With the proper care, X-ray qual- At a constant temperature, the pressure in the cylin-

ity welds can be consistently pro- der remains constant as long as there is liquid remaining.
duced in carbon steels and some Continued use of the gas after the liquid has completely
low alloy steels. evaporated noticeably reduces cylinder pressure. Cylin-
In the heat of the arc, carbon ders should be changed when the pressure goes down to
dioxide tends to break down into 200 p.s.i.
Gas
its component parts. At normal arc Since even small amounts of moisture in carbon diox-
lengths, about 7 percent of the total ide cause porosity in the weld deposit, it is important that
volume of the gas shield converts it not become contaminated (See Figs.21-56 and 21-57.)
to carbon monoxide (a compound Dew point is the temperature at which water will con-
made up of one atom carbon and dense out of the shielding gas. Welding gases have very
one atom oxygen). At excessive
arc lengths the quantity reaches 12
percent. Because carbon monoxide
Liquid
is poisonous, welding should never
be done in unventilated areas.
Welders should be able to see the
welding operation clearly with-
out getting so close to the shield-
ing gas that they inhale the carbon
monoxide.
Carbon dioxide is available in
liquid or gaseous form for welding
Fig. 21-55 Stan-
dard carbon dioxide purposes. Because of the small gas
cylinder. requirement of a single welding
arc, liquid carbon dioxide in cylin-
ders is usually the most economi-
cal. Bulk systems for distributing carbon dioxide at low
pressure to various welding areas are also in use.
Cylinders are filled on the basis of weight. The liquid Fig. 21-56 This weld was made using carbon dioxide that con-
level on a full cylinder is about two-thirds up from the tained moisture. Moisture poisoned the gas shield, causing a weak,
porous structure. Allegheny Technologies Incorporated
bottom, Fig.21-55. Space for gas over the liquid is nec-
essary. The liquid in the cylinder absorbs heat from the
atmosphere and boils. Gas is formed until the pressure in
the cylinder raises the boiling temperature above the tem-
perature of the liquid. Boiling, and consequently gas pro-
duction, ceases until either the atmospheric temperature
increases or some gas is drawn off, lowering the pressure
in the cylinder. The pressure in the cylinder is a function
of the atmospheric temperature. Typical pressures for var-
ious temperatures are given in Table 21-7.

Table 21-7 Cylinder Pressure of Carbon

Dioxide at Various Temperatures

Degrees Fahrenheit Pounds per Square Inch

100 1,450
70 835 Fig. 21-57 This high quality weld was made by the same welder
30 476 who made the weld in Fig. 21-56. The same equipment and flux
0 290 cored electrodes were used, but the carbon dioxide was free of
moisture. Allegheny Technologies Incorporated

Gas Metal Arc and Flux Cored Arc Welding Principles Chapter 21 687
 Table 21-8 Dew Point of Carbon Dioxide
versus Percentage of Moisture in Carbon
Dioxide

% Moisture p.p.m. Moisture

Dew Point (F) by Weight in CO2
90 0.000353 4
80 0.00078 8
Fig. 21-58 Some jobs and welding procedures require different
70 0.00166 17 gas mixes to get the best results. Being able to on-site mixing of
60 0.0034 34 gases with a proportional gas mixers eliminates inventorying and
50 0.0067 67 handling of costly premixed gases. Individual gases can be mixers
such as these for Argon-CO2, Argon-Helium, Argon-Hydrogen and
40 0.0128 128 Argon-Oxygen. Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
30 0.0235 235
20 0.0422 422
10 0.074 740

Tube

Dome Flowmeter
low dew points, Table 21-8. The parts per million (p.p.m.)
of moisture in carbon dioxide at 60F is approximately
Ball
32 with a gas purity of 99.8percent. Indicator
There is a considerable refrigeration effect in the high
Retainer
pressure section of the regulator. Sometimes, on very Nut
heavy duty cycles, frost forms on the outside of the regu-
Inlet Inlet
lator. This indicates only that the regulator is getting cold. (at Rear) (at Rear)
When frost appears, the small amount of moisture in the
Flow
gas can form ice in the regulator and either stop the gas Control
flow entirely or break off and be blown into the weld. In Knob Flow
either case porosity can, and usually does, occur in the Control
Knob
weld metal. If regulator freezing is a problem, use an ap-
proved heated regulator. Bulk systems are not prone to
freezing because of the small expansion ratio and the
large heat absorption area of piping. Read Center
Outlet

