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Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources (2012) 50, 327350 doi:10.1111/j.1744-7941.2012.00028.x

Effects of cross-cultural and language

training on expatriates adjustment and job
performance in Vietnam
Yu-Lin Wang National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Emma Tran National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan

The purpose of this study is to explore the relationships among pre-departure cross-cultural training,
post-arrival cross-cultural training, language training, expatriates adjustment (general, interaction,
work), and job performance. Questionnaire data were collected from 114 expatriates and their
supervisors, who evaluated the expatriates job performance in Vietnam. The results indicates that
pre-departure cross-cultural training, post-arrival cross-cultural training, and language training
all are positively associated with general, interaction, and work adjustment ability. An expatriates
interaction and work adjustment have significant impacts on job performance; they partially mediate
the relationship between training and job performance. Post-arrival cross-cultural training has the
strongest impact on expatriate general and work adjustment. Language training is most significant for
interaction adjustment. Of the three types, post-arrival cross-cultural training plays the most critical
role in expatriate adjustment. Limitations and recommendations for future research are presented at
the end of the paper.
Keywords: adjustment, cross-cultural training, job performance, language training

Key points
1 Expatriates should receive both pre-departure and post-arrival cross-cultural train-
ing, if possible. If an organization cannot provide both, post-arrival cross-cultural
training should maximize expatriates adjustment.
2 Language trainings effectiveness with regard to adjustment and job performance is
inferior only to post-arrival cross-cultural training.

Globalization has changed contemporary human resource management practices.

Employee training and development represent central topics for organizations, especially
multinational corporations that offer employees international assignments (Pernkopf-

Correspondence: Assistant Professor Yu-Lin Wang, Department of Business Administration,

National Cheng Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan 701, Taiwan; e-mail: ywang@
mail.ncku.edu.tw
Accepted for publication 20 December 2011.

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Konhausner and Brandl 2011). Sending expatriates to foreign locations is the most popular
method multinational corporations use to establish new international markets, spread and
sustain their corporate culture, and maintain central organizational co-ordination and
control (Zhang and Dodgson 2007). However, expatriate failures create significant direct
and indirect costs for both companies and employees (Puck, Kittler and Wright 2008).
Expatriate failures take various forms, including premature returns, poor performance,
adjustment problems, and so on (Harzing and Christensen 2004). When expatriates fail to
adjust well for example, premature returns create several costs for the company (Giacalone
and Beard 1994). First, the initial costs of sending employees on foreign assignments are at
least three times as much as the base salaries of their domestic counterparts (Shaffer,
Harrison and Gilley 1999). Second, an unsuccessful expatriation may decrease the employ-
ees subsequent commitment to the firm (Naumann 1993) and job performance after
repatriation (Black, Gregersen and Mendenhall 1992). Third, the failure could impede the
performance of foreign subsidiaries, which in turn could reduce opportunities to create and
penetrate new markets (Puck, Kittler and Wright 2008). International assignment failures
not only affect the organizations international business performance and development but
also can frustrate an employees career growth (Caligiuri et al. 1998; Newton, Hutchings
and Kabanoff 2007). Because each expatriates adjustment and performance likely influence
the organizations success in building foreign business, strategies for selecting, training, and
placing expatriates are critical to the success of a multinational corporations operations.
Assuming that the firm has recruited employees who appear qualified for expatriation,
training programs play critical roles. One of the best ways to increase expatriates adjust-
ment ability is to provide them with sufficient knowledge and awareness of the appropriate
norms and behaviors of the target country, mainly through cross-cultural training. This
process is designed to promote intercultural learning and the acquisition of behavioral,
cognitive, and emotional competencies associated with effective interactions across cultures
(Landis and Brislin 1983). Unlike other training programs, cross-cultural training attempts
to change a trainees attitude and behaviors, instead of simply providing information
(Bhagat and Prien 1996). Using cognitive adjustment theory, Brandl and Neyer (2009)
argue that cross-cultural training can help expatriates reshape their mental maps and adapt
specific behaviors to intercultural situations. These cognitive adjustments then may elim-
inate cultural stereotypes and improve cultural awareness, so expatriates who undergo
cross-cultural training should be less likely to suffer cross-cultural misunderstanding or
engage in inappropriate behaviors (Black, Mendenhall and Oddou 1991). Both academic
research and human resource practitioners also assert that such training can help expatri-
ates adapt better and more quickly to living and working in new environments (Morris and
Robie 2002), because it proactively guards against the frustration, misunderstanding, and
culture shock that often result from cross-cultural interactions (Harris and Kumra 2000).
In addition to facilitating adjustment, training can provide expatriates an opportunity
to learn local languages, which should facilitate their adjustment to the host country
(Peltokorpi 2008). With language proficiency, expatriates can interact more with local
people and receive more information about behavioral norms and unwritten roles and
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customs in business, as well as in their daily activities. Such interactions should increase
expatriate adjustment processes, through relevant information exchange. Moreover,
expatriates who can speak the local language find it easier to seek help in the new environ-
ment and win over local employees. As a result, cross-cultural training should promote an
expatriates intercultural learning to adjust to the new workplace, and language training
should facilitate the expatriates ability to interact effectively with people from different
cultures.

