s s u r e at a point on t h e s u r f a c e of a b u i l d i n g s u b j e c t e d to r e a d i n g s . T h e m e a n v a l u e is given by: v a l u e given by E q u a t i o n (24).
of body. w i n d a c t i o n c a n be e x p r e s s e d a s f o l l o w s :
W i t h a s t r e a m l i n e d body t h e f l o w r e m a i n s a t t a c h e d ' over the Node a c c e l e r a t i o n s
P ='/2pV2C (1) i = H y B H x B 8 8 B ( >
F M + M + a M 1 6

whole s u r f a c e and positive and negative pressures occur a s T h e m e a n v a l u e s of a l l the a c c e l e r a t i o n s w i l l , of c o u r s e , be z e r o .

p
shown. T h e R M S a c c e l e r a t i o n of a node c a n be o b t a i n e d f r o m the r e s o n a n t
It is u s u a l l y f o u n d that t h e r e is little c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the three
w h e r e p is the d e n s i t y of air generalized displacement R M S thus
c o m p o n e n t s , s o that the R M S of F is g i v e n by:
V is t h e w i n d s p e e d x = v l 2 C r
j^ 4iT n ) | 2 2 2
A R x j ( 2 5 )

C p i s the p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t .
2 / f 2 ( f2 a V
M9B (17) etc.
a x 3 y 2
0 = 0 + +

Fj \ H ' MyB \ H ' MxB

T h e d e n s i t y of a i r in the s t a n d a r d a t m o s p h e r e c o n d i t i o n ( 1 0 1 . 3 k P a The expected m a x i m u m values are then
a n d 15C) is 1.225kg/m a n d CP3: Chapter Vis b a s e d on t h i s .
3
F o r the power s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y , noting that (26)
*max = v lS(g o r
R A R j V j " x
4 2 n
j l
2 2

T h e A u s t r a l i a n a n d S o u t h A f r i c a n C o d e s are b a s e d o n a n a m b i e n t
w h e r e gpj is a s d e f i n e d in s e c t i o n a b o v e on n o d e d i s p l a c e m e n t s .
t e m p e r a t u r e of 2 0 C giving a 2 % r e d u c t i o n in d e n s i t y . T h e d e n s i t y
of air in the C a n a d i a n C o d e c o r r e s p o n d s to a t e m p e r a t u r e of 0 C , J s ( n ) d n = o 2
. J S (n)dn = o 2
etc Node inertia f o r c e s
F j F M x B M x B
Streamlined body Circulor bluff body
a n i n c r e a s e of 6 % in d e n s i t y . T h e R M S inertia f o r c e s c a u s e d by the a c c e l e r a t i o n of the s t r u c t u r e
0 0
T h e S o u t h A f r i c a n C o d e a l s o a l l o w s a r e d u c t i o n in d e n s i t y w i t h c a n be f o u n d from the node a c c e l e r a t i o n s t h u s
altitude a s follows: " P R X = CM]
a n d s u b s t i t u t i n g in E q u a t i o n (17) then ~x"
PRY (27)
y
H e i g h t a b o v e s e a level (m) Factor
J
0 0
a 2
0 0
a 2 0 0
_PR9.
JSpjlrOdn = ( H *) S M y B (n)dn + ( ?) J"s M x B (n)dn
500 0.93 w h e r e the a c c e l e r a t i o n s a r e e v a l u a t e d u s i n g E q u a t i o n s (25) a n d t h e
1000 0.88 0 0 0 m o d e s h a p e s ^ of t h e r e f e r e n c e a x i s , a n d I M I is the m a s s m a t r i x a s
1500 0.83 u s e d in E q u a t i o n (3).
2000 0.78 7 2
B a s e shears and moments

T h e v a r i o u s w i n d c o d e s d e f i n e how E q u a t i o n (1) i s to be a p p l i e d
+ a9j neB( > 0
s n dn T h e b a s e f o r c e s a n d m o m e n t s in e a c h m o d e w i l l a l s o be m a d e up of
mean, background and resonant components. T h e mean and
Pressure distribution a l t h o u g h not a l l c o d e s a p p l y it in the s a m e w a y . T h e s i t u a t i o n i s b a c k g r o u n d c o m p o n e n t s a r e g i v e n d i r e c t l y by the b a l a n c e
f r o m w h i c h it f o l l o w s m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e r e s o n a n t c o m p o n e n t s c a n be s i m p l y o b t a i n e d
Rectangulor bluff body on section obc
s o m e w h a t m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d w h e n r e s u l t s of w i n d t u n n e l t e s t s
are considered, a s different laboratories define pressure by s u m m i n g the i n e r t i a f o r c e s g i v e n by E q u a t i o n (27) up the
Fig. 1 SFj(n) =( )SMyB(") + (^fsMxB<> + aeS B( > aX 2
H
a n
Mfl
n
(18) b u i l d i n g for e a c h n o d e in t u r n . T h e R M S r e s o n a n t b a s e s h e a r s a n d
m o m e n t s for m o d e j a r e t h e n g i v e n (for a l u m p e d m a s s m o d e l ) by
T y p i c a l w i n d flow p a t t e r n s
0
F x Rj = ( 2 T t n j ) 2
o A R j 2 [M]
Node d i s p l a c e m e n t s FyRj
H a v i n g c a l c u l a t e d the g e n e r a l i z e d d i s p l a c e m e n t s for e a c h m o d e ,
MxRj
the d i s p l a c e m e n t s of individual n o d e s c a n be f o u n d .
T h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s d i s p l a c e m e n t of a g i v e n node c o r r e s p o n d i n g to MyRj
m o d e j i s g i v e n by: 0
M 8 Rj (28)

xj(t) = A j ( t ) v j X i
w h e r e I M I a n d z a r e the m a s s m a t r i x a n d h e i g h t of a l u m p e d m a s s
y j (t) = A j ( t ) ^ y j I (19) a n d t h e s u m m a t i o n is for all the l u m p e d m a s s e s .
e j <t) = A j <t> ipoj ) T h e R M S v a l u e s a r e t h e n g i v e n by e q u a t i o n s of the f o r m
H e r e the m o d e s h a p e n> r e l a t e s to the node under c o n s i d e r a t i o n a s
o p p o s e d to t h a t of t h e f o r c e origin u. 1 ^ i s r e l a t e d to H at the s a m e Fx FxB
2 +
< FxRj> 2 (29)
l 0 s e c o n d vtervals 10 second tfiter vals level by a n o r t h o g o n a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
w h e r e the s u m m a t i o n is for all m o d e s .
I 11 ' '"'
C o m b i n i n g the c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m all m o d e s the m e a n v a l u e s a r e
0 6 0 seconds in wind tunnel -
T h e e x p e c t e d m a x i m u m v a l u e s a r e s i m i l a r l y g i v e n by
1 mmule f armoscneie - t h e n g i v e n by
Fig. 2 (30)
x"=(A j V , x j ) 1 F
xmax = xB F +
v Kg FxB> r 2 +
2(9 OFxRi' 2 1

