December 2016

HYDROCARBONENGINEERING December 2016 www.hydrocarbonengineering.com

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 CONTENTS
December 2016 Volume 21 Number 12 ISSN 1468-9340

03 Comment SoutheastAsia's petrochemical industry, examining how the region

05 World News
12 Asia Pacific: a petrochemical powerhouse
Strong economic growth and robust demand have made
AsiaPacific an extremely attractive area for downstream operators
and investors in recent years. HydrocarbonEngineering reviews the
recent project developments occuring within the region's dynamic
petrochemical industry.
22 Fuel for thought
Ale Vrblk, Jose Hidalgo and Radek ern, Unipetrol Centre for
Research and Education, Czech Republic, examine methods for
the assessment of marine fuel stability, in order to ensure that
clean and environmentally friendly fuels are suitable for further
processing.
27 Marvellous membranes
Alex Cedillo, Honeywell UOP, USA, describes how membrane
module technology developed specifically for natural gas
applications with condensing conditions has helped to improve
plant performance and productivity.
33 Weighing up the options
Gary Bowerbank, Pavan Chilukuri and AlirezaZahedimanesh,
ShellGlobal Solutions International B.V., the Netherlands, explain
how operators can unlock the potential of existing gas processing
assets through solvent swaps.
39 Why amine systems fail
Philip le Grange, Mike Sheilan and Ben Spooner, Amine Experts, a
division of Sulphur Experts, Inc., evaluate the evidence surrounding
why amine systems fail in natural gas treating systems.
46 Metal management metamorphosis
Brad Cook, SabinMetalsCorporation, USA, discusses how
petroleum and petrochemical refiners can enhance bottom line
profits by adjusting their precious metal management programmes.
51 Search and identify
Graham Shelver, 908 Devices, Inc., USA, discusses the use of
ballistic gas chromatography and high pressure mass spectrometry
to rapidly identify hydrocarbons in complex matrices.
55 Discovering digital
Jaime Ruiz Cabrero and AsheeshSastry, The Boston Consulting
Group, Singapore, examine the ongoing digital revolution within
has transformed to reap the rewards of tomorrow's technology,
today.
59 An active enterprise 3D platform
John Bell, INOVX Solutions, USA, explains how active 3D model
platforms can assist downstream operators in improving asset
productivity and reducing maintenance costs.
63 A model solution
Marc Laing, NEL, UK, explores the use of computational fluid
dynamics for flow modelling in oil and gas applications.
66 Onshore safety standards
Paul Hill, Hill Consultants Ltd, UK, debates whether performance
standards can be applied in onshore hazardous facilities.
69 The third eye in the field
Benedikt Eckert, Bartec GmbH, Germany, discusses how a base oil
producer used explosion proof mobility solutions to effectively
protect personnel, equipment and the environment in hazardous
areas during a routine inspection.
73 Playing with fire
Tim Hill and Ron Kessler, QuestIntegrity, USA, examine how the
varied inspection methods of fired heaters can provide the most
comprehensive asset integrity solution.
79 Low maintenance mechanics
Alexander Stotz, Kelvion, Germany, describes the efficiency and
easy cleaning characteristics of fully welded plate heat exchangers,
based on a reboiler application in monoethylene glycol
regeneration systems.
83 Individual standards
Peter Klotzsche, MAN Diesel & Turbo, Germany, discusses the
challenging market conditions facing refiners and EPC contractors,
and explains how OEM technology systems can help improve and
streamline downstream processes.
87 Smart design
Stephen Hiner, CLARCOR Industrial Air, UK, evaluates an effective
solution for the prevention of fouling in gas turbines.
91 Retrofit for energy savings: part two
Satyadileep Dara and Abdallah S. Berrouk, The Petroleum Institute,
UAE, continue their discussion of an amine sweetening unit retrofit
with a split flow scheme.
96 15 facts...
This month we give you 15 festive energy and Christmas facts!

THIS Sabin outlines what really matters in balancing

MONTH'S
a companys precious metals management: best
practices in processing, sampling and analysis
to maximise metals returns; environmental

FRONT
protection, regulatory compliance and achieving
precious metals refining transparency; utilising

COVER
peripheral services that truly add value; and
aligning with the new global paradigm.