Problem statement and study purpose

Recent studies of expatriate and international assignment issues in business and manage-
ment have focused mainly on high expatriate failure rates. Yet Harzing (1995, 2002) chal-
lenges this persistent focus on expatriate failures. Harzing (1995) suggests instead that
research should attend to the reasons for failure and thereby develop related variables, such
as the effectiveness of cross-cultural training. In addition, whether failure rate reports are
accurate remains debatable (Harzing 2002).
This study considers both cross-cultural and language training, unlike existing research
that tends to study them separately, noting the effects of either cross-cultural training
(Caligiuri et al. 2001; Puck, Kittler and Wright 2008; Selmer 2001, 2002; Selmer, Torbiorn
and de Leon 1998; Tarique and Caligiuri 2009; Waxin and Panaccio 2005) or language
training (Haslberger 2005; Peltokorpi 2008). Yet both cultural understanding and foreign
language skills influence employee performance in international business enterprises (Swift
and Lawrence 2003). In particular, insufficient research attention has addressed linguistic
training (Waxin and Panaccio 2005). In this study, language training refers to training in the
Vietnamese language. This study attempts to address these gaps by exploring the effects of
pre-departure cross-cultural training, post-arrival cross-cultural training, and language
training on three facets of expatriates adjustment processes: general, interaction, and work
adjustment, rather than one dimension.
Furthermore, most existing studies use the expatriates job performance as a depend-
ent variable, without investigating the potential mediating effect of his or her adjustment
on the relationship between training and job performance (Waxin and Panaccio 2005).
Black and Gregersen (1991) suggest the need for new sources, such as interviews with an
expatriates supervisors, to evaluate work adjustment. Accordingly, this study adopts
supervisors evaluations of expatriates performance, which also helps avoid common
method bias.
For this research, this study focuses on expatriates in Vietnam, an emergent market for
both western and Asian international businesses. Vietnam offers a promising transition
economy for foreign companies that hope to establish new international markets (Zhan
et al. 2009). In 2006, Vietnam was accepted into the World Trade Organization (Collins
et al. 2011), and the Vietnamese governments efforts for economic reforms have integrated
the country into the world economy. Despite its economic transition though, Vietnam still
maintains a traditional and unique cultural setting, marked by Confucianism, which makes
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it a challenging destination for expatriates. Training for expatriates assigned to work in

Vietnam is critical, but limited empirical research considers either adjustment or per-
formance in this setting.
In summary, this study explores the relationships among pre-departure cross-cultural
training, post-arrival cross-cultural training, and language training; the expatriates three
facets of adjustment; and job performance. In particular, it considers a potential mediating
role of the adjustment facets on the relationship between the types of training and job
performance.

Literature review and research hypotheses

Cross-cultural training and adjustment
Cross-cultural training is common among many multinational corporations, which
provide continuous guidance for expatriates to adjust gradually to the host country with the
host country. Sequential cross-cultural training begins before the expatriates departure and
continues after his or her arrival in the foreign country (Selmer, Torbiorn and de Leon
1998). In pre-departure training, the expatriate undertakes a cohesive series of activities to
develop greater cultural awareness, appropriate behaviors and skills, and a positive orien-
tation toward the new culture before leaving for this foreign nation. The main purpose of
pre-departure training thus is to enhance the expatriates awareness of cultural differences
and sensitivity in dealing with cultural issues, which should speed the learning process.
However, ethnocentric predispositions cause many people to resist cultural lessons that
they have not previously experienced. In addition, no training environment can replicate
the foreign culture fully, and trainees tend to have inadequate experience or knowledge to
identify critical issues related to the host culture. They rarely can grasp implicit cultural
lessons, which may cause difficulties when they attempt to apply their new skills in practice
(Bernhardt 2003; Selmer, Torbiorn and de Leon 1998). Therefore, pre-departure training
mainly focuses on providing essential information about local conditions and raising the
expatriates awareness of differences in cultural norms and values (Black and Mendenhall
1990). These training programs often resemble an initial experience in the host country,
also known as the tourist phase (Waxin and Panaccio 2005).
After arriving in the host country, the expatriate may undergo post-arrival training that
aims to minimize problems associated with cultural adjustment. Post-arrival training pro-
vides some essential resources, including social support and an onsite mentoring system
(Mendenhall and Wiley 1994), though it rarely takes place immediately on the expatriates
arrival. Although many companies view post-arrival training as ineffective and costly,
empirical work shows that it is more effective than pre-departure training (Mendenhall
et al. 2002; Selmer, Torbiorn and de Leon 1998). Whereas expatriates may have trouble
applying structured pre-departure training to their unstructured expatriate experiences, a
post-arrival training program enables them to combine explicit knowledge and informa-
tion from their pre-departure training with real experience (Gudykunst 2004). Moreover,
after they arrive in the new environment and gain opportunities to interact with local
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people, expatriates may be more open to information and rely less on their native cultural
view; this transformation likely facilitates learning about the new culture (Selmer, Torbiorn
and de Leon 1998). Selmer (1999) also argues that expatriates who are open to different
cultural norms should adjust well. As their interpretations and behaviors gradually align
more with the host culture, expatriates eventually achieve successful adjustment (Shaffer,
Harrison and Gilley 1999). Actual experiences over time expose this person to unfamiliar
stimuli and impressions, which force the expatriate to restructure his or her frames of
reference. The accommodation of new cognitive elements then gradually predisposes the
expatriate to reorient interpretations and behaviors to suit the new social context.
An expatriates adjustment thus is a common criterion to evaluate expatriate success
(Furuya et al. 2007; Graf 2004). One stream of research focuses on psychological comfort
levels with different characteristics of host culture (Lee and Sukoco 2008), such that this
form of adjustment refers to the degree of psychological comfort and behavioral adapt-
ability to different aspects in the new environment (Gregersen, Morrison and Black 1998).
Scholars debate how to conceptualize the construct of adjustment, but a multifaceted
approach is most widely accepted (Puck, Kittler and Wright 2008), because expatriates must
undertake more than work adjustment and adjust as well to general living arrangements.
Black, Gregersen and Mendenhall (1992) specifically indicate that expatriate adjustment
consists of three components: work, interaction, and general. These three facets encompass
both work and non-work domains, so they often appear in discussions of expatriate
adjustment (Peltokorpi 2008). Work adjustment involves job responsibility, supervision,
and performance; interaction adjustment refers to the expatriates ability to socialize with
host-country nationals. General adjustment is an overall acceptance of living in the host
culture, including daily life issues, so it tends to be the most challenging form for expatri-
ates. This study adopts Black, Gregersen and Mendenhalls (1992) three-part adjustment
measure to evaluate expatriates adjustment.
Following the principle of uncertainty reduction, expatriates may have expectations
about their adjustment. Scholars predict that expatriates who attend cross-cultural train-
ing should be more prepared for uncertainty and tolerate changes to their habits, norms,
policies, and work environment (Bozionelos 2009). Research in cross-cultural psychology
and management science also has demonstrated a positive effect of cross-cultural training
on expatriates cross-cultural adjustment (Waxin and Panaccio 2005). That is, expatriates
who receive cross-cultural training tend to adjust better to new host nations than those
without such training (Caligiuri et al. 2001; Palthe 2004). Waxin and Panaccios (2005)
empirical study further confirms that cross-cultural training has positive effects on all
three forms of adjustment, and Morris and Robie (2002) indicate that cross-cultural
training facilitates adjustment, though with a weaker impact than they expected. Their
weak outcomes might reflect the need to separate cross-cultural training into pre-
departure and post-arrival phases. Tarique and Caligiuris (2009) empirical study
demonstrates that cross-cultural training has a greater impact on work adjustment if
it is spread over time. That is, sequential cross-cultural training may maximize training
effectiveness.
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Empirical studies that demonstrate a relationship between cross-cultural training and