D i a g r a m m a t i c t r a c e of v a r i a t i o n
B R

of p r e s s u r e w i t h t i m e y=2(A>yj> [ (20) where g and B g R are a s defined in the section on node

e=2(Aj^9j) ) displacements.
Arup Ideas In April t h i s y e a r a n I d e a s C o m p e t i t i o n ,
thought up by S t u a r t Richardson of
w e r e required to d e v e l o p their i d e a s on a
m a x i m u m of three s h e e t s of A 1 paper. T h e

Competition B u i l d i n g E n g i n e e r i n g G r o u p 2, w a s held
w i t h over 1,000 prize m o n e y on o f f e r for
d e s i g n s for the m o s t o r i g i n a l p a v i l i o n at
E x p o ' 89 in P a r i s . ( T h i s w a s b e f o r e the E x p o
w a s c a n c e l l e d . ) T h e r e w e r e 8 3 e n t r i e s , from
F i r s t prize: w h i c h 11 w e r e c h o s e n at the p r e l i m i n a r y
'The R e d B a l l o o n ' j u d g i n g s t a g e in J u n e to go f o r w a r d to the
Alastair Hughes s e c o n d s t a g e , w h e n the s u c c e s s f u l o n e s
c o m p e t i t i o n c l o s e d on 1 A u g u s t , w h e n t h e
e n t r i e s w e r e given to t w o a r c h i t e c t s , T e r r y
Farrell and T o m Heneghan who acted a s
guest judges. Their decision c a m e within a
f e w d a y s a n d in late S e p t e m b e r the w i n n i n g
d e s i g n s w e r e put on d i s p l a y .
T h e top s i x are f e a t u r e d h e r e , t o g e t h e r w i t h
the j u d g e s ' c o m m e n t s .

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A s i m p l e i d e a , t h e s i m p l i c i t y of w h i c h w o u l d t r a n s l a t e into r e a l i t y . Very w e l l p r e s e n t e d , both at the b a s i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n

level a n d g r a p h i c a l l y (without r e s o r t i n g to e x t r a o r d i n a r y d r a u g h t s m a n s h i p ) ; the key n o t i o n s a r e very e f f e c t i v e l y e x p l a i n e d .
T h e b u i l d i n g w o u l d be s o s i m p l e a n d m e m o r a b l e ( a n d b e a u t i f u l ) . B r i l l i a n t l y r e s o l v e s the q u e s t i o n of future u s e u n d e r the
p a r a g r a p h ' Q u a n t i t y S u r v e y i n g ' - a h e a d i n g s o r e s o u n d i n g l y dull a n d i n a p p r o p r i a t e that it d r e w t h e e y e i m m e d i a t e l y .
E n g i n e e r i n g p r o w e s s i s a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d in t h i s entry, but not at the e x p e n s e of popular i m a g e r y . T h e i d e a of m a k i n g
f l a g s from the b a l l o o n s a p p e a l s e n o r m o u s l y - a s the h u g e red s y m b o l w o u l d a f t e r the event be d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h the c o u n t r y .
A very s y m b o l i c g e s t u r e , a s i n d e e d the w h o l e c o n c e p t i s s t r o n g s y m b o l i c a l l y a n d very a p p r o p r i a t e for a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p o .
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S h a f t No 2: C o n c r e t i n g a d i a p h r a g m w a l l p a n e l S h a f t No 2: C o n s t r u c t i o n of a w a l i n g b e a m

F i g . 11

S h a f t No 2: T h e s t a r t of e x c a v a t i o n

F i g . 12

S h a f t No 2: T h e upper s e c t i o n

F i g . 13

E x c a v a t i o n of a top h e a d i n g in the t u n n e l ' ; d

F i g . 14
Drilling c h a r g e h o l e s w i t h a n air leg drill

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tunnel s e c t i o n s were investigated. T h e P i e z o m e t e r s w e r e i n s t a l l e d in the C D G to the s u r f a c e . A s e a c h w a l i n g b e a m level T I M idt* Is far a. W r U * filUd rxrtf- T k l <U>5, K * U * u -ft * * M r u n i r MM
o b j e c t i v e w a s to d e s i g n a lining s e c t i o n a r o u n d the w a l l p a n e l s to e n s u r e that the w a s r e a c h e d the e x c a v a t i o n w a s tem- efri*e4w* -Hi* hctf-
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tffc* A * W * r A W i W W I I , H w U
c a v a t i o n , required little or no r e i n f o r c e m e n t drawdown. Inclinometers were installed ' ^ M f c e f fr * * *xpttlHt> t A O N * f t .
ment bent out f r o m the d i a p h r a g m w a l l a n d e * x i < * < - 4 ' * / * . * * c * t . U * IK O-
a n d provided the c o n t r a c t o r w i t h a flat a d j a c e n t to c r i t i c a l p a n e l s to monitor the the w a l i n g b e a m c a s t ( F i g . 11). Co*C*i**A v A i*Vr*A. S o U t /AS k+tr f u o V t *t- ( f t * ^ f * .

invert in the e x c a v a t i o n to a c t a s a r o a d w a y l a t e r a l m o v e m e n t of the g r o u n d d u r i n g MHm, FrmteM. 4o'4 not M J J M M A I fcu

A i * . A * U , IUMJ u w l t v 4(u. r * > i & ^ r w i .
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8) w a s a h o r s e s h o e s e c t i o n w i t h r e i n f o r c e d T h e m o n i t o r i n g of g r o u n d s u r f a c e settle- IM i i w A W^nA-kA^^ * A t i k * n toe *<T*K4->
r e a c h e d . T h e e x p o s e d rock s u r f a c e w a s
invert s l a b a n d a n u n r e i n f o r c e d a r c h . ment p o i n t s s h o w e d that d u r i n g the c o n - e * v i e A * 4 t ' emd f M - f V , a * i c * j . * * * -tmWtoJ < * * I M 4 4 * ^ * * ^ A
c l e a n e d a n d a large c o n c r e t e c o l l a r f o r m e d S C C O H A v A * ( t k k n * l f * A AMA < * S * * * w l
H a v i n g b e e n a w a r d e d the s u b - c o n t r a c t t h e c r e t i n g of the primary p a n e l s the g r o u n d T k * . p * W * i e f e * - of + 4 * A ^ U A A , a n t / A v < U
on it to d e f i n e the t r a n s i t i o n to the lower 4B * # M * rt'*I <MA<f W W i -r* t W
c o n t r a c t o r p r o p o s e d that the t u n n e l lining n e a r b y s e t t l e d by up to 7 5 m m . I n v e s t i g a t i o n In sHruch***, KOMSAJ a MIHUWC* of HAW* .
half of the s h a f t . T h e upper half of S h a f t No. clrSu..
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be c h a n g e d to a n u n r e i n f o r c e d c i r c u l a r s e c - s h o w e d that t h i s w a s c a u s e d by the re-
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2 w a s c o m p l e t e ( F i g . 12). (to v**tf v t I^H<) c**4Xti*t. It M U
tion. T h e c o n t r a c t o r c o n s i d e r e d t h a t the m o v a l of t h e 4 0 m long s t o p - e n d t u b e s a s T K mci IH*M- K * -fwo M A o v r A t e L*i4ur>
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i n c r e a s e in t h e v o l u m e s of e x c a v a t i o n a n d the c o n c r e t e w a s p o u r e d . ( F i g . 9). T h e j a c k s T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the t u n n e l .fi'M** v t l * i t i . T k * upptJ e - n * ft SttmPln
IMLMOT, o f tkm. ^ r U r w u ttUiUZj? c o * * * * U n * * 4 x vTH-rv, * 4 * * U ^ * e n * .
c o n c r e t e w e r e m o r e t h a n b a l a n c e d by t h e A r c U
u s e d to lift the t u b e s w e r e e x e r t i n g very Aoki Construction C o m p a n y Ltd. moved kind. T U * ImJtAr < K t , torUJ '/to A r t * .
T W i f * * < ^ * v * t u u O.M r v i a . A w t e t o A C i To