The normal gas requirement for MIG/MAG welding of Ball

is 25 to 30cubic feet per hour. A single cylinder may not
be large enough to support gas production at this rate. It
is generally necessary to connect two or more cylinders
to a manifold.
Experience has shown the above gas flow rates to be
proper for most applications. Higher than normal flow
rates are usually necessary on very high speed applica-
tions or procedures utilizing high contact tube heights.
Too low a flow rate results in a partial or complete lack
of gas coverage, which causes a high degree of porosity in
the weld. Too much gas flow produces turbulence about
the arc so that the carbon dioxide mixes with air. This also
causes porosity of the weld deposit.
Gas Mixtures As has been shown in Tables 21-4 through
21-7, gases are mixed in specified percentages to obtain
desired characteristics.
Fig. 21-59 The controls and working parts of a two-module gas
mixer similar to that shown in Fig. 10-58.
Figures 21-58 and 21-59 show combination gas mixers
and flow controllers. The mixer in Fig. 21-58 will mix
three gases or any two of the three gases the model was
designed to mix. For example, if a model is designed to
mix argon, carbon dioxide, and helium, three mixtures
of two gases (argon-carbon dioxide, argon-helium, and
helium-carbon dioxide) can also be produced.
The mixer has three flow control knobs, one for each
of the three gases to be mixed. By turning a control knob
while watching the flowmeter above it, welders can ad-
just the flow of that gas independently. This gives welders
the ability to change mixtures when they change jobs or