adjustment mostly explore the impacts of pre-departure cross-cultural training (Bhagat
and Prien 1996; Deshpande and Viswesvaran 1992; Hammer and Martin 1992), though
these findings remain inconsistent (Puck, Kittler and Wright 2008). Black and Gregersen
(1991) indicate that pre-departure training is negatively associated with interaction adjust-
ment and shows no relation with either work or general adjustment. They posit that the low
quantity and insufficient quality of training may have resulted in inaccurate expectations.
Tarique and Caligiuri (2009) show empirically that in-country cross-cultural training,
similar to pre-departure cross-cultural training, is a viable intervention to increase an
expatriates cultural knowledge but that increased cultural knowledge yields only weak
effects on cross-cultural adjustment. Selmers (2002) empirical study demonstrates that
sequential training is positively associated with an expatriates job satisfaction but uncovers
no significant relationship between the expatriates success and training. In contrast, Waxin
and Panaccio (2005) confirm empirically that pre-departure training has a positive effect on
peoples adaption to international assignments.
Regarding post-arrival training, scholars recognize that it can enhance an expatriates
cultural awareness and lower his or her ethnocentrism (Selmer, Torbiorn and de Leon
1998). Selmers (2001) empirical study demonstrates that the longer their foreign assign-
ments, the more expatriates tend to prefer post-arrival over pre-departure training. Having
experienced the full cycle may make expatriates value post-arrival training activities more,
because they can ease initial frustrations and shorten the adjustment period. Selmer (1999)
also confirms the need to provide both pre-departure and post-arrival cross-cultural train-
ing to facilitate adjustment in work, non-work, and psychological areas. Therefore, this
study posits:
Hypothesis 1: Pre-departure cross-cultural training is positively associated with an expatriates
(a) work, (b) interaction, and (c) general adjustment.

Hypothesis 2: Post-arrival cross-cultural training is positively associated with an expatriates

(a) work, (b) interaction, and (c) general adjustment.

Language training and adjustment

Language barriers are especially challenging for expatriates assigned to Asian countries
(Puck, Kittler and Wright 2008). Usually language training should be included in pre-
departure training (Selmer 2002). However, language training is not absolutely necessary,
because many businesses use translators, especially for people on short- to medium-term
assignments. Yet communication skills in the local language can help expatriates build their
interpersonal relationships; Fish (2005) calls communication an essential component of
leadership and a vital managerial competence for expatriates. Puck, Kittler and Wright
(2008) call for research that includes language training as a prerequisite to enhance
expatriates adjustment. Caligiuri et al. (2001) indicate that language similarity can affect
expectations before moving abroad, which in turn affect the expatriates adjustment. Host-
country nationals would not be fluent in the expatriates native language, and lacking host
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language abilities can lead to serious problems associated with failure to adapt. Thus,
together with post-arrival intervention and support activities, language training can facili-
tate the expatriates adjustment (Fish 2005). Selmer (1999) indicates that expatriates who
interact with local people also suffer less frustration related to cultural differences, but such
interactions demand local language proficiency. Language skills correlate positively with the
expatriates cognitive adaption too, which further enhances adjustment (Haslberger 2005).
Being fluent in a local language not only can increase understating of the host culture but
also may diminish stereotypes, because it facilitates actual communication. The more
the expatriate gets involved with local people, the sooner he or she can grow accustomed
to the host environment and obtain additional assistance. Thus Hechanova, Beehr and
Christiansens (2003) meta-analysis indicates that language skills correlate positively with
general adjustment and interactional adjustment. Peltokorpis (2008) empirical study con-
firms that relationship. Finally, from a pragmatic perspective, speaking the local language
may be a competitive advantage for expatriates in business negotiations (Lorsch and Allen
1997). When training programs contain language lessons, it is more likely that adjustment
occurs without significant difficulties (Fish 2005), so this study predicts:
Hypothesis 3: Language training is significantly associated with an expatriates (a) work,
(b) interaction, and (c) general adjustment.

Expatriate adjustment and job performance

Various factors appear associated with expatriate job performance, including family
support, individual characteristics, prior international experience, and skill variety. Among
these factors, an expatriates adjustment (work, general, and interaction) should play a
particularly critical role. A few empirical studies indicate that the expatriates adjustment
does not directly influence his or her performance (Lee and Sukoco 2008, 2010), though
most scholars propose that it does (Black 1988; Parker and McEvoy 1993; Sparrowe et al.
2001). Existing studies that explore reasons for expatriate failures tend to focus on adjust-
ment issues (Hechanova, Beehr and Christiansen 2003); better adjustment seemingly
should induce more positive attitudes toward the host environment and thus support better
performance. Hechanova, Beehr and Christiansen (2003) confirm that adjustment also can
reduce strain on the expatriate, which in turn improves job performance. Moreover, the
expatriates adjustment may influence his or her family; Caligiuri et al. (1998) show that the
expatriates work adjustment influences the familys cross-cultural adjustment. As a result,
expatriate adjustment, which constitutes a kind of psychological comfort, should help
expatriates stabilize their moods and perform better. Thus,
Hypothesis 4: An expatriates (a) work, (b) interaction, and (c) general adjustment is positively
associated with his or her job performance.