e l i m i n a t i o n of the r e i n f o r c e m e n t in the large r e a c t i o n s on t h e g u i d e w a l l s a n d o n t o s i t e in F e b r u a r y 1983. T h e i r first t a s k A Ce*pr*tiir* Hum 4 u

* * i ft****- W W f fo MUL. w f t o A f r r i c * . !
* * * a j W r f A c o f
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invert s l a b . T h e c o n t r a c t o r ' s p r o p o s a l w a s e f f e c t i v e l y j a c k i n g t h e m into the g r o u n d . w a s to e s t a b l i s h the s i t e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
e v a l u a t e d a n d h a s b e e n a d o p t e d . T h e lay- O n c e r e c o g n i z e d , the p r o b l e m w a s s o l v e d n e c e s s a r y for the s h a f t s i n k i n g a n d t u n n e l - U kLuT
a
It J U f a f c <UY****~ 44U l t l * * M t U * A K p e c f f V e M fc e v * v , a tcu.pV(
out of the s e r v i c e s w i t h i n the t u n n e l h a s p*(w** t>f-M air- to*4M/H.
by c a r e f u l c o n t r o l of the j a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n . ling w o r k s ( F i g . 6). T h e key to t h e p l a n n i n g ( W t A * M T U

b e e n r e d e s i g n e d for the r e d u c e d m e c h - of the i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w a s t h e m e t h o d of TV* jko fc*A/A*to r A A amd * U T V i * tiLUwxi CUM A * < t a v * t
anical system. On c o m p l e t i o n of t h e d i a p h r a g m wall r e m o v i n g b r o k e n rock f r o m the under- vt>(ovw<*J MH<*W <Uuf, ci- ItrnpLf f t i u i . k / ^ .
it A'tteA feu M b h c f e f c U . -fcuVWc
p a n e l s , the toe of t h e w a l l w a s g r o u t e d ground works. T h e sub-contractor installed M i l e hfWfrt rV eMii*~ 7 V 4 j * * * , 4 * . O r c t t t u p *i< rn*<t* m w u i o f
T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of S h a f t No. 2 t h r o u g h t u b e s c a s t into t h e p a n e l s a n d a s k i p s y s t e m in S h a f t No. 2. T h e s k i p is f W t e * v A w * oUuts CM%4 I M * K - 4 * 4 I ' FrtMitXi f < * j o f i< i l m 4 , , * l f * t t
T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the d i a p h r a g m w a l l for b o r e h o l e s drilled a r o u n d the o u t s i d e of the p*\-*xMr &w*~ t-X w r M i > t u t - T k ( t u M K I o f fc*. 2 0 0 Tfc. & n M l V A * i a ^ W
h o i s t e d on g u i d e r a i l s by a w i n c h h o u s e d in m * c * u t ( t UA*4 a m *imMmifo*s o f
the upper half of S h a f t No. 2 c o m m e n c e d in w a l l . T h e o b j e c t of t h i s e x e r c i s e w a s to a h e a d g e a r at t h e top of the s h a f t . T h e s k i p
o f tUt. K * p M b U c ktoo1 E x e c 9 .
CowuMJtofaf W * W * v * * C .
M a y 1982 a n d w a s c o m p l e t e d in F e b r u a r y c r e a t e a s e a l b e t w e e n the b o t t o m of the d i s c h a r g e s into a h o l d i n g bin at s u r f a c e .
1983. It w a s a r o u t i n e e x e r c i s e in d i a p h r a g m w a l l a n d the u n d e r l y i n g b e d r o c k . A p u m p T V * M i l s * Kit A t f f a n * * * fntvfAt.
F r o m the bin the rock i s c a r r i e d by c o n v e y o r tzt*A utMHfr Mj>elS$fayi. T V i W r f i > t l
wall construction, starting with the drilling test w a s c a r r i e d out to c o n f i r m that the to a b a r g e m o o r e d a d j a c e n t to t h e s i t e . it * e s h * 4 M * . U H a~A, o f tmhm,
of p r e b o r e s to d e f i n e the f i n a l d e p t h of e a c h c o m p l e t e d w a l l met the r e q u i r e m e n t s of the *t> *t* OJ U * 4 v e dAtmUu' ******
p a n e l a n d e n d i n g w i t h the e x c a v a t i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e s p e c i f i c a t i o n a n d all w a s t h e n T h e lower s e c t i o n of S h a f t No. 2 w a s s u n k *f t * * b a /I GW U tMo * 7. f M l+r&4*utd
c o n c r e t i n g of the f i n a l p a n e l . ready for the s h a f t to be e x c a v a t e d . by drill a n d b l a s t t e c h n i q u e s to i t s f i n a l u m i "
MdL'tiffHS C-*m*-> iff i v * A i U 4 *
T h e key to the s a f e c o n s t r u c t i o n of dia- T h e e x c a v a t i o n of the s h a f t w a s a n e x c i t i n g depth of 8 0 m . S h o t h o l e s w e r e drilled w i t h
p h r a g m w a l l s in s e n s i t i v e a r e a s i s a n t i m e on s i t e . F o r the first t i m e the t e a m h a n d - o p e r a t e d air leg d r i l l s . A f t e r the b l a s t <uA h * H c * V t f i u j f o r c * .