688 Chapter 21 Gas Metal Arc and Flux Cored Arc Welding Principles

Fig. 21-60 Regulator used with gas mixer to reduce the tank
pressure to a steady 50 p.s.i. for welding. Allegheny Technologies
Incorporated
experiment with the mixture on any job until they obtain
the best weld.
The shielding gas or gas mixture is an essential vari-
able for most welding procedures. The mixture cannot be
indiscriminately changed without consulting the engineer
responsible for the welding procedure. For students learn-
ing in an experimental environment, trying various gas
mixtures is a helpful learning tool. However, in produc-
tion welding to a welding procedure, the welding proce-
dure must be followed.
It is necessary to use a gas regulator with the mixer in
order to reduce the high tank pressure to a steady usable
working pressure, Fig. 21-60.
Argon-Helium For many MIG/MAG welding applications
the advantages of both argon and helium may be achieved
through the use of mixtures of the two gases. The mix-
ture is especially desirable whenever a completely inert
gas is essential or desirable for MIG/MAG welding. Mix-
ing argon and helium gives a balance between penetra-
tion and arc stability. Adding 25 percent argon to helium
makes penetration deeper than that obtained with argon
alone, and the arc stability approaches that of pure argon.
ABOUT W E L DIN G
Pulsed MIG/MAG
In pulsed MIG/MAG, a modified
spray transfer mode is used. The wire does not touch
the weld pool, so no spatter is produced. This method can
be used for 14-gauge metal and up. In comparison, pulsed
TIG is better for thinner materials.
Gas Metal Arc and Flux Cored Arc Welding Principles Chapter 21 689
The percentage of helium to argon may be 2080per-
cent to 5050 percent. The gases are mixed by the user.
Separate cylinders of each gas are connected to a control
unit and the amount of gas used is regulated through a
flowmeter.
When helium is too hot or argon too cool for the de-
sired arc characteristics, they may be mixed to obtain
any combination of properties. When argon is added in
amounts above 20 percent, the arc becomes more stable.
Adding 75 percent helium to the mix practically elimi-
nates any spatter tendency in MIG/MAG welding. Bead
contour shows a penetration pattern characteristic of
both gases.
Argon-helium mixtures are used to weld aluminum
and copper-nickel alloys. The mixtures provide greater
heat and produce less porosity than argon, but they have
a quieter, more readily controlled arc action than helium.
These mixtures are especially useful in the welding of
heavy sections of nonferrous metals. The heavier the ma-
terial, the greater the percentage of helium in the mixture.
Argon-Carbon DioxideShielding gas mixtures are not
confined to the inert gases themselves. Argon and he-
lium can be mixed with other gases to improve welding
characteristics.
The addition of carbon dioxide to argon stabilizes the
arc, promotes metal transfer, and reduces spatter. The
penetration pattern changes when welding carbon and low
alloy steels. The molten weld pool is highly fluid along
the fusion edges so that undercutting is prevented. For
this reason, argon-carbon dioxide mixtures are used prin-
cipally in the MAG welding of mild steel, low alloy steel,
and some types of stainless steel. The 75 percent argon
and 25 percent carbon dioxide is very popular for welding
carbon steel with the short circuit mode of transfer. When
spray arcs are being used on steel, a minimum of 80 per-
cent argon is required.
Some difference of opinion exists in regard to the
amount of carbon dioxide that should be used in themix-
ture. Some welding engineers believe that the mixture
should not exceed 20 to 30 percent carbon dioxide. Oth-
ers feel that mixtures containing up to 70percent produce
good results. Electrode filler wires used with an oxygen-
bearing shielding gas such as carbon dioxide must contain
deoxidizers to offset the effects of the oxygen. Up to about
20 percent carbon dioxide permits spray transfer with a
solid steel wire.
One of the important reasons for using as much carbon
dioxide as possible in the mixture is to reduce the cost of
welding. Carbon dioxide costs about 85 percent less than
argon. Premixed cylinders of argon and carbon dioxide
sell for the same price as pure argon.
Helium-Argon-Carbon DioxideThis mixture of Argon Helium Helium-Argon
inert gases and a compound gas is used mostly
for the welding of austenitic stainless steels with
the short circuit method of metal transfer. It is
usually purchased premixed from the supplier in
cylinders that contain 90percent helium, 7 per- Ar + CO CO2 Ar + O2
2
cent argon, and 2 percent carbon dioxide. You
will note that the percentage of helium is high.
This combination of gases produces a weld with
very little buildup of the top bead profile. Such a
weld is highly desirable when high bead buildup
is detrimental to the weldment. A low bead pro- Fig. 21-62 Weld penetration comparisons in cross sections of welds made
with several shielding gases.
file also reduces or eliminates postweld grinding.
This gas mixture has found considerable use in
the welding of stainless steel pipe with the MAG process. A comparison of penetration characteristics for several
main shielding gases are shown in Fig. 21-62.
Argon-Oxygen The addition of small amounts of oxygen, Argon-oxygen mixtures can be used on direct current
usually 1 to 5 percent mixtures, improves and expands electrode negative jobs, but transfer is not as good as with
the use of argon. Oxygen provides wider penetration, im- electrode positive. DCEN applications of the gas mixture are
proves bead contour, and eliminates the undercut at the generally limited to overlay work. In such cases, the reduced
edge of the weld that is obtained with pure argon when penetration and dilution of the base metal are advantages.
welding steel, Fig. 21-61. Argon-oxygen mixtures are used
Other Gases Nitrogen has been used as a shielding gas,
principally in the welding of low alloy steel, carbon steels,
either in pure form or in combination with argon, for the
and stainless steels.
welding of copper and copper alloys. When used as a mix-
Best results with shielding gas mixtures, other than
ture, it is usually in the percentage of 70 percent argon and
argon-helium mixtures, have been obtained with oxygen.
30 percent nitrogen. The addition of argon smoothes out
Argon-oxygen is only used for MAG welding since oxy-
the arc and reduces the agitation in the welding pool.
gen would cause rapid loss of a tungsten electrode for TIG
welds. The oxygen oxidizes the base plate slightly but Shielding Gas DesignatorsThe American Welding Soci-
evenly and provides a cathode surface with uniform emis- ety had developed a standard to help control the shielding
sion properties. It also eliminates undercutting tendencies. gases used for welding and cutting. This A5.32 standard
A maximum of 2 percent oxygen delivers these advantages covers gas types, purity, and dew points. See Fig. 21-63.
on low alloy steel. Above this percentage, there are no addi-
tional benefits, and a more expensive wire with higher de- SG B Single-Component Gas
oxidation characteristics is required for welding. A mixture SG B X - % Two-Component Mix
of 5 percent oxygen improves SG B XY - %/% Three-Component Mix
arc stability when welding SG B XYZ - %/%/% Four-Component Mix
stainless steels with DCEN.
Research has shown that the
droplet rate (metal transfer) can
Descending Order of Percentages Amounts
Argon Gas
be materially increased with
these percentages of oxygen. Minor Gas(es) Designators
The increased rate, with no Base Gas Designator
change in current density, per-
mits welding at higher speeds Shielding Gas Designator