Training, adjustment, and performance

Cross-cultural training, both pre-departure and post-arrival, and language training
constitute a formal approach to develop the expatriates intercultural skills and language
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Pre-departure
cross-cultural training
Expatriate adjustment
Job
Post-arrival General adjustment
performance
Interaction adjustment
cross-cultural training
Work adjustment

Language training

Figure 1 Conceptual framework

proficiency. Cross-cultural training programs increase cultural and business knowledge and
awareness, which facilitate performance in the new environment. Language training pro-
grams enable expatriates to grow more confident in their communications with local
people, increasing their potential to achieve positive outcomes in business dealings. Empir-
ical evidence also indicates that cross-cultural training programs increase the expatriates
cultural-general knowledge, cultural-specific knowledge, and work-specific knowledge
(Tarique and Caligiuri 2009). Thus, being knowledgeable about the host country should
improve expatriates performance.
However, even with cross-cultural and language training, an expatriate still may
perform poorly if he or she cannot adjust successfully to the new workplace. That is,
without psychological comfort with the new culture, expatriates are likely to have difficul-
ties developing their performance and business skills. Accordingly, this study anticipates
that the positive effect of training programs is mediated by expatriate adjustment, as
follows:
Hypothesis 5: An expatriates (a) work, (b) interaction, and (c) general adjustment mediate the
positive effect of pre-departure cross-cultural training on-job performance.

Hypothesis 6: An expatriates (a) work, (b) interaction, and (c) general adjustment mediate
the positive effect of post-arrival cross-cultural training on-job performance.

Hypothesis 7: An expatriates (a) work, (b) interaction, and (c) general adjustment mediate the
positive effect of language training on-job performance.

Figure 1 sets out the conceptual framework underlying the hypotheses.

Research method
Sample
Listings in the Foreign Companies Yearbook (Bharat Book Bureau 2010) indicated 653
foreign companies in Vietnam that represented the target sample for this study.
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These multinational firms cover consumer products, high-tech, and service industry
sectors.
For the data collection, the researchers first contacted the human resource managers of
each company to determine if they provided cross-cultural and language training programs
for their expatriates and if they would be willing to participate in the study. Of the listed
companies, 95 human resource managers agreed to assist in the questionnaire distribution.
They were to identify randomly three to five expatriates who had been outside their home
country for at least two years. That is, each expatriate in this study attended cross-cultural
and language training and had been outside his or her home country for at least two years.
Each expatriates primarily supervisor also was identified and invited to participate to
evaluate the expatriates job performance. The final sample consisted of 114 expatriates and
114 primary supervisors (response rate = 31.3%), characterized by the demographic infor-
mation in Table 1.

Instruments
The two sets of survey instruments included measures drawn from existing literature and
interviews with senior expatriates in Vietnam: one set for the expatriates and another for
the primary supervisors. The expatriates questionnaire included two sections. The first
contained measures of pre-departure cross-cultural training, post-arrival cross-cultural
language training, and expatriate adjustment, scored on 5-point Likert-type scales
(1 = strongly disagree/very unadjusted, 5 = strongly agree/very adjusted). The second
section contained demographic items. The supervisors questionnaire featured just six
items, derived from Janssen and Van Yperens (2004) job performance measure, which
they completed using a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree).

Cross-cultural training
Based on Brandl and Neyers (2009) conceptual study and interviews conducted with senior
expatriates in Vietnam, this study used a new, 16-item cross-cultural training measure for
expatriates in Vietnam, with 7 pre-departure items and 9 post-arrival cross-culture training
items. The instrument was reviewed by several human resource management experts in
Vietnam to confirm its face validity. In addition, a pilot test with 30 participants confirmed
the reliability of this newly developed instrument. Respondents rated the extent to which
they participated in sequential cross-culture training activities, as described by the separate
items.

Language training
A modified version of Selmers (2006) instrument to test western expatriates language
training outcomes for Asian nations included 7 items for Vietnam. The instrument was
reviewed by several senior expatriates in Vietnam to confirm its face validity, and a pilot test
with 30 participants examined the reliability of the newly developed instrument. Respond-
ents rated their agreement with items that described their participation in Vietnamese
language training.
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Table 1 Descriptive statics: expatriates (N = 114)

Characteristics Frequency Percentage (%)
Gender
Male 65 57.0
Female 49 43.0
Nationality
China 12 10.5
Europe 28 24.6
Japan 12 10.5
Korea 21 18.4
North American 26 22.8
Others (India, South Asia, etc.) 15 13.2
Expatriate experience
Less than 3 years 50 43.5
49 years 42 36.8
More than 10 years 22 19.3
Time expatriated in Vietnam
One year 70 61.4
More than one year 44 38.6
Time in pre-departure cross-cultural training
1 hour 3 2.63
Half a day 22 19.3
One full day 33 28.9
More than one day 56 49.1
Time in post-arrival cross-cultural training
13 days 10 8.8
3 days1 week 13 11.4
1 week1 month 53 46.5
More than 1 month 38 33.3

Adjustment
The items measuring an expatriates adjustment came from Black and Stephenss (1989)
measure of expatriate adjustment. The validation procedure led to the extraction of three
factors general adjustment (7 items), interaction adjustment (4 items), and work adjust-
ment (3 items) for a total of 14 items after the factor analysis. The Cronbachs alphas for
each dimension were 0.87 (work), 0.92 (interaction), and 0.88 (general). Respondents rated
the extent to which the items described their adjustment activities.