2016 Member of ABCAudit Bureau of Circulations

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COMMENT
ROSALIE STARLING, EDITOR
2
016 has been a turbulent year, to say the least. Historic
events such as the UKs withdrawal from the European
Union, or Brexit, and the unexpected outcome of the
US presidential election have rocked the political world
and the entire world for that matter and the oil and gas
industry has remained on constant tenterhooks as crude prices
linger on shaky ground. However, as the year draws to a close,
Accordingly, the International Energy Agency (IEA) has released its World Energy Outlook2016
(WEO-2016), reviewing the movement of global energy systems to 2040. Reassuringly, the analysis
finds that the era of fossil fuels appears far from over, although government policies, as well as cost
reductions across the energy sector, will enable a huge push in the renewables arena, as well as
improvements in energy efficiency, over the next 25years.
However, an energy mix makeover also brings its fair share of security risks. Concerns related
to oil and gas supply remain, and are reinforced by a decline in investment levels. In the longer
term, investment in oil and gas will be absolutely essential to meet demand and replace declining
production, but the growth in renewables and energy efficiency will diminish the need for oil and
gas imports in a number of countries. Increased LNG shipments will also change how gas security is
perceived, according to the WEO-2016. Meanwhile, the changeable nature of renewables in power
generation (wind and solar in particular) necessitates a specific focus on the security of electricity.
The analysis notes the growth of global oil demand until 2040, mostly due to the lack of
'easy' alternatives to oil in areas such as road freight, aviation and petrochemicals. But, despite
this, demand from passenger vehicles is expected to decline, even as their number doubles in the
next 25 years, due to marked improvements in efficiency, an increased use of biofuels and rising
ownership of electric cars.
Of course, the much-celebrated Paris Agreement, a major step in the fight against global
warming, takes a leading role in the outlook, but meeting these ambitious climate goals will be
a tremendous challenge for both developed and developing economies with huge pushes in
the area of decarbonisation and efficiency required. According to IEA data, the implementation
of current international pledges will only slow down the projected rise in energy-related carbon
emissions from an average of 650 million tpy since 2000 to around 150million tpy in 2040.
While this is an achievement to be proud of, it is far from enough only limiting the rise in
average global temperatures to 2.7C by 2100. The mission to attain 2C is very tough, but feasible,
if policies to accelerate further low carbon technologies and energy efficiency are established
effectively across all sectors, resulting in a peak in carbon emissions over the next few years, and
the global economy becoming carbon neutral by the end of the century. A simple example from
the WEG-2016 illustrates the scale of this challenge. In the 2C scenario, the number of electric
cars would need to exceed 700 million by 2040, and displace more than 6 million bpd of oil
demand ambitions to further limit temperature gains, beyond 2C, would require even bigger
efforts.
Efficiency and emissions reduction are, of course, vital issues that must be addressed to ensure
the long term health of our planet, and its residents. However, the analysis is clear in its view that
fossil fuels still, undeniably, remain king. This, and the fact that our industry is constantly thinking
up new and innovative ways of advancing emissions reduction technologies I had the pleasure
of witnessing some of these innovations myself at the ERTC 21st Annual Meeting in Lisbon in
November is certainly a comforting notion looking forward.
I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to all of our
authors, advertisers and readers for your continued support in 2016. On behalf of the whole
HydrocarbonEngineering team, I wish you all a very relaxing and gratifying holiday season and a
happy New Year!
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 WORLD NEWS
North America | Operator training
A refinery in North America has
commissioned and installed a
high fidelity STRATCO operator
training simulator (OTS) for two
sulfuric acid alkylation units. The
OTS was specifically developed and
fully customised by DuPont Clean
Technologies over a seven month
period. It encompasses the entire
refinery alkylation operation from
feed preparation to product storage.
An operator training simulator
allows the alkylation plant operator
Vietnam | Improving refinery efficiency
H oneywell has announced that a
subsidiary of PetroVietnam will
use its new IIoT-based Connected
Performance Services (CPS) offering
to improve the performance of
itsmanufacturing operations in
QuangNgai City, Vietnam.
Binh Son Refining and
Petrochemical Co., Ltd (BSR) will use
Honeywells CPS technology, which
integrates Honeywell UOPs deep
process knowledge to improve
refinery and plant performance, at its
naphtha complex. CPS is part of
Honeywells Connected Plant
initiative, which leverages IIoT
technologies, services and domain
The Netherlands | New polypropylene pilot plant
S ABIC will have a new pilot plant
for the development of next
generation polypropylenes (PP)
onstream in Sittard-Geleen,
theNetherlands, by the end of
March2017. The plant, which will use
gas phase polymerisation technology,
will support the production at nearby
full scale plants of superior materials
that meet the needs of the different
industries such as automotive, pipe,
appliances and advanced packaging.
The pilot plant is the latest in a
series of investments being made by
SABIC at the Brightlands Chemelot
research and development (R&D) and
to safely practice plant shutdowns
and startups, hone responses to
potential emergencies and improve
troubleshooting skills in a realistic
yet consequence free environment.
DuPont also offers instruction
and training that leverage the OTS
platform as well as STRATCO
alkylation technology expertise. At
the time of product delivery, DuPont
included one full week of
OTSenhanced operator training for
a class of 12 operators and engineers.
expertise to improve all aspects of
industrial operations from supply
chain efficiency to asset
optimisation.
CPS gives refineries and
petrochemical and gas processing
plants greater visibility into their
operations. Problems that reduced
plant efficiency and productivity, and
that persistently avoided detection,
can be quickly identified and
resolved using recommendations
from CPS. As a result, plants can
produce more and avoid unplanned
shutdowns for maintenance and
repair, resulting in millions of dollars
per year in increased productivity.
manufacturing campus in
SittardGeleen. The company opened
a new research facility there in May.
SABIC is taking a fast track
approach to construction and
installation of the pilot plant. It has
contracted the work to Zeton, which
has developed a skid-mounted
system that accelerates
implementation times and allows full
design flexibility. Installation will
begin in December after Zeton has
built and tested the plant in Enschede
before partially disassembling it into
around 15 modules for delivery to
Geleen.
Polyethylene
USA |
capacity increase
E xxonMobil is planning to add a
new production unit at its
Beaumont polyethylene plant that
will increase capacity by 65%
(650000 tpy). Construction of the
unit has begun at the plant, where
current production capacity is
1million tpy. Startup is due in 2019.
ExxonMobil is investing billions of
dollars along the US Gulf Coast to
help meet growing global energy
demand. This will not only expand
existing refining and chemical
capacity, but also stimulate economic
growth and create jobs it could
create more than 28 000 temporary
jobs in construction and more than
1200 permanent jobs over the next
few years and beyond.
The Beaumont project builds on
supply advantages created by
ExxonMobils expansion of its
MontBelvieu plastics plant in Texas,
where two similar polyethylene units
are being added. Combined, this
multibillion dollar investment will
increase the companys US
polyethylene production by 40%, or
nearly 2million tpy, making Texas the
largest polyethylene supply point for
ExxonMobil.
SABIC is looking in particular to
develop grades with improved
stiffness/impact, flow properties and
other specific secondary properties
needed in different industries. SABIC
plans to concentrate on the
development of impact grades of
polypropylene, as well as random
copolymers and homopolymers. It
will also carry out experiments on
advanced catalysts. The plant will
complement pilot plants used by
SABIC at other strategic locations,
and would support the strategic
innovation initiatives to address
continuously evolving market needs.
HYDROCARBON 5 December 2016
ENGINEERING
 WORLD NEWS
IN BRIEF
saudi arabia
KBR, Inc. has announced that its Saudi Arabian
joint venture engineering operation, KBRAMCDE,
has signed an amendment to extend its existing
General Engineering Services Plus (GES+) contract
with Saudi Aramco. KBR will provide front
end engineering design (FEED), detailed design,
material procurement and project management
services (PMS) to support Saudi Aramco's capital
programmes in Saudi Arabia.
usa
Wood Group has been awarded a US$40 million
contract by ExxonMobil Chemical to provide main
automation contractor services for a grassroots
polyethylene plant to be built in Beaumont,
Texas. Wood Group completed the front end
engineering design (FEED) for the process control
systems in 2015. Zachry Group has also been
chosen to support ExxonMobil's 650 000 tpy
Beaumont polyethylene expansion, which began
in 4Q16. Zachry will provide constructability and
execution planning, electrical and instrumentation
design, and direct hire responsibilities for in-plant
construction, which is scheduled to be completed
in early 2019.
australia
BPs Kwinana refinery has selected the
HR1246CoMo catalyst from Axens following
results of pilot plant tests conducted by BPs
Refining Technology & Engineering Groups,
and a subsequent tendering process. Due to its
intrinsic high activity, HR 1246 will be associated
with regenerated HR 626 and enable a less than
10wppm sulfur diesel product while reducing the
cost to fill. The project marks Axens' hundredth
Impulse catalyst award in ultra low sulfur diesel
(ULSD) service.
france
Wrtsil has signed a Memorandum of
Understanding (MoU) with ENGIE to develop
solutions and services within the small scale LNG
business sector. The cooperation covers four work