e f f e c t i v e s y s t e m of m o n i t o r i n g a n d a n a - c o u l d s e e the s t r a t a w h i c h h i t h e r t o h a d the m u c k w a s l o a d e d into the s k i p w i t h a

lyzing the r e s p o n s e of the g r o u n d to the
e x c a v a t i o n of e a c h p a n e l . At S h a f t No. 2 the
e x c e s s h e a d of b e n t o n i t e w i t h i n t h e p a n e l
being e x c a v a t e d w a s m a i n t a i n e d by de-
been o b s c u r e d with bentonite. T h e e x c a v a - small hydraulic excavator.
tion c o m m e n c e d w i t h t h e b r e a k i n g out of
W h e n the e x c a v a t i o n r e a c h e d the s h a f t
the i n n e r g u i d e w a l l ( F i g . 10). A h y d r a u l i c
invert a 20m l e n g t h of t u n n e l w a s driven to
e x c a v a t o r w a s t h e n p l a c e d in the s h a f t to
c r e a t e s p a c e for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the
S e c o n d prize:
'Paris/Aphrodite'
George Zintilis

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V e r y s e n s u o u s , r o m a n t i c a n d F r e n c h (or at l e a s t a s t h e F r e n c h a r e p o p u l a r l y s e e n ) .
In e n g i n e e r i n g t e r m s , there a r e u n c e r t a i n t i e s a n d c o n t r a d i c t i o n s ; t h e s t r e n g t h l i e s in i t s
s o f t n e s s , c o l o u r , t e x t u r e , form a n d , to s o m e e x t e n t , i t s s y m b o l i s m - a n d l e s s in i t s
e n g i n e e r i n g . A very b e a u t i f u l p r o p o s a l , t h e only r e s e r v a t i o n being that t h e a p p l e '
m i g h t not be p e r c e i v e d at g r o u n d level - only from t h e E i f f e l T o w e r . B y far t h e m o s t
s e d u c t i v e of t h e e n t r i e s - a n d o n e m u s t b e w a r e of t h i s sort of s e d u c t i o n . B u t t h e
d r a w i n g s c o n v e y a c o n v i n c i n g f e e l i n g for t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d p o t e n t i a l of t h i s s c h e m e .

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DETAILS < H it SI PPOBI

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 J o i n t third prize
The basic dimensions and characteristics c o l l a r w h i c h i s in turn c a r r i e d o n t h e s t e e l by t w o f a c t o r s . T h e p r e s e n c e of C h a t e r 'Malaysian
of t h e s e a w a t e r s y s t e m a r e a s f o l l o w s : floor b e a m s . H y d r a u l i c j a c k s b e t w e e n t h e S t a t i o n , c o n s t r u c t e d t h r o u g h t h e C D G to Umbrellas'
c o l l a r a n d t h e s o c k e t a l l o w a n y length of r o c k h e a d a n d r u n n i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e John Eddison
Intake temperature: 28 pipe to be m o v e d v e r t i c a l l y r e l a t i v e to t h e h o r i z o n t a l a l i g n m e n t of t h e t u n n e l , pre-
rest of t h e s y s t e m . To r e p l a c e a fitting c l u d e d t h e u s e of a s h a l l o w s o f t g r o u n d
Outfall temperature: 34 within the s t a c k one would release the t u n n e l . T h e relatively short t i m e a v a i l a b l e
f l a n g e s either s i d e of it a n d then j a c k t h e for t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e t u n n e l required
F l o w rate: 1000 1/sec s t a c k a w a y from it, a l l o w i n g it to be that it be e x c a v a t e d by s i m p l e drill a n d
r e m o v e d . T h e n e w fitting w o u l d be i n s e r t e d b l a s t t e c h n i q u e s in rock w h i c h required
Cooling capacity: 5500 t o n n e by the r e v e r s e p r o c e s s . m i n i m a l primary s u p p o r t .
TYPICAL SlAB UMBRELLA
refrigeration T h e v e r t i c a l f o r c e s a c t i n g in t h e pipe s t a c k s T h e a p p r o x i m a t e v e r t i c a l a l i g n m e n t of t h e SECTION
Detail B
(Typical tlopf pinl )
a r e c a r r i e d into t h e s t e e l floor b e a m s tunnel w a s defined using information from
Seawater pipes: 700mm diameter through the collar located immediately p r e l i m i n a r y s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d geo-
c l a s s K 9 ductile a b o v e t h e point of a c t i o n of t h e f o r c e . T h e l o g i c a l s u r v e y s . W h e n t h i s h a d been d o n e a G R C WALL PANEL

iron p i p e s w i t h s t e e l floor b e a m s s p a n b e t w e e n r e i n f o r c e d final s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s c a r r i e d out to

c e m e n t mortar c o n c r e t e w a l i n g b e a m s c a s t into t h e s h a f t d e f i n e t h e p r e c i s e v e r t i c a l a l i g n m e n t a n d to
lining. l i n i n g s . I t e m s of plant s u c h a s p u m p s a n d provide t h e r e f e r e n c e c o n d i t i o n s required
surge v e s s e l s are supported on secondary for t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g
Seawater pumps: T h r e e 270 k W b e a m s s p a n n i n g b e t w e e n t h e primary floor c o n t r a c t . In p l a n n i n g t h e f i n a l s i t e i n v e s -
d o u b l e volute beams. t i g a t i o n t h e object w a s to o b t a i n s u f f i c i e n t
centrifugal pumps i n f o r m a t i o n o n rock m a s s q u a l i t y to a s s e s s
e a c h delivering Within the tunnel the s e a w a t e r pipes are t h e n e e d for primary s u p p o r t a l o n g t h e
s u p p o r t e d o n s i m p l e s t e e l f r a m e s bolted to length of t h e t u n n e l . S e v e r a l m e t h o d s of
500 l/sec at 350 k P a .
the t u n n e l lining ( F i g . 4). T h e p i p e w o r k in rock m a s s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w e r e c o n s i d e r e d DtlA" E

the t u n n e l i s s o c k e t j o i n t e d at 5.5m inter- (Joint txt wn iupfimpOMt, units )

T h e s u p p o r t of the s e a w a t e r p i p e s a n d that f i n a l l y s e l e c t e d w a s a s i m p l e
v a l s a n d t h e f r a m e s a r e s p a c e d to lie s y s t e m b a s e d o n t h e d e g r e e of w e a t h e r i n g
T h e f u n c t i o n of t h e civil e n g i n e e r i n g w o r k s i m m e d i a t e l y b e h i n d e a c h s e t of s o c k e t s .
is to provide s p a c e a n d s u p p o r t for t h e pipe- of t h e rock m a s s . T h i s s y s t e m , w h i c h h a s TYPICAL SLAB UMBRELLA

T h e f r a m e s a r e tied t o g e t h e r w i t h tie rods b e e n d e s c r i b e d by R u x t o n a n d B e r r y

PLAN
ijEEE
work a n d plant. T h e b e h a v i o u r in s e r v i c e of a n d t u r n b u c k l e s to r e s i s t t h e longitudinal
111S3-Q7| 3

the p i p e w o r k a n d plant i s largely deter- d i v i d e s t h e rock m a s s into z o n e s b a s e d on OVE ARUP JJ. PARTNERS
t h r u s t s in t h e p i p e s . its a p p e a r a n c e in e x p o s u r e s a n d c o r e s a n d IDEAS COMPETITION
m i n e d by t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h it i s sup- Cm* i f
ported. O n e of t h e first e x e r c i s e s to be P l a n n i n g of t h e u n d e r g r o u n d w o r k s on a v i s u a l a s s e s s m e n t of i t s e n g i n e e r i n g JO M M l - M f * d | j r . r ' unilSi

u n d e r t a k e n in t h e d e s i g n w a s t h e develop- T h e first s t a g e in t h e p l a n n i n g of a n under- properties.