without undercutting. At the

increased speed, coalescence
of the weld metal is improved
Argon-Oxygen Gas so that lower current densities
are possible, and larger diam-
Fig. 21-61 Typical MIG/ eter wires can be used for a
MAG welds in stainless steel. given welding current.
Examples:
SG-AC-25 Means Argon with 25% Carbon Dioxide
SG-AO-2 Means Argon with 2% Oxygen
SG-HeAC-7.5/2.5 Means Helium with 7.5% Argon and 2.5%
Carbon Dioxide
Fig. 21-63 AWS shielding gas designators. Source: AWS A5.32

690 Chapter 21 Gas Metal Arc and Flux Cored Arc Welding Principles
The designator system is based on volumetric percentages.
The gas classification system is based on the following Table 21-9 Current Density Calculation Chart
designator and number arrangement:
SG (shielding gas designator): An SG at the beginning Electrode Diameter (in.) Cross-Sectional Area (in.2)
of each classification designates it as a shielding gas. 0.025 0.00031
It is always followed by a hyphen.
0.030 0.00071
SG-B (base gas designator): The first letter directly to
0.035 0.00096
the right of the SG indicates the single or major gas in
the shielding gas mixture. 0.045 0.00160
SG-B-XYZ (minor gas component designator): The letter 640.047
3
0.00173
or letters immediately following the base gas indicate 320.094
3
0.0069
the minor individual gases in desending order of per- 1
80.125 0.01227
centage. These letters are followed by a hyphen. 320.156
5
0.0192
SG-B-XYZ-%/%/% (percentage designators): A slash
shall be used to separate the individual minor gas per-
centages for two or more component mixtures.
S-B-G (special gas mixture): Shielding gases may be Table 21-10 Current Density Comparison
classified as special and carry the G designation. The
base gas must be identified. However, the percentage Electrode
Diameter Cross-Sectional Current
of each component shall be as agreed upon between (in.) Amperage Area (in.2) Density
the purchaser and the supplier.
0.030 150 0.00071 211,268
Electrode Filler Wire 0.045 150 0.00160 93,750
5
320.156 150 0.0192 78,125
Solid Electrode Wire The solid filler wires used for gas
metal arc welding are generally quite smaller in diameter
than those used for stick electrode welding. Wires range in electrode. See Table 21-10 for some examples. Higher cur-
size from 0.023/0.025 to 18 inch in diameter. Thin materials rent density leads to:
are usually welded with 0.023/0.025, 0.030, or 0.035 inch.
Higher deposition
Medium thickness materials call for wire sizes 0.045
Faster travel speed
or 116 inch, and thick materials require wire sizes 332 or
Less heat input
1
8 inch. The position of welding is important in select-
Enhanced weld profile
ing the proper wire size. Generally, smaller wire sizes are
Greater penetration depth-to-width ratio, Fig. 21-6,
used for out-of-position work such as vertical or overhead
page 659
welding. Cost is another factor. The smaller the diameter
of the electrode wire, the more its cost per pound. Metal If too high an amperage is applied to SMAW electrodes,
deposition rates, however, must also be considered. they will overheat. The overheating is due to the resis-
You must not apply the SMAW coated electrode thought tance of the current flow through the electrodes length to
process to selecting the proper diameter of GMAW solid reach the arc. This heating adversely affects the coating
or metal-cored electrodes. In certain situations that re- and arc performance. But with the GMAW process this
quire heavy welding or high deposition, going to a larger overheating is not a factor due to the short distance from
diameter electrode is not necessarily the best action. Since the contact tube to the arc. Special high speed wire feed-
a small diameter electrodes cross-sectional area is so ers are designed to supply wire at over 1,500 inches per
much smaller than that of a larger diameter electrode, its minute to take advantage of the higher current densities of
current density will be much higher. Table 21-9 compares using smaller diameter electrodes.
a few electrode diameters with their corresponding cross- Electrode diameter is an issue when dealing with criti-
sectional areas. The area of a circle can be easily calcu- cal modes of transfer like pulse spray on aluminum. See
lated by the following formula: A = r2, where A = area Table 21-11 (p. 692) for an example as to what is speci-
of circle, = 3.1416, and r = radius. Current density in fied versus what is available from various manufacturers.
this situation is the amperage per square inch of electrode These large variations in weld metal volume can cause
cross-sectional area. To calculate the current density, sim- various weld inconsistencies due to fluctuations in amper-
ply divide the amperage by the cross-sectional area of the age, voltage, and weld profile.