streams: LNG for ships, LNG distribution in islands
and remote areas, LNG to power solutions, and
small scale LNG and bioliquefaction.
December 2016 6 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Canada | Water treatment project
S eeking to reduce the use of water in
the refining process, and as a way of
minimising its environmental impact on
the North Saskatchewan River, North
West Redwater (NWR) Partnership has
selected GEs Water & Process
Technologies for its new Sturgeon
refinery in Alberta, Canada.
To minimise the use of freshwater, GE
will provide efficient water treatment
systems with process water from the
refinery being treated and recycled
multiple times. Surface water runoff from
the facility will be contained in the
retention ponds and used for process
purposes to reduce the water withdrawal
from the North Saskatchewan River. The
ultrafiltration and membrane bioreactor
technology allow NWR to meet its
unique recycling challenges. Chemistry
and onsite technical support from GE will
not only ensure that the facilities water
Russia | Benzene unit modernisation
G TC Technology has signed an
agreement with PJSC
Nizhnekamskneftekhim (NKNK) to
provide its GT-BTX licensed technology
for the modernisation of a benzene
production facility at NKNKs EP-600
cracker plant in Nizhnekamsk, Republic
of Tatarstan, Russia.
The new GT-BTX unit will process a
full range C6 - C8 cut after the first stage
pygas hydrotreating unit and will allow
USA | LNG bunker facility contract
M
atrix Service Company's subsidiary,
Matrix Service, has been awarded
the engineering, procurement,
fabrication and construction of a
2million gal. LNG tank for the JAX LNG
Bunker Facility, a new LNG liquefaction
and storage facility located at Dames
Point near the Port of Jacksonville.
JAXLNG is a joint venture formed by
Pivotal LNG, a wholly owned subsidiary
of Southern Company Gas, NorthStar
Midstream, LLC, a midstream
transportation company backed by funds
balance targets are met, but will also
maintain the reliability of its various
assets by protecting them from
deposition and corrosion.
The Sturgeon refinery project is the
worlds only refinery designed from the
ground up to incorporate gasification
and a carbon capture and storage
solution while producing cleaner, high
value products. NWR undertook a
collaborative approach to project
development and selected companies
with best in class technologies, vetting
them to ensure commercial
competitiveness within their respective
areas of expertise. NWR then partnered
with the selected organisations to
develop a 'fit for purpose' design. This
unique approach eliminated costly
redesign steps for a project of this
nature, thus reducing project cost and
improving the overall project schedule.
NKNK to lower the cost of producing high
purity benzene, and also recover
nonaromatics to be used as cracker feed.
GTC will revamp the existing second stage
pygas hydrotreating unit to process 30%
more feed, and design a new GT-BTX unit
with post-fractionation. Scope of supply
includes the basic engineering package,
technical services, proprietary catalyst,
solvent and equipment. Startup is planned
for 2017.
managed by Oaktree Capital
Management, L.P. and Clean Marine
Energy LLC. JAX LNG is the long term
supplier of LNG to the world's first LNG
dual fuel container ships, the Isla Bella
and Perla del Caribe, operated by TOTE
Maritime Puerto Rico.
The JAX LNG facility is expected to
be operational in the fourth quarter of
2017. Once completed, it will be capable
of producing more than 120 000 gal./d
of LNG, which will be stored in the
2milliongal. cryogenic storage tank.
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 WORLD NEWS
IN BRIEF
oman
Oman Oil Company S.A.O.C. (OOC) and Kuwait
Petroleum International Ltd (KPI) have signed
a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to
cooperate on the development of the Duqm
Refinery and Petrochemical Complex in the Duqm
Special Economic Zone (SEZ) in Oman's Al Wusta
Governorate. The refinery, once completed,
will have the capacity to process 230 000bpd
of crude oil that will serve both local and
international markets.
romania
Black Sea Oil & Gas SRL (BSOG) has awarded,
together with its co-venture partners, the
contract for the front end engineering and design
(FEED) of its offshore and onshore facilities for
the development of the Ana and Doina Gas
Discoveries on the XV Midia Shallow Block,
offshore of Romania (the Midia Gas Development
Project). Offshore and onshore FEED services will
be provided by Xodus Group, which consist of a
wellhead platform, an in-field and offshore export
pipeline, an onshore pipeline, and a gas treatment
plant.
south africa
Sasol has completed another major capital
investment in South Africa as part of its
dualregional, multi-asset hub growth strategy
in Southern Africa and North America. The
company unveiled the C3 Expansion Project,
which enables Sasol to increase its polypropylene
production capacity by 103 000 tpy from its
Secunda Chemicals operations, while also realising
improvements in environmental impact.
middle east
A Middle Eastern refinery has selected outdoor
shelters using a combination of Intertec's passive
and active cooling technologies to protect its vital
control systems. The environmental protection
solution is being provided as part of an upgrade
to the burner management systems at the core
of the plant's refining processes. High reliability
PLC-based systems will provide the control and
safety functions needed for management of eight
separate burners.
December 2016 8 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Russia | Complete integrated fuel development
G enoil, Inc. has announced the signing
of a US$50 billion letter of intent
(LoI) to develop oilfields and construct
clean technology upgraders, refineries
and pipelines in Russia. The project will
incorporate Genoil's efficient clean
technology hydroconversion (GHU)
process, and mark the second time that
the company will have provided a
complete integrated project, from the
development of oilfields to the
production of cleaner fuels. The scope of
the project is to produce 3.5 million bpd.
Genoil's hydroconversion process
improves upon the existing data verified
fixed bed hydroconversion technology,
which is used worldwide. Currently, 85%
of all desulfurisation is taking place
worldwide via hydroconversion. Genoil's
investment into hydroconversion
projects can significantly increase the
Azerbaijan | Petrochemical facility modernisation
T echnip has been awarded a contract
for engineering, procurement and
construction (EPC) services by SOCAR for
its Azerikimya plant, located in the city of
Sumgait. The scope of work includes: the
modernisation of the EP-300 steam
cracker with construction of new cracker
furnaces licensed by Technip; and the
installation of a new refinery dry gas
treatment unit, new ethylene and
propylene storage and related utilities
Pakistan | Refinery power plant project
M
AN Diesel & Turbo and Hyundai
Engineering (HEC) have completed
the extension of a power plant in Pakistan
for Attock Refinery Limited (ARL). The
plant, located northeast of Rawalpindi, is
powered by heavy fuel oil (HFO) and
supplies electricity to a refinery.
Three MAN 14V32/40 gensets generate
18 MW of electrical power for the
processes in the refinery. This equates to
the electricity demand of approximately
30 000 households. Hyundai, as an
engineering, procurement and
construction (EPC) service provider, was
desulfurisation, demetalisation and
denitrogenisation conversion rates, and
increase operating efficiencies by 75%.
The parties involved will also explore
linking this new project to existing
pipeline networks in the region. The
finance will be provided in full from
Chinese banks to the Russian companies
involved.
Genoil will be responsible for the
design and construction of 6 million tpy
of new refinery capacity in Chechnya,
and will organise a large consortium of
Chinese engineering and services
companies to provide all the necessary
support and project guarantees.
The LoI has been signed by the
President of the Board of Directors of
Grozneft, a former official in the
administrative department of the Russian
Federation.
and offsite facilities.
In addition, the project includes the
modernisation of the instrumentation
and new control system. It also covers
control building in order to improve the
overall efficiency and safety of the
plant.
Technips operating centre in Rome,
Italy, will execute the contract, scheduled
to be completed during the first half of
2019.
responsible for the construction of the
plant, whilst MAN took over the design
and delivery of the engines and
accessories, as well as the training of the
operating personnel.
Rawalpindi is situated in the Punjab
region, only a few kilometres southwest of
the capital city, Islamabad. Together, the
two cities comprise one of the countrys
largest industrial centres. Also located in
Rawalpindi are the headquarters of the
Attock group, one of the most important
businesses within the oil and gas industry
in Pakistan.
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 WORLD NEWS
DIARY DATES IEA | Enhancing global gas security
22 - 24 January
MERTC: Middle East Refining Technology Conference
W hile the rise of the LNG market
has accelerated the globalisation
of natural gas, the energy security
period of low oil and gas prices could
further worsen the situation.
However, LNG contract structures
Manama, Bahrain
Tel: +971 4 435 6101
implications of this transformation have are becoming less rigid, increasing
Email: kay.mitchell@clarionevents.me attracted much less attention. The new market liquidity. In 2015, about 40% of
Global Gas Security Review from the LNG contracts had fixed destination
21 - 23 February International Energy Agency (IEA) seeks terms, down from 60% for contracts
ME-TECH 2017 to provide more transparency into the signed up to the year 2014.
Madinat Jumeirah, Dubai LNG market. While shorter term contracts are
Tel: +971 (0)4 421 4642 There is no doubt that global gas gradually becoming more common,
Email: laura@europetro-me.com markets are well supplied today. While buyers are also accepting longer
this is positive for global gas security, contracts in exchange for increased
26 February - 1 March IEA warns that LNG markets are less flexibility in the final destination in
Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference
flexible than is commonly believed. order to better respond to market
University of Oklahoma, Norman C
A growing share of LNG capacity is conditions. Flexible contractual
Tel: 405.325.3136
Email: hreichert@ou.edu
offline, meaning the market has less structures are important for gas M