MALAYSIAN
ment of a m e t h o d of s u p p o r t i n g t h e v e r t i c a l
pipe s t a c k s in t h e t w o s h a f t s .
g r o u n d e x c a v a t i o n i s to u n d e r s t a n d t h e
g e o l o g i c a l o r i g i n s of t h e s t r a t a in w h i c h it
T h e d e s i g n of t h e horizontal a l i g n m e n t of
the t u n n e l ( F i g . 2) w a s r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e . T h e
1 NATIONAL
PAVILION

T h e l o a d s a c t i n g on t h e s e a w a t e r p i p e s
o r i g i n a t e f r o m t h e m a s s of t h e p i p e s them-
s e l v e s a n d from t h e t h r u s t s i n d u c e d at
b e n d s a n d f i t t i n g s by t h e w a t e r p r e s s u r e s
will be built. C e n t r a l D i s t r i c t of H o n g K o n g
v e r t i c a l a l i g n m e n t w a s more c o m p l i c a t e d
I s l a n d i s u n d e r l a i n by H o n g K o n g G r a n i t e
a n d w a s e s s e n t i a l l y a n e x e r c i s e in b a l a n - \,"-,Mrv. 'lex* s*'v<v due* )
w h i c h f o r m s o n e l a r g e i n t r u s i o n c e n t r e d in
the harbour a n d e x p o s e d in t h e northern
cing several incompatible factors to j OVt AAUP f> f*AftTMCM

p r o d u c e a t u n n e l w h i c h c o u l d be c o n s t r u c -
a c t i n g i n s i d e t h e p i p e s . In t h i s s y s t e m t h e part of H o n g K o n g I s l a n d , K o w l o o n a n d
ted by c o n v e n t i o n a l m e a n s in t h e t i m e a v a i l - JO * a4*t_
w e i g h t of t h e p i p e s i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t in Kwun Tong.
able. P e r h a p s the single most important A g e n t l e , n o n - s t r i d e n t , n a t i o n a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e entry. T h e d r a w i n g s do not flatter the s c h e m e . P e r h a p s t h e
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e t h r u s t s under s u r g e T h e t u n n e l a l i g n m e n t l i e s below r e c l a i m e d f a c t o r w a s that t h e c o n t r a c t o r w o u l d h a v e d e l i c a t e u m b r e l l a s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n e m p h a s i z e d , or t h e u m b r e l l a s c o u l d h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e d a
conditions. land w i t h i n t h e n a t u r a l h a r b o u r ( F i g . 5). A s a a c c e s s only from S h a f t No. 2. T o s i m p l i f y little m o r e rather t h a n j u s t b u i l d i n g up to a d e n s e b l o c k . P r o b a b l y t h e h e a v y c a n t i l e v e r f l o o r s c o u l d h a v e b e e n
T h e d e s i g n of t h e support s y s t e m w a s dict- result of i t s protection from t h e e r o s i v e g r o u n d w a t e r control during c o n s t r u c t i o n r e p l a c e d by a more s i m p l e l a c y ' s t r u c t u r e to c o n t i n u e the t r a n s i e n t c h a r a c t e r . T h e tent s t r u c t u r e
a t e d by m a i n t e n a n c e p r o c e d u r e s . T h e s u p - f o r c e of t h e s e a , t h e rock in t h i s a r e a i s the a l i g n m e n t w a s g r a d e d t o w a r d s S h a f t m i g h t not o p e n a n d s h u t e a s i l y . T h e s c h e m e w o u l d m a k e a m o d e s t but d i s t i n c t i v e a n d c o l o u r f u l p a v i l i o n .
port s y s t e m h a d to permit a n y length of o v e r l a i n by a c o n s i d e r a b l e t h i c k n e s s of No. 2 a l t h o u g h t h e gradient w a s limited by
pipe to be r e l e a s e d a n d r e p l a c e d without completely decomposed granite (CDG), The the n e e d to be a b l e to o p e r a t e v e h i c l e s for
a f f e c t i n g t h e rest of the s y s t e m . T h e s y s t e m C D G i s in turn o v e r l a i n by r e c e n t m a r i n e t h e r e m o v a l of m u c k from t h e e x c a v a t i o n . J o i n t third prize |*4T*fcJ M1M tkl
w h i c h e v o l v e d i s s h o w n in F i g . 3. T h e ver- s e d i m e n t s a n d r e c l a i m fill. In t h e r e c l a i m fill T h e level of t h e t u n n e l w a s d i c t a t e d by t h e 'All T h i n g s ' S**8 ***^- "fa TW **A.tJ T*% ftAJT ! vm * i J l * * t * .
t i c a l pipe s t a c k s a r e divided into d i s c r e t e the w a t e r table f o l l o w s t h e tide. In t h e other preliminary support design and w a s Chris Jofeh tortrt-J
f.
of ft,T|,,t KuKftMor tout * < : .
a u * , THt 1*. I t (.AM* .|W TW
^ aH
T
strata the piezometric levels are generally feCilAoJ ktfAS IMtT >T> r
l e n g t h s by s o c k e t j o i n t s i m m e d i a t e l y a b o v e g e n e r a l l y s e t to m a i n t a i n a ' c o v e r ' of 6 m of Ian S m i t h
i3V
r
r ;- -j- - - - m mnvii at

e a c h s u p p o r t floor. T h e length of pipe at + 1.0 m P D . Z o n e D g r a n i t e over t h e c r o w n of t h e Richard Waters

-"V -
b e n e a t h t h e s o c k e t is s u p p o r t e d in a s t e e l T h e g e n e r a l level of t h e t u n n e l w a s d i c t a t e d excavation. J * I t .<.t>- . d.t

I T bJ M*T I t * * A tit.,t Stmt. V I

r 1 1
" **? O"^'* HTi* IT IS R A t M ,

1 m M M *> r *, i * J r . - M T I t.r
p.p..
o F

*** ** I 4
*** * HUT .OLOUIJI ep | - f | , | , r u

f 5500 y
T* l*TfcCJ CUMIM, Ol fM ML
Tie rods ,.
Collar

1
- - n ^
- Secondary beam t
1
- Primary beam i
L. 1
- Corbel
j
i fciTuSJ i3J*t *****
1 !