Job performance
Although objective job performance data could provide greater validity, supervisors were
not willing to release employees performance data, which would have compromised the
anonymity of the study. In addition, Zhou and Shalley (2003) demonstrate that supervisory
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ratings are common measures of individual performance. Therefore, each primary super-
visor used a 5-point rating scale to rate each expatriates actual performance in the work-
place. The items were adopted from Janssen and Van Yperens (2004) six-item measure of
job performance (Cronbachs alpha = 0.86), summed to derive an overall measure of each
expatriates job performance.

Control variables
The literature review indicated several variables to be controlled for in the data analyses.
Empirical studies have demonstrated that prior expatriate experience may influence
adjustment success (Fish 2005; Haslberger 2005). Therefore, this study controlled for the
expatriates work abroad experience and time expatriated in Vietnam specifically.

Results
Psychometric properties of the instruments
An exploratory factor analysis with Varimax rotation was conducted with all survey items.
The results indicated that the groupings of factors were identical to instrument factor
analyses reported in prior research, so no items were deleted. A confirmatory factor analysis
served to evaluate the factor structure; the Cronbachs alpha values indicated the reliability
of the instrument. The overall fit of the 7-construct confirmatory factor model with the
data also suggested a good fit of the measurement scales (c2 = 250.233, df = 160, p < 0.01;
comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.927, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) = 0.897; incremental fit
index (IFI) = 0.936, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.050). The
standardized factor loadings were significant (p < 0.001) and high (Table 2). As indicated in
Table 2, the Cronbachs alpha internal consistency reliability estimates were all greater than
Nunnally and Bernsteins (1994) recommend level of 0.70.

Model test
Table 3 contains the means, standard deviations, and correlations of all variables. A series of
multiple regressions with hierarchical methods tested the research hypotheses. The two
control variables entered the regression first, followed by the respective independent vari-
ables, to estimate the additional contribution of the training variable to explaining the
dependent variable, adjustment.

Pre-departure cross-cultural training and adjustment

Table 4 summarizes the relationship between pre-departure training and adjustment. Both
control variables, expatriate experience (beta = 0.24) and time in Vietnam (beta = 0.11), and
the pre-departure cross-cultural training variable (beta = 0.46) had significant influences
on adjustment. The total variance explained increased by 21% when adjustment entered the
regression model (Model 2, Table 4). The total variance explained, including the 14%
explained by the two control variables, thus reached 35% (F3/110 = 19.33, p < 0.001). In
addition, the pre-departure cross-cultural training variable was significant for all three
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Table 2 Construct measurement summary: confirmatory factor analysis and reliability

Items Standardized Cronbachs
loading alpha
Pre-departure cross-cultural training
1 The training I got from my organization enhances my .82 .84
comfort and safety while working in this country.
2 In general, the cultural orientation program about Vietnam .73
my organization provided before my departure was adequate
to me.
3 The training program my organization provided before my .71
departure focused on helping me behave appropriately to
survive in the new environment.
4 The training my organization provided before my departure .70
helps me better adjust to the new environment.
5 The training my organization provided before my departure .62
was of value in contributing to the success in my present job.
Post-arrival cross-cultural training .89
1 The post-arrival training my organization provided me .81
promotes my attitudinal flexibility and capabilities to better
interact with Vietnamese people.
2 In general, the post-arrival training program my organization .78
provided in Vietnam was adequate to me.
3 The training Ive gotten from my organization strives to .77
expand my capacities to enhance my awareness of
Vietnamese culture.
4 The post-arrival training my organization provided me .78
promotes my attitudinal flexibility and capabilities to handle
unknown situations.
5 By practical experience through the post-arrival training, the .71
training I got before my departure becomes more effective.
6 The post-arrival training my organization provided is of .73
value in contributing to the success in my present job.
Language training .85
1 After the language training provided by the organization, I .81
am quite fluent in the Vietnamese language.
2 The training program Ive gotten is long and effective .80
enough to help me communicate well with native people.
3 The Vietnamese language training allows me to better adjust .78
to working in Vietnam, in terms of interaction and in general.
General adjustment .78
1 The degree of adjustment in shopping in Vietnam. .69
2 The degree of adjustment in entertainment/recreation .80
facilities and opportunities in Vietnam.
3 The degree of adjustment in living condition in Vietnam. .66

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Table 2 Continued
Items Standardized Cronbachs
loading alpha
Interaction adjustment .88
1 The degree of adjustment in socializing with Vietnamese. .95
2 The degree of adjustment in interacting with Vietnamese .81
outside of work.
3 The degree of adjustment in interacting with Vietnamese in .86
general.
4 The degree of adjustment in speaking with Vietnamese. .63
Work adjustment .87
1 The degree of adjustment in performance standards and .91
expectations.
2 The degree of adjustment in supervisory responsibilities. .89
3 The degree of adjustment in specific job responsibility. .87
Job performance .82
1 He/she always completes the job tasks assigned to him/her. .73
2 He/she meets all the formal performance requirements of .84
this job.
3 He/she is an excellent worker overall. .75
Notes: c = 250.233, df = 160, p < 0.01; comparative fit index = 0.927, Tucker-Lewis index = 0.897;
2

incremental fit index = 0.936, root mean square error of approximation = 0.050.

Table 3 Means, standard deviations, and correlations of variables

Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Expatriate experience 3.06 .93
2 Expatriate time in Vietnam 1.16 .49 .15
3 Pre-departure cross-cultural training 3.65 .65 .16* .10
4 Post-arrival cross-cultural training 3.70 .67 .18* .05 .73**
5 Language training 3.68 .82 .17* .19* .24** .23
6 Adjustment 3.66 .69 .35** .25* .51** .60* .60**
7 Job performance 3.78 .63 .28** .25* .47** .46* .46** .58**
* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01.

dimensions of adjustment: general (beta = 0.32), interaction (beta = 0.39), and work (beta
= 0.51). It had the strongest impact on work adjustment. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 received
support: pre-departure cross-cultural training improved expatriates work, interaction, and
general adjustment.