extra capacity than assumed. Between security as they enable the aggregation Y

19 - 21 March 2011 and 2016, the level of unusable of gas volumes at a lower cost from
export capacity has doubled, disabling various regions.
CM

AFPM Annual Meeting

Marriott Rivercenter, San Antonio, Texas about 65billion m3 of gas, which is LNGs share of the global gas market MY

Tel: 202-457-0480 equal to the combined exports of is set to increase in the coming years, CY

Email: meetings@afpm.org Malaysia and Indonesia, the worlds with LNG supplies having grown at a
third and fifth largest exporters. A faster pace than total gas consumption.
CMY

26 - 30 March K

NACE Corrosion Conference & Expo 2017

New Orleans, Louisiana
API | Petroleum and gasoline demand trends
Tel: +1 281-228-6223
Email: firstservice@nace.org

26 - 30 March
T otal petroleum deliveries in
October moved up 3% from
October 2015 to average
down from the prior month, but up
from the prior year, and the prior year
to date. Total motor gasoline deliveries,
SOGAT 2017 20.1millionbpd, and were the highest a measure of consumer gasoline
Abu Dhabi, UAE October deliveries in nine years, since demand, moved up 0.2 % from
Tel: +971 2 674 4040 2007. For year to date, total domestic October2015 to 9.3millionbpd. These
Email: nerie@domeexhibitions.com petroleum deliveries moved up 0.3% were the lowest deliveries since April,
compared to the same period last year. but remained the second highest
28 - 30 March Gasoline deliveries in October were October deliveries on record.
StocExpo Europe
Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Tel: +44 (0)20 8843 8835 EIA | Record natural gas storage levels
Email: amy@stocexpo.com

29 - 30 March
ARTC: Asian Refining Technology Conference
W orking natural gas in storage
reached a record high of
4017billion ft3 as of 4 November,
Jakarta, Indonesia according to US Energy Information
Tel: +971 4 435 6101 Administration (EIA) data. Inventories
Email: kay.mitchell@clarionevents.me have been relatively high throughout
the year, surpassing previous five year
18 - 20 April highs in 48 of the past 52 weeks.
NISTM 19th Annual International Aboveground
Storage Tank Conference & Trade Show Declining natural gas production
Rosen Shingle Creek Hotel, Florida and strong demand from the power
Tel: 011.813.600.4024 sector were offset by a warmer than
Email: mail@nistm.org usual winter, which left natural gas
inventories in April (the beginning of
the 2016 injection season) above the
previous five year maximum.
The injection season for natural gas
storage typically runs from April
through October, although net natural
gas injections sometimes continue for
several weeks during November. The
previous record for natural gas storage
was set at 4009 billion ft3 for the week
ending 20 November 2015. This year,
natural gas inventories have been
relatively high in almost every natural
gas storage region in EIAs survey.

December 2016 10 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING

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 Strong economic growth and robust demand have made AsiaPacific
an extremely attractive area for downstream operators and
investors in recent years. HydrocarbonEngineering reviews the
recent project developments occuring within the region's dynamic
petrochemical industry.

Beijing Central Business District, China.