Shaft lining

Fig. 4
T h e pipe s u p p o r t s y s t e m in t h e t u n n e l s

Flanged joint
Shaft Des Voeux
No.2 Chater Chater Road 1, Q R C
- Socket joint <t Road Station Central Basement
Marine deposit
+10 -
.....j Shaft <{ ,
0- "r-ff-^^' Fill ' :

-10 - 1 | * - r
-20-
-30-
. ] . 1
1
* . .
Completely decomposed granite ,.,...^z-;: .''.. rr;;^ 0
L

-40-
-50- one C granite
-60- ^ Zone D gramte_ .
-70-
-80-
-90-
A b u s y , f i z z i n g - w i t h - i d e a s , s c h e m e . It i s not o f t e n that d e s i g n e r s c o n s i d e r s u c h s i m p l e e v e n t s a s b u b b l e - w a l l s , s m o k e - s c r e e n s , e t c .
Fig. 3 Fig. 5 T h e e x c e l l e n t initial entry w a s better t h a n t h e f i n a l w o r k , w h i c h p r o b a b l y r a n into t r o u b l e w h e n t h e e n t r a n t tried to m a k e a
T h e pipe s u p p o r t s y s t e m in t h e s h a f t s Geological section through the underground w o r k s b u i l d i n g f o r m . H e probably s h o u l d not h a v e a t t e m p t e d to do t h i s , but j u s t filled s e v e r a l m o r e p a g e s w i t h j o t t i n g s a n d non-building
i d e a s . O b v i o u s l y y o u c a n n o t d e l i n e a t e a d e q u a t e l y s u c h a n i n t a n g i b l e b u i l d i n g ' - probably there s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a d e p i c t i o n
of a ' f r o z e n moment'. W i t t y a n d p l a y f u l - e v e r y t h i n g o p p o s i t e to T h e T a n k ' ; t h e y w o u l d m a k e a g o o d c o m b i n e d entry.
J o i n t third prize
'The Tank'
Ian Gardner

devahon

Plan at Y

Section A-A

A s t r o n g e n g i n e e r i n g entry l o o k i n g for s o m e joy a n d a t t r a c t i o n - w h i c h s h o u l d be f o r t h c o m i n g ,

a s e s s e n t i a l l y the i d e a of m o v i n g a r o u n d i n s i d e t u b e s i n s i d e a t a n k h a s p o t e n t i a l ! A very i n t e r e s t i n g
s t a r t i n g i d e a but p e r h a p s the p u b l i c e n c l o s u r e s h o u l d not h a v e b e e n s o o p a q u e , s o that o n e w o u l d
k n o w o n e w a s under w a t e r . P e r h a p s the ' t u b e ' s h o u l d h a v e b e e n m o o r e d under the S e i n e .

J o i n t third prize
'The Containers' V V V <7 X
Stuart *
Richardson
- v M . . -

J i
* .1 r

I I

E x c e l l e n t g r a p h i c p r e s e n t a t i o n - p r o b a b l y the b e s t entry in t h i s r e s p e c t . T h e e n g i n e e r i n g c o n c e p t a p p e a r s
c u m b e r s o m e a n d u n g a i n l y , but very m u c h to h i s credit the e n t r a n t h a s in the f i n a l b u i l d i n g p r o d u c e d
a n i n t e g r a t e d p i e c e of d e s i g n . O v e r a l l t h e r e i s too m u c h of a p a c k a g i n g c o n c e p t , not very a p p r o p r i a t e for
a m a j o r E x p o p a v i l i o n . T h e b u i l d i n g c o u l d never live up to t h e f a s c i n a t i o n of w a t c h i n g the e r e c t i o n in
p r o g r e s s ! T h e r e i s s o m e c o n c e r n that t h e i n g e n u i t y of the e r e c t i o n s y s t e m b e c o m e s ' m u t e ' o n c e f i n i s h e d .
30 P e r h a p s too the i m a g e is not s u i t a b l e for a n e x h i b i t i o n of s e v e r a l h i g h - t e c h c o m p a n i e s ; a little too M e c c a n o .
 tioned, w h i c h is s u r p r i s i n g from a u t h o r s fire brigade. T h e r e a r e other large s p a c e s
Book review
Vol 18 No. 4 D e c e m b e r 1983 Contents
Published by w h o , quite rightly, e m p h a s i z e the impor- a n a l o g o u s to the c o v e r e d r a i l w a y s t a t i o n

T H E A R U P Ove Arup Partnership

13 Fitzroy Street. London W 1 P 6 B Q
Atrium buildings:
t a n c e of d e s i g n a c c o r d i n g to the cir-
cumstances.
w h i c h u s e d to be filled w i t h s t e a m e n g i n e s
w h i c h w o u l d a l s o be r e a s o n a b l y s a f e for
development and design S o m e production is c a r e f u l l y d e s c r i b e d in e s c a p e at ground level for s o m e t i m e after
Richard Saxon the start of a fire e v e n if it did s p r e a d .