Gas Metal Arc and Flux Cored Arc Welding Principles Chapter 21 691
 Table 21-11 Wire Diameter Change versus Cross-Sectional Volume Change
AWS A5.10
Diameter (in.) Tolerance % Volume Change
0.030 +0.0010.002 22.6
0.035 +0.0010.002 19.0
0.047 +0.0010.002 13.8
0.0625 +0.0010.002 10.2
0.094 +0.0010.002 6.6
Because of the small wire size and the high currents
used in MIG welding, the filler metal melts at a rapid
rate. The rate ranges from 40 to over 900 inches per min-
ute. Because of this high burnoff rate and the need to be
able to weld without interruption, the wires are provided
as spools or in coils. Standard spools usually carry 1, 2,
3, 10, or 25 pounds of wire. To take advantage of lower
prices and less downtime during spool changes, very large
users purchase their filler wire in drums that contain 300,
700, or 1,000 pounds of coiled wire.
The specific type of filler metal is selected for the fol-
lowing reasons:
To match the composition of the base metal
To control various weld properties
To deoxidize the weld deposit
To promote arc stability and desirable metal transfer
characteristics
Wire composition usually matches that of the base
metal being welded. In many cases, however, it is nec-
essary to use a filler wire of completely different com-
position. This is because some alloys lose some of their
characteristics as weld deposits. Filler metal alloys that are
both favorable for welding and produce the required weld
metal properties must be chosen. Among the materials that
require filler wires of different composition than the base
metal are copper and zinc alloys, high strength aluminum,
and high strength steel alloys. A nother situation where the
filler wire does not match the base metal is when gas metal
arc braze welding. Acopper-based electrode is used such
as aluminum bronze or silicon bronze. It is usually applied
in a short circuit mode of transfer with argon gas to thin
steel in order to prevent melt-through and reduce distor-
tion. It is also used when welding galvanized steel. The low
heat input reduces the amount of coating melted and the
copper-based braze weld has better corrosion resistance.
In addition to the alloying elements used in filler wires,
deoxidizers and other scavenging agents are nearly al-
ways added. This is to prevent porosity or damage to the
692 Chapter 21 Gas Metal Arc and Flux Cored Arc Welding Principles
Select Manufacturer
Diameter (in.) Tolerance % Volume Change
0.0310 +0.00000.0002 1.3
0.0347 +0.00000.0002 1.1
0.0471 +0.00000.0003 1.3
0.0616 +0.00000.0003 1.0
0.0937 +0.00000.0003 0.6
J OB T IP
Interested?
Ready to be a welding astronaut?
That job and many others will be available in the future.
Expect jobs in alternative materials such as plastics, com-
posites, and new alloys.
mechanical properties of the weld metal. When welding
steel, some shielding gases such as carbon dioxide cause
severe oxidation losses of alloying elements across the arc.
The deoxidizers most frequently used in steel filler wires are
manganese, silicon, and aluminum. Titanium and silicon are
the principal ones used in nickel alloys. Copper alloys may
be deoxidized with titanium, silicon, or phosphorus. Deoxi-
dants are not used in titanium, zirconium, aluminum, and
magnesium filler wires since these metals are highly reac-
tive. They must be welded with oxygen-free inert gas and
with complete shielding, or in closed chambers filled with
inert gas.
The chemical compositions of some of the common
solid filler metal electrodes are shown in Table 21-12.
Other considerations for the electrode wire are:
Bare or copper-coated wire, Table 21-13
Cast of the wire, Fig. 21-64
Helix of the wire, Fig. 21-65 (p. 694)
Correct cast and helix improves wire feeding, reduces
arc wander, and reduces contact tip and liner wear.
Metal Core Electrode WireMetal core electrode
wire is a composite tubular filler metal electrode con-
sisting of a metal sheath and a core of various pow-
dered materials, producing no more than silicon
islands on the face of a weld bead. See Table 21-14
(p. 694) for chemical composition. Much of the core ma-
terial is metallic and adds to the deposition rate of these
 Table 21-12 Chemical Compositions