December 2016 12 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
A PETROCHEMICAL POWERHOUSE
A
sia Pacific is, and will be for years to come, an area of
great importance in the global oil, gas and
petrochemicals market. According to the WorldBanks
'East Asia Pacific Economic Update, October 2016',
growth in the developing East Asia and Pacific region is expected
to remain resilient over the next three years. China is expected to
continue its gradual transition to slower but more sustainable
growth, from 6.7% this year to 6.5% in 2017 and 6.3% in 2018.
Meanwhile, in the rest of developing East Asia, growth is
projected to remain stable at 4.8% this year, and rise to 5% in 2017
and 5.1% in 2018. Overall, developing East Asia is expected to grow
at 5.8% in 2016 and 5.7% in 2017 - 2018.1
While the region still faces significant risks to growth,
including sluggish movement in advanced economies, subdued
prospects in most developing economies and stagnant global
trade, the World Bank expects domestic demand to remain
robust across much of the region, with continued low commodity
prices benefiting importers and keeping inflation low across most
of the region.
These indications of healthy economic growth and increasing
domestic consumption have attracted substantial investment
throughout the region, providing a major boost to the
downstream sector.
The majority of the worlds largest refineries are situated
within the Asia Pacific region, and the top five facilities in this part
of the world produce some 4 million bpd of oil.2 Accordingly, the
region also holds a wealth of petrochemical infrastructure and
resources, and is receiving more and more attention from regional
and global players.
In March 2016, research and consulting firm GlobalData
released research showing that global petrochemicals capacity
would grow considerably over the next five years, increasing from
1464 million tpy in 2015 to 1708 million tpy by 2020. Around
647planned projects are due to come online in the next five years,
driven primarily by China, the US and Iran. Asia is home to over
half of all planned projects, with China responsible for 176 projects,
and is set to have a total capacity of 64 million tpy by 2019.3
Below, Hydrocarbon Engineering provides an overview of
major contract and project announcements and updates that
have come to light over the past 12 months, and will continue to
enhance the regions petrochemical sector and capabilities.
Petrochemical project round up
China
Connel Chemical Industry
In August 2016, Wison Engineering disclosed that it had been
awarded an engineering, procurement and construction (EPC)
contract for a 300 000 tpy methanoltoolefins (MTO) unit that
will constitute the first phase of Connel Chemical Industry Ltds
600 000 tpy MTO plant. The two parties also signed a licensing
and process design package (PDP) contract for Wisons proprietary
olefin separation technology. The project will utilise an integrated
solution that leverages UOPs MTO+OCP (olefin cracking process)
technology and Wisons high recovery olefin separation
technology. Wison will be responsible for the engineering, design,
procurement and construction of the MTO reaction and
concentration unit, the olefin separation unit, the olefin cracking
unit and additional auxiliaries. The project is scheduled to be
delivered in October 2017.
Dongying Qirun Chemical
In October 2016, Honeywell announced that Dongying Qirun
Chemical Co., Ltd would license Honeywell UOP's UnicrackingTM
technology for the production of diesel and naphtha at its
refinery in Shandong Province to meet growing domestic demand
for transportation fuels. UOP will also provide engineering,
startup services, equipment and catalysts. Qirun Chemical is
located in Dongying City in the Yellow River Delta.
Handi Sunshine Petrochemical
In August 2016, Honeywell UOP and ExxonMobil declared a
technology licensing agreement with Hainan Handi Sunshine
Petrochemical Co., Ltd, marking the first project in China under
a joint marketing alliance for premium fuels and lubricants
between the two technology providers. The integrated UOP
and ExxonMobil technology platform enables Handi Sunshine
to meet growing demand in China for cleaner burning jet fuel
and diesel along with high quality Group II/III base oils. UOPs
Unicracking technology and ExxonMobils MSDWTM catalytic
lubes de-waxing technology will be installed at the Hainan
facility.
Hebei Zhongjie Petrochemical
In January 2016, Hebei Zhongjie Petrochemical and Genoil,Inc. of
Canada signed a contract and announced plans to establish a new
company, Dora Energy Technology Company, that will construct
one of the world's most advanced heavy oil refineries, utilising
Genoil's GHU technology. Hebei Zhongjie Petrochemical has
already invested CNY25 million to date and the parties have
completed a new feasibility study and the technological
selection required for the refinery project. A Chinese engineering
firm has also been selected. The feasibility study encompasses all
economic calculations, including the capital costs, the operating
costs and necessary factors, as part of the package required by
the Chinese lending source. The required feedstock has been
lined up and the sales of necessary contracts for finished
products, sufficient to amortise the loan from the bank, will be
organised.
HYDROCARBON 13 December 2016
ENGINEERING
 Hengli Petrochemical
In February 2016, Hengli Petrochemical Co., Ltd selected Axens to
supply technologies for its petrochemical project, to be located at
Changxing Island in Liaoning Province. The crude to paraxylene
complex, with a processing capacity of 400 000 bpd of crude, will
supply high purity paraxylene to purified terephthalic acid (PTA)
plants for polyethylene terephthalate (PET) application. The
complex includes a final conversion refinery oriented towards the
production of naphtha and an aromatic complex to maximise high
purity paraxylene production. The new complex will be the largest
site in the world for the production of high purity paraxylene,
along with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline and diesel fuels
(meeting China 5 specifications), jet fuel and base lube oils.
In March 2016, DuPont Clean Technologies announced that Hengli
Petrochemical Co., based in Dalian, had awarded the company a
contract to supply the alkylation and spent acid regeneration
(SAR) technologies for the new grassroots refinery in the
Changxing Island Harbour Industrial Zone. The contract includes
the license and engineering design packages for the STRATCO
alkylation and MECS SAR units. Installation of the new units at
Hengli is currently planned for 2018, with startup anticipated in
2019. The grassroots refinery complex, with the addition of
STRATCO alkylation technology, will allow Hengli to produce a
highquality alkylate product from a 100% isobutylene feed
stream.
Jiaxing Petrochemical
In September 2016, Servomex reported that it had been selected
by Jiaxing Petrochemical Co., Ltd to supply a complete analyser
system for the second phase development of its purified
terephthalic acid (PTA) production facility in Zhejiang Province.
Four years after supplying a system for phase one of the project,
Servomex will supply the plant with three Servotough Oxy 1900
oxygen and three Servotough SpectraExact 2500 toxic gas
analysers. These will be integrated into a bespoke analyser house,
designed and built at Servomexs Systems Integration Facility at the
companys Asia Pacific Business Centre in Shanghai.
Nanhai Petrochemical Complex
In March 2016, China National Offshore Oil Corp. (CNOOC) and
Shell Nanhai B.V. announced the final investment decision (FID) to
expand CNOOC and Shell Petrochemical Companys (CSPC's)
existing 50:50 joint venture in Huizhou, Guangdong Province.
Subject to regulatory approvals, CNOOC and Shell have agreed
that CSPC should take over CNOOCs ongoing project to build
additional chemical facilities next to CSPCs petrochemical
complex. The project comprises the construction of a new
ethylene cracker and ethylene derivatives units, which will increase
ethylene capacity by more than 1 million tpy. It will also include a
styrene monomer and propylene oxide (SMPO) plant. Shell will
apply its proprietary OMEGA, SMPO and polyols technologies to
produce 150 000 tpy of ethylene oxide, 480000tpy of ethylene
glycol and 600 000 tpy of high quality polyols.
Ningxia Petrochemical Complex
In May 2016, SABIC signed a project development agreement (PDA)
with Shenhua Ningxia Coal Industry Group Co., Ltd (SNCG), a
subsidiary of Shenhua Group Corporation Ltd, for the potential
joint development of a greenfield petrochemical complex to be
located in the Ningxia Hui Region. The parties would proceed with
further actions to implement the project in the event of a positive
FID, and subject to obtaining all necessary governmental approvals.
The joint venture would benefit from its location in Ningxia and
December 2016 14 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
utilise locally available coal feedstocks, to be supplied by SNCG.
The PDA provides a basis for the parties to conduct a joint
feasibility study on the project within three years, starting from
the date when the agreement became effective, and, subject to a
positive outcome, to prepare and submit the materials necessary
to obtain project application report (PAR) approval from the
National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC).
Shaanxi Future Energy Chemical
In April 2016, it was reported that a facility in Yulin City would
install GEs advanced zero liquid discharge (ZLD) technology to
help meet new regulations governing wastewater treatment at
Chinese coal-to-chemical plants. GEs ZLD evaporator and
crystalliser system will eliminate liquid discharge of waste and
enable water reuse at the Shaanxi Future Energy Chemical Co., Ltd
coal-to-chemical plant in Shaanxi Province. GEs wastewater
treatment system includes a vapour recompression brine
concentrator followed by a crystalliser, providing a proven and
cost effective ZLD solution. The equipment is expected to be
delivered in mid-2016, with commissioning in March 2017. Once
operational, the HongDun wastewater treatment facility will treat
wastewater feed at a rate of 40 m3/hr.
Shandong Luqing Petrochemical
In May 2016, Honeywell issued a release stating that Shandong
Luqing Petrochemical Co. had accepted performance of Chinas
first standalone Honeywell UOP C4OleflexTM process unit,
producing 170 000 tpy of isobutylene. The unit, located in
Shandong Province, will support the growing demand for fuel and
petrochemicals in Chinas industrial sector. In addition to licensing,
Honeywell UOP provided the engineering design, catalysts,
adsorbents, speciality equipment, staff training and technical
service for the project.
Shenhua Ningxia Project
In March 2016, Air Products' PRISM Membranes division in
SaintLouis, Missouri, received a significant order to provide a large
quantity of membrane separators to the Ningdong Energy and
Chemical Industry Base in Ningxia for use as part of the Shenhua
Ningxia coal-to-liquids project. The membranes will be part of a
hydrogen purification and recycling operation that is expected to
start up in late 2016. The membrane separators contain polymeric
hollow fibres that use selective permeation under differential
pressure to separate hydrogen from methane, carbon monoxide
and other hydrocarbons.
Sinopec Yangzi Petrochemical Company
In May 2016, Honeywell announced that the first commercial
installation of its UOP MaxEne Process successfully entered
production at Sinopec Yangzi Petrochemical Companys (YPC's)
integrated refinery and petrochemical facility in Nanjing. The
new technology generates substantially higher yields of the
chemical components used to make plastics, and has processed
more than 2.5 million t of naphtha feed since entering
production, meeting all of its performance criteria. The facility is
a cooperative project between the company and Sinopec to
jointly commercialise the process based on Honeywell UOPs
pilot plant technology. In addition to licensing, UOP provided
the basic engineering, key equipment, adsorbents and technical
support for the unit.
Yanshan Petrochemical Complex
In July 2016, it was announced that Sinopec had chosen Veolia,
through its subsidiary Veolia China, to operate the entire water
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 cycle of its Yanshan Petrochemical Complex. Located 50 km
from downtown Beijing, Yanshan Petrochemical is a fully owned
subsidiary of Sinopec. The complex is one of the largest
production bases of synthetic rubber, synthetic resin, phenol
acetone and high quality refined oil products in China. It
processes over 10 million t of crude oil and produces
800000tpy of ethylene. It can produce 94 varieties with
431grades of petrochemical products. Veolia and Yanshan have
chosen to expand the scope of their partnership to the entirety
of the water cycle management. Veolia will work at optimising
the water consumption within the site and increasing the water
recycling rate, as well as upgrade the wastewater treatment
facility and provide a comprehensive energy optimisation
programme.
India
GAIL (India) Limited
In October 2016, GAIL (India) Limited successfully started its first
Unipol polyethylene (PE) process line with the capacity to
produce 400 000 tpy of PE. The total production capacity of
GAILs petrochemical plant at Pata, Uttar Pradesh, is 810 000 tpy.
GAILs flexible high density polyethylene (HDPE)/linear low
density polyethylene (LLDPE) swing plant provides access to a
full range of resin applications. The new process line gives GAIL
the platform to expand its PE product capabilities, providing
Indian PE converters with the high quality, domestically
produced resin products needed for large volume markets, as
well as advanced performance applications.
Lubrizol CPVC Plant
In March 2016, Jacobs Engineering Group, Inc. reported that it
had provided services for Lubrizol Corporations recently
commissioned chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC)
compounding plant in Dahej. The plant, which has the capacity
to produce 55 000 tpy of compound, supports the growth of
Lubrizols emerging businesses in South Asia, the Middle East
and East Africa. The plant is the first major investment in India
for US-based Lubrizol. Jacobs was associated with the plants
construction, from the conceptual design phase through the
basic engineering and total installed cost (TIC) estimate. It
subsequently provided detailed engineering, procurement and
construction management (EPCM) services for the entire
project. The plants chlorinated polyvinyl chloride unit was
mechanically completed within the targeted project schedule
of 20months.
Japan
TonenGeneral Sekiyu K. K.
In May 2016, GTC Technology announced that it had supplied
advanced distillation technology for TonenGeneral Sekiyu K. K.'s
new mixed xylenes recovery unit. The grassroots unit is located
at TonenGenerals refinery in Ichihara City, Chiba Prefecture, and
was successfully started up in April 2016. The xylene unit has a
capacity of 230 000 tpy. Unique to this design is high purity
toluene, as well as high purity C9 aromatics, being produced
from the same column as the xylenes. The unit uses GTCs
Dividing Wall Column (GT-DWCSM) technology for high energy
efficiency. This installation also uses a first of its kind design for
divided wall columns (DWCs) with the overhead vapours
providing the heating duty to two upstream units. GTC provided
a single source responsibility for process license, basic
engineering design, equipment supply and process guarantees.
December 2016 16 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Malaysia
Petronas Refinery and Petrochemical Integrated
Development (RAPID) Project
In April 2016, MECS DynaWave technology, licensed by
MECS,Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of DuPont, was chosen by
international oil and gas services provider Petrofac for the
installation of three custom engineered scrubbing systems for
sulfur dioxide removal at a Petroliam Nasional Berhad (Petronas)
site. The DynaWave units were to be delivered to the companys
Refinery and Petrochemical Integrated Development (RAPID)
project refinery in Pengerang, Southern Johor, in 2Q16 for
subsequent fitting. Futhermore, in November 2016, DynaWave
technology was selected for the installation of three
customengineered scrubbing systems for sulfur dioxide removal
at PRPC Refinery & Cracker Sdn. Bhd, a subsidiary of Petronas. The
DynaWave units are set to be delivered to the companys RAPID
project refinery before the end of the year for subsequent fitting.
In July 2016, China's Chu Kong Petroleum Natural Gas Steel Pipe
Holdings Limited and its subsidiaries (PCK) announced that the
group had been awarded a price agreement to supply
approximately 40 000 t of steel pipes for the RAPID project. The
ambitious project will consist of a 300000bpd refinery and
petrochemical complex, with a combined capacity of
7.7milliontpy of various grades of products, including
differentiated and speciality chemicals products. The estimated
Capex of the project is US$16billion, while related facilities will
cost around US$11billion.
In September 2016, GE declared that, through a strategic
partnership with Prime Sourcing International (PSI), a subsidiary of
Petronas, it would supply 17 emergency diesel generator (EDG)
packages, five transportable switch rooms and electrical balance
technology for the Pengerang Integrated Complex (PIC) in Johor.
The equipment will be provided by various GE businesses. Each
EDG package will consist of 616 diesel engines provided by GEs
Distributed Power business, which will be coupled with the
generators and electrical equipment, bound in e-houses.
Also in September, Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd, a subsidiary of The
Linde Group, announced that it had established a joint venture
company with Petronas Gas Berhad (PGB) to build a state of the
art industrial air gas facility that will produce gaseous oxygen and
nitrogen to supply the needs of the RAPID project. Linde and
Petronas joint venture company, Pengerang Gas Solution Sdn Bhd
(PGS), also secured long term agreements for the supply of oxygen
and nitrogen to the world scale refinery and petrochemical
complex, which includes an ethylene oxide/ethylene glycol plant.
PGS will build two large air separation units and associated gas
facilities, resulting in a total investment of 150 million.
Philippines
JG Summit Petrochemical Corp
In November 2016, GTC Technology announced that it had signed
an agreement with JG Summit Petrochemical Corp to provide its
GT-BTX and GT-DWC licensed technologies for an aromatics
extraction unit at JGSummits petrochemical complex in Batangas.
JG Summit currently has a capacity of approximately 210 000 tpy
of pyrolysis gasoline (pygas). After the cracker expansion, capacity
will increase to approximately 300 000 tpy. The combination of
GT-BTX and GT-DWC will be designed to process the companys
expanded pygas capacity to produce around 170 000 tpy of