J O U R N A L
Editor Peter Hoggett
Art Editor D e s m o n d Wyeth F S I A D A r c h i t e c t u r a l P r e s s 1983
Assistant Editor David Brown
C o m m e n t s on the c h a p t e r on fire s a f e t y
The s e a w a t e r intake s y s t e m
for the n e w h e a d q u a r t e r s
of the H o n g k o n g a n d S h a n g h a i
Margaret Law
Banking Corporation,
Many people a l r e a d y work or live in
by S . Murray
b u i l d i n g s that overlook a c o n f i n e d s p a c e ,
w h i c h m a y be a l i g h t w e l l . c o u r t y a r d , s t r e e t
Seminaron
or s q u a r e . W h y d o e s p l a c i n g a roof over the
w i n d e f f e c t s on b u i l d i n g s :
s p a c e i n c r e a s e the fire h a z a r d ? A l a n P a r n e l l
a n d G o r d o n B u t c h e r , the c o - a u t h o r s of the
Surface pressures,
c h a p t e r s on d e s i g n for fire s a f e t y in R i c h a r d
by D. C r o f t
S a x o n ' s book, e x p l a i n very c l e a r l y h o w
s m o k e c a n a c c u m u l a t e a n d fill even a very
Structural response, 16
l a r g e e n c l o s e d void a n d s p r e a d into a n y sur-
by M. W i l l f o r d rounding o p e n - s i d e d a c c o m m o d a t i o n . M a n y
s o l u t i o n s e s s e n t i a l l y a i m i n g to prevent
Arup I d e a s C o m p e t i t i o n 2 6
s m o k e e n t e r i n g the a t r i u m , or to let it e n t e r
a n d vent s a f e l y to the o p e n air a r e
B o o k review 31
d e s c r i b e d in p r i n c i p l e a n d i l l u s t r a t e d by
c a s e s t u d i e s . W h a t is e s t a b l i s h e d is that fire
s a f e t y d e s i g n s h o u l d not be b a s e d on arbit-
rary r u l e s : it m u s t t a k e into a c c o u n t how the
b u i l d i n g i s u s e d a n d the n a t u r e of the r i s k s .
H a v i n g o p e n e d w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n of the
c h a l l e n g e of d e s i g n i n g fire s a f e t y for a t r i u m
b u i l d i n g s the c h a p t e r c o n t i n u e s w i t h a
s u r v e y of the b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of m e a n s of
e s c a p e . T h e normally a c c e p t e d travel
d i s t a n c e s a r e q u o t e d but their r e l e v a n c e to
the type a n d s i z e of s p a c e a n d the sort of
F r o n t c o v e r : C o l d front a p p r o a c h i n g B r i t a i n ( P h o t o : U n i v e r s i t y of Dundee)
people u s i n g the e s c a p e r o u t e s is not m e n -
B a c k c o v e r : T h e H o n g K o n g tunnel ( P h o t o : Neil F a r r i n )
t e r m s of air e n t r a i n m e n t into the p l u m e of
hot g a s e s p r o d u c e d by a fire a n d the p h y s i c s
of hot air m o v e m e n t . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n
m e t h o d s d e s c r i b e d do not t a k e into a c c o u n t
the a c t u a l c o n s t i t u e n t s of the s m o k e , its tox-
icity or visibility, but a s s u m e that a n y h e a t e d
air is h a z a r d o u s a n d m u s t t h e r e f o r e be c o n -
trolled.
Most of the d i s c u s s i o n is on s m o k e c o n t r o l ,
but s o m e a t t e n t i o n is paid to control of inter-
nal fire s p r e a d . It is pointed out that the risk
of floor-to-floor fire s p r e a d up the inner f a c e
of a n e n c l o s e d a t r i u m is no different from
that at the outer f a c e of a n y building. It is
s o m e w h a t s t a r t l i n g to r e a d that v e r t i c a l fire
s p r e a d i s more likely if the f l o o r s f a c i n g the
a t r i u m a r e g l a z e d , rather t h a n o p e n . W h e n
f l a m e s from a fire on o n e floor break out into
the a t r i u m they will tend to c u r v e b a c k to the
floor a b o v e if g l a z i n g p r e v e n t s air getting
behind the f l a m e to project it f o r w a r d .
H o w e v e r the g l a z i n g , w h i l e i n t a c t , c o n -
s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e s the r a d i a t i o n t r a n s m i t t e d
to the interior, a n d it c a n n o t be a s s u m e d
that it w o u l d a l w a y s be s a f e r to omit it.
It is a little p e s s i m i s t i c to s a y that no s m o k e
control is p o s s i b l e without s t r i c t a n d rapid
fire-size limitation. F o r e x a m p l e , the pro-
p o s a l s for c o v e r i n g over B a s i l d o n T o w n
S q u a r e ( s e e Architects' Journal 1.6.83,
pp.42-53) a r e b a s e d on the a s s u m p t i o n that
fire s i z e in a s h o p or o f f i c e is not limited a n d
g r o w s e x p o n e n t i a l l y until c o n t r o l l e d by the
In g e n e r a l , t h i s c h a p t e r g i v e s s t e a d y - s t a t e
s o l u t i o n s , w h i c h a r e likely to be c o r r e c t for
the g e n e r a l r a n g e of a t r i u m buildings.
H o w e v e r , t h e t r a n s i e n t s o l u t i o n is a l s o of
c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t , s i n c e it t a k e s into
a c c o u n t the time for a fire to grow to a cer-
t a i n s i z e , how s o o n visibility w o u l d be
i m p a i r e d a n d how long it w o u l d t a k e to
e v a c u a t e the s p a c e . T h e a u t h o r s ' s m o k e
control methods a s s u m e a sprinkler-
c o n t r o l l e d fire, of a p r o b a b i l i t y - b a s e d d e s i g n
s i z e . It is e q u a l l y p o s s i b l e to a s s u m e a
p r o b a b i l i t y - b a s e d d e s i g n s i z e of a non-
s p r i n k l e r e d fire.
At present in t h i s c o u n t r y there is little
a g r e e m e n t on w h a t s i z e of fire r i s k w e
s h o u l d be d e s i g n i n g for in a t r i u m b u i l d i n g s ,
a n d w h a t m e a s u r e s a r e a p p r o p r i a t e to d e a l
w i t h it. T h e only p u b l i s h e d c o d e is the U S
N F P A C o d e 1981 a n d , a l t h o u g h the a u t h o r s
a r e quite right to point out s o m e of its
d e f e c t s , w e s h o u l d be w o r k i n g t o w a r d s the
p r o d u c t i o n of a U K d e s i g n guide w h i c h is
e v e n better. T h i s c h a p t e r s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y
s t i m u l a t e a r c h i t e c t s a n d e n g i n e e r s to p r e s s
for s u c h a guide, a n d e v e n if that w e r e its
only e f f e c t it w o u l d be v a l u a b l e . H o w e v e r , it
will a l s o be a u s e f u l tool to c o n v i n c e c l i e n t s
both here a n d o v e r s e a s of the n e c e s s i t y for
g o o d fire s a f e t y d e s i g n , a n d will provide a
s e n s i b l e b a s i s for d i s c u s s i o n w i t h the
regulatory a u t h o r i t i e s .

The seawater intake d i s t r i b u t e the c a p i t a l c o s t of the w o r k s by

s h a r i n g the s y s t e m w i t h other develop-
It led to t h e w i t h d r a w a l of the other u s e r s of
the s y s t e m w h o w e r e to h a v e t a k e n 7 5 % of

system for the new ments.

T h e p r o p o s a l w h i c h the a r c h i t e c t put to the
its c a p a c i t y . C o n s t r u c t i o n w a s a l r e a d y
under w a y a n d the t e a m c a r r i e d out a s w i f t New Gateway House, Basingstoke
headquarters of the c l i e n t in D e c e m b e r 1981 w a s to c o n s t r u c t a
n e w i n t a k e a n d p u m p h o u s e c l o s e to the
e v a l u a t i o n of the o p t i o n s a v a i l a b l e to t h e
c l i e n t . T h e client e l e c t e d to p r o c e e d w i t h
A n a r t i c l e on t h i s A r u p A s s o c i a t e s project will a p p e a r in a f o r t h c o m i n g i s s u e of The Arup Journal