Post-arrival cross-cultural training and adjustment

In the relationship between post-arrival training and adjustment, this type of training was
significant (beta = 0.56). As set out in Table 5 (Model 2), the total variance explained,
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Table 4 Pre-departure cross-cultural training and the expatriates adjustment

Independent General adjustment Interaction adjustment Work adjustment Adjustment
variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2
b b b b b b b b
Expatriate .41** .36** .20** .16** .17** .09 .30*** .24***
experience
Expatriate -.03 -.46 .25*** .24*** .03 .02 .12** .11***
time in
Vietnam
Pre-departure .32** .39*** .51*** .46***
cross-cultural
training
R2 .16 .26 .15 .29 .04 .29 .14 .35
DR2 .10 .14 .25 .21
F 10.43 12.57 9.44 14.84 2.09 14.95 8.79 19.33
p-value .00 .00 .00 .00 .13 .000 .000 .00
*p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001.

Table 5 Post-arrival cross-cultural training and the expatriates adjustment

Independent General adjustment Interaction adjustment Work adjustment Adjustment
variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2
b b b b b b b b
Expatriate .41** .33** .20** .11** .17** .07 .30*** .19***
experience
Expatriate -.03 -.22 .25*** .27*** .03 .05 .12** .14***
time in
Vietnam
Post-arrival .43** .47*** .55*** .56***
cross-cultural
training
R2 .16 .34 .15 .35 .04 .33 .14 .61
DR2 .18 .20 .29 .47
F 10.43 18.82 9.44 20.19 2.09 17.72 8.79 33.64
p-value .00 .00 .00 .00 .13 .00 .00 .00
* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001.

including the 14% explained by the two control variables, reached 61% (F3/110 = 33.64, p <
0.001); that is, post-arrival cross-cultural training explained another 47% of the variance. It
also was significant for general (beta = 0.43), interaction (beta = 0.47), and work (beta =
0.55) adjustment, though it played the most significant role for work adjustment. In
addition, expatriate experience was positively associated with adjustment and its three
340 2012 Australian Human Resources Institute
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Table 6 Language training and the expatriates adjustment

Independent General adjustment Interaction adjustment Work adjustment Adjustment
variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2
b b b b b b b b
Expatriate .41** .38** .20** .14** .17** .13** .30*** .25***
experience
Expatriate -.03 -.08 .25*** .17*** .03 -.21 .12** .05
time in
Vietnam
Language .29** .61*** .40*** .53***
training
R2 .16 .24 .15 .50 .04 .19 .14 .41
DR2 .08 .35 .15 .27
F 10.43 11.49 9.44 36.83 2.09 8.37 8.79 24.96
p-value .00 .00 .00 .00 .13 .00 .00 .00
* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001.

dimensions. This study therefore confirms Hypothesis 2, because post-arrival cross-cultural

training improved expatriates work, interaction, and general adjustment.

Language training and adjustment

Expatriate experience (beta = 0.25) and language training (beta = 0.53) significantly
explained adjustment, with a total variance of 41% (F3/110 = 24.96, p < 0.001) (see Table 6,
Model 2). Language training also was significant for general (beta = 0.32), interaction (beta
= 0.39), and work (beta = 0.51) adjustment, with the most significant influence on work
adjustment, in support of Hypothesis 3.

Three types of training and adjustment

To detail the impact of the three different types of training on the three facets of expatriate,
a structural equation model used AMOS 5.0. The indicators demonstrated acceptable
overall model fit indexes (c2 = 215.031, df = 120, p < 0.01; CFI = 0.939; TLI = 0.948; IFI =
0.932; RMSEA = 0.041). The analytical results (Table 7) showed that general adjustment
was positively influenced by pre-departure cross-cultural training (beta = 0.410, t = 4.19,
p < 0.01), post-arrival cross-cultural training (beta = 0.442, t = 4.32, p < 0.01), and language
training (beta = 0.302, t = 3.40, p < 0.05). Post-arrival cross-cultural training had the
strongest impact on the expatriates general adjustment. In addition, pre-departure cross-
cultural training (beta = 0.431, t = 4.46, p < 0.01), post-arrival cross-cultural training (beta
= 0.408, t = 4.05, p < 0.01), and language training (beta = 0.561, t = 5.90, p < 0.001) were
positively associated with the expatriates interaction adjustment; in this case, language
training played the most critical role. Finally, all three training types were significant for
work adjustment: pre-departure cross-cultural training (beta = 0.475, t = 4.51, p < 0.01),
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Table 7 Structural equation model: pre-departure cross-cultural training, post-arrival cross-

cultural training, language training, and three facets of expatriate adjustment
Standardized t-value
estimate
Pre-departure cross-cultural training general adjustment .410** 4.19**
Post-arrival cross-cultural training general adjustment .442** 4.32**
Language training general adjustment .302* 3.40*
Pre-departure cross-cultural training interaction adjustment .431** 4.46**
Post-arrival cross-cultural training interaction adjustment .408** 4.05**
Language training interaction adjustment .561*** 5.90***
Pre-departure cross-cultural training work adjustment .475** 4.51**
Post-arrival cross-cultural training work adjustment .525*** 5.63***
Language training work adjustment .347* 3.51*
* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001.
Notes: The model fit index c2 = 215.031 with 120 degrees of freedom (p < 0.01). CFI = 0.939; TLI =
0.948; IFI = 0.932; RMSEA = 0.041.

post-arrival cross-cultural training (beta = 0.525, t = 5.63, p < 0.001), and language training
(beta = 0.347, t = 3.51, p < 0.05). Post-arrival cross-cultural training had the most influence.
Thus, of the three types of training, post-arrival cross-cultural training seemingly had
the greatest relative importance, in terms of both general adjustment and work adjust-
ment. Therefore, this study predicts post-arrival training is most beneficial for expatriate
adjustment.