Transactions and acquisitions
Dorf Ketal Chemicals and Filtra Catalysts and
Chemicals
In January 2016, Dorf Ketal Chemicals India Private Ltd issued
a statement announcing that it had acquired Filtra Catalysts
and Chemicals Ltd, also based in India. Filtra's adsorbents and
catalyst products will be combined with the Dorf Ketal
product offering in downstream hydrocarbon process
chemicals.
Chevron Phillips Chemical Company and
INEOS Styrolution
In November 2016, Chevron Phillips Chemical CompanyLLC
announced that it had signed an agreement with INEOS
Styrolution to sell the companys K-Resin styrene-butadiene
copolymers (SBC) business. The deal is subject to customary
closing conditions and regulatory approvals. As part of the
transaction, INEOS Styrolution will purchase the equity
interests of K R Copolymer Co., Ltd (KRCC), which owns and
operates a K-Resin SBC plant in the Yeosu Petrochemical
Complex in South Korea. Certain Chevron Phillips Chemicals
proprietary K-Resin SBC intellectual property, and other
Chevron Phillips Chemical assets related to the business will
also be transferred.
LyondellBasell and Zylog Plastalloys
In April 2016, LyondellBasell completed the acquisition of the
polypropylene (PP) compounding assets of Zylog Plastalloys
Pvt. Ltd (Zylog) in India. The company entered into a
definitive agreement to acquire Zylog's PP compounding
assets in November 2015. In October2015, LyondellBasell
acquired SJS Plastiblends Pvt. Ltd's PP compounding business,
which is located in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. With the
acquisition of Zylog's manufacturing operations in Sinnar,
Maharashtra, and Chennai, Tamil Nadu, LyondellBasell is now
the third largest producer of PP compounds in India with an
annual capacity of 44 000 t (97 million lbs).
benzene-toluene-xylenes (BTX). The new BTX unit will also have
the flexibility to switch between benzene-toluene extraction only
or the full range of benzene-toluene-xylenes extraction.
South Korea
Hyundai Chemical
In January 2016, Honeywell reported that Hyundai ChemicalCo.
would use UOP technology to expand its petrochemicals
complex in Daesan Republic, allowing it to make its own
feedstock material to boost profitability. The facility will use
technology as well as modular equipment from UOP to allow the
plant to make mixed xylenes, a critical feedstock used by the
plant to produce paraxylene. Back-integrating the facility to make
its own feedstock will reduce the plant's dependence on imports
of mixed xylenes and its exposure to the volatile market for the
feedstock. The plant currently uses UOP technology to produce
paraxylene.
Hyundai Oilbank
In September 2016, Praxair, Inc. declared that it had signed a
longterm contract to supply industrial gases to Hyundai Oilbank,
December 2016 18 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
a producer of gasoline and propylene in SouthKorea, with a
processing capacity of 390 000 bpd of crude oil and other
feedstock. Praxair will build, own and operate four vacuum
pressure swing adsorption (VPSA) plants that will supply a
combined 750 tpd of oxygen to Hyundai, which is located at the
Daesan Petrochemical Complex on the west coast of the Korean
peninsula. The VPSAs are expected to start up in 2017.
SK Gas Corporation and Advanced Petrochemical
Company
In June 2016, Clariant reported good performance of its catalysts
during the successful startup of the largest propane
dehydrogenation (PDH) unit in South Korea. Located in Ulsan on
the southeast coast of the country, the PDH plant is a joint project
between SK Gas CorporationLtd and Advanced Petrochemical
Company. The facility is designed to produce 600 000 tpy of
propylene using CB&I's Catofin catalytic dehydrogenation
technology, which is based on Clariant's Catofin catalyst.
Taiwan
Taiwan-Japan Oxo Chemical Industries
In February 2016, Axens announced that Taiwan-Japan Oxo
Chemical Industries, Inc. (TJOCI) had chosen Axens technologies
and catalysts for its isononyl alcohol (INA) production plant. On
11February 2015, CPC, KH Neochem (KHNC) and Mega
International Commercial Bank (MICB) signed an agreement
setting up a joint venture for the production of high value added
petrochemical products. Under this agreement, TJOCI will invest
TWD13.7 billion in the construction of an INA production plant in
the Kaohsiung area. The plant is scheduled to begin commercial
operations in 2019, with its initial annual production capacity of
high value added petrochemical products set at 180 000 t. This
project is the largest single investment ever held by Japanese and
Taiwanese companies in the petrochemical area in Taiwan. Axens
will provide a whole chain of technologies including methyl
tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) and Dimersol-XTM technologies to
ensure octenes production utilised for the synthesis of the INA
via hydroformylation.
Vietnam
PetroVietnam
In May 2015, Honeywell reported that it had signed a
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Vietnam Oil and Gas
Group (PetroVietnam) to increase its presence in Vietnam. The
MoU was signed in the presence of representatives of the US and
Vietnamese governments and executives from the companies.
Pursuant to the terms of the MoU, Honeywell will provide
professional consulting services to PetroVietnam and its
subsidiaries for future investment projects, as well support
PetroVietnam in engineering design and economic and technical
project feasibility studies for all of its facilities.
References
1. 'East Asia Pacific Economic Update, October 2016: Reducing
Vulnerabilities', World Bank, http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/eap/
publication/east-asia-pacific-economic-update.
2. 'GEs Solution to Enable Uninterrupted Operations at One of the Worlds
Largest Integrated Refinery and Petrochemical Complex', GE, http://www.
genewsroom.com/press-releases/ge%E2%80%99s-solution-enable-
uninterrupted-operations-one-world%E2%80%99s-largest-integrated-
refinery.
3. 'Asia Will Drive Substantial Global Petrochemicals Capacity Additions to
2020, says GlobalData', GlobalData, http://energy.globaldata.com/media-
center/press-releases/oil-and-gas/asia-will-drive-substantial-global-
petrochemicals-capacity-additions-to-2020-says-globaldata.
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Italy
My camera lens captures the energy of the city
Nicol Vizioli - Artist