Hongkong and
Shanghai Banking
Corporation
Architect: Foster A s s o c i a t e s
Simon Murray
Introduction
T h e new h e a d q u a r t e r s for the H o n g k o n g
a n d S h a n g h a i B a n k i n g C o r p o r a t i o n at 1
Queen's R o a d Central, Hong Kong, needs
no i n t r o d u c t i o n . M u c h h a s b e e n w r i t t e n
about the d e s i g n of the b u i l d i n g w h i c h will
r e p l a c e o n e of Hong K o n g ' s m o s t signifi-
c a n t l a n d m a r k s . At the time of w r i t i n g the
s t r u c t u r e h a s r i s e n a l m o s t to the level of the
surrounding buildings.
T h e original headquarters w a s supplied
with s e a w a t e r for both c o o l i n g and
f l u s h i n g . T h e s e a w a t e r w a s d r a w n from a n
i n t a k e c h a m b e r built b e h i n d the s e a w a l l
s o m e 4 0 0 m f r o m the bank. It w a s p u m p e d to
the s i t e t h r o u g h two 4 0 0 m m m a i n s laid in a
t r e n c h b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e of S t a t u e S q u a r e .
W h e n the t i m e c a m e to r e d e v e l o p the s i t e it
w a s h o p e d that a s i m i l a r s y s t e m c o u l d be
d e v e l o p e d for t h e new building.
E a r l y in 1981 the p r o f e s s i o n a l t e a m , led by
t h e a r c h i t e c t F o s t e r A s s o c i a t e s , b e g a n to
i n v e s t i g a t e t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of supplying
s e a w a t e r to t h e n e w d e v e l o p m e n t . A v a r i e t y
of s o l u t i o n s w e r e a p p r a i s e d s t a r t i n g w i t h
the r e n o v a t i o n of the e x i s t i n g s y s t e m . T h e
s t u d y c o n c l u d e d that t h e o p t i m u m s o l u t i o n
w a s to lay the s e a w a t e r m a i n s in a t u n n e l
e x c a v a t e d b e n e a t h S t a t u e S q u a r e a n d to
o r i g i n a l i n s t a l l a t i o n . T h e s e a w a t e r w a s to
be c a r r i e d to the new d e v e l o p m e n t in s i x 1m
d i a m e t e r p i p e s laid in a t u n n e l e x c a v a t e d at
a n a v e r a g e depth of 6 0 m b e l o w S t a t u e
Square. The s y s t e m w a s designed with a
c a p a c i t y of 4000 l/sec of w h i c h a p p r o x i -
m a t e l y 3000 l/sec w a s i n t e n d e d for other
developments. T h e proposal w a s accepted
a n d in J a n u a r y 1982 Ove A r u p a n d P a r t n e r s
( H o n g K o n g ) w e r e a p p o i n t e d to lead the pro-
f e s s i o n a l t e a m in its i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .
T h e p r o g r a m m e for the c o m m i s s i o n i n g of
the a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g e q u i p m e n t in t h e n e w
h e a d q u a r t e r s building required that s e a -
w a t e r be a v a i l a b l e in A u g u s t 1984. T h i s
g a v e the t e a m a period of only 32 m o n t h s
for the d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d c o m m i s -
s i o n i n g of the s e a w a t e r s y s t e m . F a i l u r e to
meet t h i s p r o g r a m m e c o u l d d e l a y the
o p e n i n g of the building.
To r e s o l v e the p r o g r a m m e the c o n s t r u c t i o n
w o r k w a s divided b e t w e e n two c o n t r a c t s .
T h e first c o n t r a c t c o m p r i s e d the d e s i g n a n d
c o n s t r u c t i o n of a n a c c e s s s h a f t a d j a c e n t to
t h e s e a w a l l . It w a s a w a r d e d to B a c h y
S o l e t a n c h e G r o u p in May 1982 a n d , w h i l e
it w a s under c o n s t r u c t i o n , the team
p r o c e e d e d with the d e s i g n a n d d o c u m e n -
t a t i o n of t h e r e m a i n d e r of the s y s t e m . T h e
m a n a g e m e n t c o n t r a c t o r invited four civil
e n g i n e e r i n g c o n t r a c t o r s to tender for the
m a j o r c o n t r a c t . In N o v e m b e r 1982 it w a s
a w a r d e d to A o k i C o n s t r u c t i o n C o m p a n y
L t d . w h o s u b - c o n t r a c t e d the m e c h a n i c a l
a n d e l e c t r i c a l w o r k s to H a d e n I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Ltd.
S h o r t l y after the a w a r d of the m a i n c o n t r a c t
it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that H o n g K o n g ' s
e c o n o m y h a d p a s s e d its peak of e x p a n s i o n
and had entered a decline. T h e subsequent
l o s s in c o n f i d e n c e in t h e property m a r k e t
h a d s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s for the p r o j e c t .
the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the full civil e n g i n e e r i n g
w o r k s but to i n s t a l l w i t h i n t h e m a s e a w a t e r
s y s t e m w i t h only s u f f i c i e n t c a p a c i t y for the
new b a n k h e a d q u a r t e r s . T h e s e a w a t e r pipe-
w o r k w a s to be c o n f i n e d to o n e half of the
t u n n e l l e a v i n g the other half a v a i l a b l e for
the i n s t a l l a t i o n of p i p e w o r k to s e r v e other
s i t e s a s a n d w h e n they a r e d e v e l o p e d .
At the t i m e of w r i t i n g t h e s e a w a t e r s y s t e m
h a s been r e d e s i g n e d , the c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g
w o r k s a r e under c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e
m e c h a n i c a l a n d e l e c t r i c a l e q u i p m e n t is
being o r d e r e d .
The seawater system
T h e a r r a n g e m e n t of the s e a w a t e r s y s t e m is
s h o w n in outline in F i g . 1 . A f u n d a m e n t a l
p r i n c i p l e of the d e s i g n is that e v e r y p i e c e of
plant a n d pipework in the s y s t e m i s
provided w i t h a b a c k u p unit. T h i s e n s u r e s
that the n e w b a n k h e a d q u a r t e r s c a n c o n -
t i n u e to o p e r a t e under all c o n d i t i o n s .
S e a w a t e r is d r a w n f r o m the harbour
t h r o u g h a f o r e b a y unit s e t in t h e s e a w a l l .
T h e w a t e r p a s s e s into the i n t a k e c h a m b e r
l o c a t e d b e h i n d the s e a w a l l a n d t h e n c e into
the two 9 0 0 m m d i a m e t e r i n t a k e p i p e s w h i c h
a r e c a s t into the rear of t h e c h a m b e r . T h i s
somewhat elaborate intake design is
n e c e s s a r y to o v e r c o m e the f a c t that at low
tide the w a t e r depth at the s e a w a l l is l e s s
t h a n 1m.
T h e c e n t r e of the s y s t e m is S h a f t No. 2
w h i c h s e r v e s a s both a p u m p h o u s e a n d a
m e a n s of a c c e s s to the t u n n e l . T h e t w o
i n t a k e p i p e s e n t e r the s h a f t 7 m below
g r o u n d level a n d turn t h r o u g h 90 d e g r e e s to
form the two intake s t a c k s . T h e three
identical pump s e t s are connected between
the i n t a k e s t a c k s a n d the d e l i v e r y s t a c k s at
t h r e e s e p a r a t e floor l e v e l s . F r o m t h e l o w e s t
level delivery p i p e s c o n t i n u e d o w n t h e s h a f t
a n d into t h e t u n n e l .