Adjustment and job performance

As indicated in the results set out Table 8, expatriate experience (beta = 0.19) and adjust-
ment (beta = 0.57) had significant effects on job performance (Model 3). The two control
variables and adjustment together accounted for 35% of its variance. However, in Model 2,
only interaction adjustment (beta = 0.23) and work adjustment (beta = 0.38) were signifi-
cant. Perhaps general adjustment does not directly affect an expatriates job performance;
work adjustment instead exhibited the strongest effect on job performance, in partial
support of Hypothesis 4.

Mediating effect of adjustment

Adjustment played another important role as a mediator of the interrelationships between
training and job performance. To test for mediation, three conditions must be satisfied.
First, the independent variable must significantly affect the mediator in the first equation.
Second, the dependent variable regressed on the independent variable must be significant.
Third, when the dependent variable is regressed on both the independent variable and the
mediator, the mediator must be significant, and the independent variable effect should
become insignificant (Baron and Kenny 1986; Suliman 2002). According to Baron and
Kenny (1986, 1177), perfect mediation holds if the independent variable has no effect when
342 2012 Australian Human Resources Institute
 Yu-Lin Wang and Emma Tran

Table 8 Expatriates adjustment and job performance

Independent variable Job performance
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
b b b
Expatriate experience .21** .17 .19*
Expatriate time in Vietnam .13* .11 .09
General adjustment .08
Interaction adjustment .23**
Work adjustment .38***
Adjustment .57***
R2 .14 .37 .35
DR2 .23 .21
F 11.27 25.14 58.42
p-value .00 .00 .00
* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001.

Table 9 Mediation of adjustment in the relationship between pre-departure cross-cultural training

and job performance
Independent variable Job performance
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
b b b b
Pre-departure cross-cultural training .47*** .34*** .32*** .30***
General adjustment .11
Interaction adjustment .23**
Work adjustment .31**
R2 .27 .34 .36 .38
F 36.85 40.86 42.84 44.92
p-value .00 .00 .00 .00
* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001.

the mediator is controlled, which is difficult to achieve. Partial mediation instead is indi-
cated when the independent variables effect is reduced in magnitude, but is still significant
when the mediator is controlled (Suliman 2002, 175).
Regarding the mediating role of three facets of adjustment in the relationship between
pre-departure cross-cultural training and job performance, the first step was to investigate
any direct effects on adjustment or job performance. The results in Table 4 show that
pre-departure cross-cultural training had significant effects on general, interaction, and
work adjustment. Therefore, pre-departure cross-cultural training served as the independ-
ent variable, regressed on job performance, and the results in Table 9 show that it was
significant, which fulfills the first and second conditions. When job performance was
regressed on both pre-departure cross-cultural training (independent variable) and each
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Table 10 Mediation of adjustment in the relationship between post-arrival cross-cultural training

and job performance
Independent variable Job performance
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
b b b b
Post-arrival cross-cultural training .44*** .32*** .30*** .31***
General adjustment .12
Interaction adjustment .21**
Work adjustment .30***
R2 .24 .33 .36 .37
F 35.52 40.25 42.20 43.89
p-value .00 .00 .00 .00
* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001.

facet of adjustment (mediator), general adjustment was not significant for job per-
formance, so it did not meet the third criterion (Table 9, Model 2); general adjustment
did not mediate the relationship between pre-departure cross-cultural training and an
expatriates job performance. As set out in Table 9, Model 3, interaction adjustment
(beta = 0.23) was significant for job performance, but pre-departure cross-cultural training
(beta = 0.32) remained significant, though the beta value fell from 0.47 to 0.32. That is,
interaction adjustment partially mediated the relationship between pre-departure cross-
cultural training and an expatriates job performance. As Table 9, Model 4, shows, work
adjustment (beta = 0.31) and pre-departure cross-cultural training (beta = 0.30) were
significant for job performance, but the beta value of pre-departure cross-cultural training
fell from 0.47 to 0.30. Thus work adjustment partially mediated the relationship between
pre-departure cross-cultural training and work adjustment. These models offer partial
support for Hypothesis 5.
Next, the examination of the mediating role of the three facets of adjustment in the
relationship between post-arrival training and job performance followed the same proce-
dures. Post-arrival training had significant effects on general adjustment (beta = 0.43),
interaction adjustment (beta = 0.47), and work adjustment (beta = 0.55) (see Table 5). As
set out in Table 10, in Model 1 post-arrival training (beta = 0.44) was significant for job
performance, but in Model 2 general adjustment was not. Thus general adjustment did not
mediate the relationship between post-arrival training and an expatriates job performance.
As Table 10, Models 3 and 4, show, interaction adjustment (beta = 0.21) and work
adjustment (beta = 0.31) were significant, as was post-arrival trainings effect on job
performance, though with a lower beta value. That is, an expatriates interaction adjustment
and work adjustment partially mediated the relationship between post-arrival training and
the expatriates job performance, in partial support of Hypothesis 6.
Regarding the mediating role of adjustment in the relationship between language
training and job performance, the results in Table 6 indicate that language training was
344 2012 Australian Human Resources Institute
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Table 11 Mediation of adjustment in the relationship between language training and job
performance
Independent variable Job performance
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
b b b b
Language training .45*** .35*** .33*** .32***
General adjustment .09
Interaction adjustment .19**
Work adjustment .30***
R2 .25 .37 .38 .39
F 34.69 39.54 40.10 40.51
p-value .00 .00 .00 .00
* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001.

significant for general adjustment (beta = 0.29), interaction adjustment (beta = 0.61), and
work adjustment (beta = 0.40). In the results in Table 11, language training (beta = 0.45)
was significant, which satisfied the second mediation condition, and interaction adjustment
(beta = 0.19) and work adjustment (beta = 0.30) significantly affected job performance
while language trainings effect remained significant but revealed a lower beta. That is, an
expatriates interaction adjustment and work adjustment partially mediated the relation-
ship between language training and job performance. However, general adjustment did not
mediate the relationship between language training and an expatriates job performance
(Table 11, Model 2). Thus, Hypothesis 7 is partially supported.