Chemical Composition Requirements for Steel Solid Electrodes and Rods1

AWS UNS
Classification Number C Mn Si P S Ni Cr Mo V Cu Ti Zr Al
0.06 0.090 0.45
ER70S-3 K10726 0.025 0.035 2 2 2 2
0.50
0.15 1.40 0.75
0.06 1.40 0.80
ER70S-6 K11140 0.025 0.035 2 2 2 2
0.50
0.15 1.85 1.15

Chemical Composition Requirements for Aluminum Electrodes and Rods3

AWS UNS Other Elements

Classification Number Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Ti Each Total Al
4.5
ER4043 A94043 0.8 0.30 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.054 0.15 Remainder
6.0
0.05 4.5 0.05 0.06
ER5356 A95356 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.10 0.054 0.15
0.20 5.5 0.20 0.20

Chemical Composition Requirements for Stainless-Steel Electrodes and Rods5

AWS UNS Other Elements

Classification Number C Cr Ni Mo Mn Si P S N Cu Element Amount
19.5 9.0 1.0 0.30
ER308L S30883 0.03 0.75 0.03 0.03 0.75
22.0 11.0 2.5 0.65
23.0 12.0 1.0 0.30
ER309L S30983 0.03 0.75 0.03 0.03 0.75
25.0 14.0 2.5 0.65
18.0 11.0 2.0 1.0 0.30
ER316L S31683 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.75
20.0 14.0 3.0 2.5 0.65

Weight percentage single values are maximums.

1

These residual elements shall not exceed 0.50% in total.

2

Weight percentage single values are maximums. If other elements are detected, they cannot exceed the limits specified for other elements.
3

Beryllium shall not exceed 0.0008%.

4

Weight percentage single values are maximums. If other elements are detected, the amount of those elements shall be determined and cannot exceed 0.5%, excluding irons.
5

Source: Data extracted from AWS filler metal specifications A5.9, A5.10, and A5.18

Table 21-13 Copper-Free versus Copper-

Coated GMAW Wires

Copper-Free Copper-Coated
Arc starts Best in class Excellent
Arc stability Best in class Excellent
Feedability Best in class Excellent
Smoke Best in class
Spatter Best in class Minimal
Paint ready
Copper flakes None
Deoxidizers Alloy specific Alloy specific
Weld appearance Excellent Excellent Fig. 21-64 Cast is the diameter of the circle formed by a length of
Postweld cleaning Alloy specific Alloy specific wire thrown loosely on the floor. Cast is normally checked before it en-
ters the wire-feed system. Source: National Standard

Gas Metal Arc and Flux Cored Arc Welding Principles Chapter 21 693