Energy powers our world, it enriches our lives.

Italian artist Nicol Vizioli uses energy as an
inspiration for her art.
It fuels her imagination.

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December 2016 22 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Ale Vrblk, Jose Hidalgo and Radek ern, Unipetrol
Centre for Research and Education, Czech Republic,
examine methods for the assessment of marine fuel
stability, in order to ensure that clean and environmentally
friendly fuels are suitable for further processing.

I
n January 2015, the new maximum limit (0.1 wt%) for sulfur content in marine fuels
came into effect for the sulfur emission control area (SECA) according to MARPOL
(Marine Pollution) Annex VI.1 Further changes related to the area outside the SECA
are expected in 2020, which can affect the resulting fuel oil composition, and also its
stability.
Fuel oils, which are used as marine fuels, have to meet the relevant requirements in
accordance with the ISO 8217 normative.2 All the required parameters, as well as the
relevant test methods, are prescribed in this standard. The viscosity, density and
relationship through the calculated carbon aromaticity index (CCAI) are very important
parameters for the fuel oil characterisation and classification. The fuel oils could be
classified into several groups according to their price. This price is influenced by their
viscosity, density and composition, where material with lower values could be preferred
as a potential diluent. The customer can accept any deviation from the standard values,
but it will result in the reduction of its final price. The customer could use the out of
specification material as a component for further blending.
Marine fuels are often blended from heavy vacuum residues, which are produced
using a thermal or cracking process. The heavy residues are usually blended with low
boiling crude oil fractions to achieve the required properties and meet the relevant
standards. While respecting the requirements, the minimal content of diluents should
be used to achieve a more stable resulting mixture.3