Discussion and implications for practice

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships among pre-departure cross-
cultural training, post-arrival cross-cultural training, language training, expatriate adjust-
ment, and job performance. It also has investigated the mediating role of adjustment in the
relationship between training and job performance. This study thereby provides a better
understanding of the effectiveness of three different forms of training for the success of
expatriation adjustment in three areas.
Specifically, pre-departure cross-cultural training, post-arrival cross-cultural training,
and language training significantly influence the degree of general, interaction, and work
adjustment by expatriates. This result is consistent with previous findings that indicate
cross-cultural understanding and language proficiency affect the level of psychological
comfort with general living conditions, interactions with local people, and the new work-
place (e.g. Hechanova, Beehr and Christiansen 2003; Peltokorpi 2008; Puck, Kittler and
Wright 2008; Selmer 1999, 2002; Selmer, Torbiorn and de Leon 1998; Tarique and Caligiuri
2009; Waxin and Panaccio 2005). Analysis of the relative importance of these three forms of
training on the three facets of expatriate adjustment reveals that post-arrival cross-cultural
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training contributes most to general and work adjustment (Table 7). For interaction adjust-
ment, language training has the most impact. In other words, of these three types of
training programs, post-arrival cross-cultural training seems to influence expatriate adjust-
ment most directly. Selmers (2001) empirical study also demonstrates that expatriates tend
to prefer, especially when they have longer foreign assignments, post-arrival over pre-
departure cross-cultural training. However, most organizations pay less attention to costly,
time-consuming post-arrival cross-cultural training. Instead, they rely more on pre-
departure cross-cultural training program, because it offers convenience in terms of man-
agement and operations.
These findings regarding the effects of cross-cultural training thus have strong impli-
cations for practice. Expatriates with cross-cultural competence are a necessity in global
business economies, and they should receive both pre-departure and post-arrival cross-
cultural training, if organizational resources and budgets allow. If the organization faces
constraints on these resources, post-arrival cross-cultural training should maximize expa-
triates adjustment.
In addition, expatriates need language training to achieve interaction adjustment.
Among the three forms of training, language trainings effectiveness with regard to adjust-
ment and job performance is inferior only to post-arrival cross-cultural training (Table 3),
in line with Peltokorpis (2008) empirical findings that language proficiency, particularly in
Asian nations, facilitates interaction adjustment. Because English has become an inter-
national language, most expatriates take English for granted as their sole communication
tool to do business in Vietnam. But Vietnamese language proficiency can help expatriates
learn appropriate cultural and work values, which in turn enables them to behave appro-
priately in the workplace. In addition to cross-cultural training programs, language training
thus should be considered in practice.
Moreover, as predicted, an expatriates interaction and work adjustment are positively
associated with the expatriates job performance. These forms have direct impacts on
professional capabilities; general adjustment instead refers to overall adaptation to the
living conditions in the host country, so it is less related to workplace performance. Work
adjustment has the strongest influence on job performance (Table 8). Although Lee and
Sukocos (2008, 2010) studies do not support this argument, the results confirm Hecha-
nova, Beehr and Christiansens (2003) evidence of a direct influence of expatriate adjust-
ment on performance. Such psychological comfort in terms of interaction and work
adjustment then transforms into a motivation to strengthen performance. In other words,
the expatriates adjustment is an important predictor of his or her overseas performance.
Human resource managers in multinational corporations should design and develop rel-
evant interventions to increase their expatriates level of adjustment and thus improve their
performance.
Finally, both interaction adjustment and work adjustment partially mediate the rela-
tionships of the three types of training programs (pre-departure cross-cultural training,
post-arrival cross-cultural training, language training) with job performance. That is, even
if organizations provide training programs, expatriates job performance may suffer if they
346 2012 Australian Human Resources Institute
 Yu-Lin Wang and Emma Tran

cannot adjust well in their interactions and the new workplace. General adjustment does
not mediate this relationship though, possibly because it is not related directly to opera-
tional capabilities. Instead, human resource managers should provide support, such as
mentoring systems, to increase expatriates interaction and work adjustment after they
arrive in the new environment. In summary, expatriate success can provide a company with
a competitive advantage in managing its international business while also helping the
employee enjoy the fulfillment of career development.

Limitations and recommendations for further research

Despite its contributions, this study suffers from several limitations. In addition to cross-
cultural training and language training, other variables may influence an expatriates
adjustment and job performance, such as satisfaction with the training program. The
somewhat small research sample also means that the results of this study cannot be gener-
alized to other settings or to other expatriates adjustment and job performance.
In response, further research should include other types of expatriates, such as non-
corporate-sponsored expatriation (as Bozionelos (2009) has suggested), as well as other
forms of training, such as that focused on bargaining or concession skills, to determine their
impacts on adjustment and job performance. A longitudinal research design might provide
more detail about changes in expatriates adjustment levels and job performance over time.
Moreover, research might consider training readiness as an antecedent of the effect of
training programs for expatriates. Finally, in addition to supervisors evaluations, research
should include objective measures of expatriates job performance.

Yu-Lin Wang (PhD, Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) is an assistant professor in the Department of

Business Administration at National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan. Her research interests focus on
organizational learning and entrepreneurship in small and medium enterprises.

Emma Tran (IMBA, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan) completed her IMBA degree in 2011.
Her research interests focus on international human resource management and training.

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350 2012 Australian Human Resources Institute