HYDROCARBON 23 December 2016

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Problematic samples disrupted filtration papers.
Figure 2. Comparison of the upper (A) and the bottom
(B) side of the lower filter paper.
Figure 3. Comparison of the bottom sides of the
lower (A) and the third (B) filter paper.
The stability of the marine fuel needs to be checked in
order to fulfil the prescribed parameters relating to the
purity of the fuel (emission limits, combustion
characteristics, etc). Qualitative changes can be observed
during long term storage, due to impaired stability or
compatibility. A poorly chosen storage temperature can
lead to increased emissions due to the evaporation of low
boiling components from the diluent.4
Stability testing
The stability of marine fuels is very important because they
have to maintain the quality properties during long term
storage or transport to a customer.5 Also, the effect of
sedimentation or separation of the individual phases can
be observed during the long term storage.4 The method for
evaluation of total sediments is a very relevant tool for the
determination of the fuel oils stability and compatibility.
December 2016 24 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
The limit value of the total sediment
(aged) is mentioned in the ISO8217 as a
parameter closely related to the stability
of marine fuels this value must not
exceed 0.1 wt%. The assessment of total
sediments is the common method, but it
also has its pitfalls.6
There are three possibilities for the
total sediment assessment differing in the
sample preparation. The total sediment
(TS) determination uses the sample in its
original state (ISO 10307-1).7 The other
methods apply a thermal (Procedure A) or
chemical (Procedure B) ageing step for
sample preparation, followed by hot
filtration (ISO10307-2).8 The total sediment potential (TSP),
according to thermal Procedure A, is based on the placement
of the sample in an oil bath at 100C for 24hours. In the
total sediment accelerated (TSA) ProcedureB method, the
asphaltenes are gradually flocculated by the addition of
n-hexadecane at the exact defined speed.
A sample of the marine fuel is filtered through the
preheated apparatus at 100C and, after solvent washing
(heptane-toluene solution) and drying, the total sediment
on the filter is weighted. This determination is performed in
parallel and the total sediment by hot filtration is reported
as the average of the two determinations. The mass
percentage of the total sediment for each test specimen is
calculated using Equation 1:
S = m5 - m4 - (m3 - m2) 10 m1 [wt%]
Where S is the total sediment, expressed as a
percentage by mass; m1 is the mass of the test portion, in
grams; m2 is the mass of the lower filter before filtration, in
milligrams; m3 is the mass of the lower filter after filtration,
in milligrams; m4 is the mass of the upper filter before
filtration, in milligrams; and m5 is the mass of the upper
filter after filtration, in milligrams. In the case of TSA
determination, the hexadecane as a diluent must be taken
into account by using a divisor of 9.28 m1 instead of 10m1.
The repeatability, r, for residual fuels was calculated
according to Equation 2:
r = 0.089 x [wt%]
Where x is the average of the test results, expressed as
a percentage by mass.
This method is able to provide the relevant results
between 0.01 and 0.50 wt%. The results outside this range
will be mentioned as <0.01 or >0.50 wt% in the output
protocol.
The requirements of the ISO 8217 prescribe the limit
value for TSP and TSA, but these procedures can have
incomparable results depending on the chemical character
of the marine fuel. The widely used method is the TSA
because it is faster. The TSP consumes approximately
23hours more, but the reference method will be TSP.
The TSA assessment is based on the asphaltenes'
flocculation with n-hexadecane (cetane) used during the
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Figure 4. Differences of the lower filters (coded as B)
in comparison with the upper filters (A).
procedure, known as chemical ageing. The exact defined
amount of cetane has to be added very slowly (dropwise)
to minimise the local flocculation. The asphaltenes play a
key role in the early formation of the sediment.9 It is
believed that micelle formed from asphaltenes in a
complex colloidal structure are surrounded by
nonasphaltenic particles that may prevent their
re-solubility. The asphaltene flocculation can be prevented
through the addition of the resin-based components.
The pitfalls of testing
The character of the testing sample influences the
assessment of the total sediments; high density, viscosity or
content of impurities can make the measurement very
difficult or impossible (Figure 1), and, in some cases, the
resulting values can be very wrong.
The higher content of resin-based materials in the fuel
oil can cause clogging in the lower filter paper (Figure 2),
which was in contact with the supporting sintered disc
(frit). The resin-based materials are visible in Figure2, partB
as darker spots. The resin-based materials, which passed
through the filter paper but not through the sintered disc,
caused an incorrect increase of the lower filter weight in
the overall balance. This incorrect assumption can lead to
unrealistic results of the total sediment assessment, with
some extreme cases resulting in negative values of wt%.
This problem can be solved using the third filter paper as
an auxiliary mechanism (Figure 3). The third paper is prepared
for measurement the same way as the others (according to
ISO 10307), but it is not incorporated into the final balance.
This procedure is in accordance with the method
ISO10307. In this method it notes that the same results can
be achieved with the use of a fine wire mesh support
screen in combination with a third disposable filter. This
third filter can be placed below the two test filters on the
support frit and the same pre-drying regime followed as for
the test filters, but without weighing the third filter before
placement and discarding it when filtration is complete.8
It is also necessary to underline the differences
between the colour appearances of the lower filter
(Figure4), which can be used as an indicator for the oil
phase description. The fuel oil coded as 1 (Figure 4) has the
lowest value of total sediment content because of the
heaviest (the darkest) lower filter.
The changes observed during the ageing process can be
identified using the weight of the lower filter in comparison
December 2016 26 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
with the change of the total sediments. TS versus TSP, as
well as TS versus TSA.
The decrease of the TSA/TSP value in comparison with
the value of TS can be, in some cases, negatively or
positively affected by the deterioration of the oil phase
properties. The increased weight of the lower paper
decreases the value of the total sediment in the total
calculation.
A good correlation with the total sediments means the
method for the evaluation of colloidal stability is based on
the spot test according to ASTM D 4740.10 The spot test is a
fast and easy method where a drop of preheated and
thoroughly mixed fuel oil is put on a test paper and placed
in an oven at 100C. After one hour, the resultant spot is
examined for evidence of suspended solids and rated for
cleanliness to the five class.
Conclusion
The world trade of marine fuels is currently undergoing
some substantial changes, which will need new methods
for the analysis of fuel samples. Employing an effective
methodology for the evaluation of marine fuels stability
and compatibility is mandatory, in order to ensure that the
clean and environmentally friendly fuel is suitable for
further processing. The most widely used method for the
assessment of marine fuels stability is the total sediments
(TS/TSP/TSA) measurement; however, this method
presents its limitations. Therefore, the improvement of
results by the assessment of colloidal stability is highly
recommended. This method could be adapted depending
on the chemical character and composition of the
sample.
Notes
The project was carried out with the financial support of
the Ministry of Industry and Trade of the Czech Republic,
with institutional support for the long term conceptual
development of research organisations. The project has
been integrated into the National Programme for
Sustainability I of the Ministry of Education, Youth and
Sports of the Czech Republic through the project
development of the UniCRE Centre, Project Code LO1606.
References
1. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships (MARPOL) Annex VI.
2. ISO 8217: Petroleum products Fuels (class F) Specifications of
marine fuels, 2012.
3. STRATIEV, D., DINKOV, R., PETKOV, K. and KIRILOV, K., Oil Gas
Journal, 106, 34, 46, 2008.
4. VRBLK, A., BRINGLEROV, N., HIDALGO, J. M. and ERN, R.,
Paliva 7, 2, 48, 2015.
5. HSU, C. S. and ROBINSON, P., (Eds): Practical advances in
petroleum processing, Springer Science & Business Media,
NewYork, 2007.
6. VRBLK, A. and ERN, R., Proceedings of 3rd International
Conference on Chemical Technology, 13 - 15 April, Mikulov
Czech Republic (Czech Society of Industrial Chemistry, ed.), str.
91, Praha, 2015.
7. ISO 10307-1: Petroleum products Total sediment in residual
fuel oils Part 1: Determination by hot filtration, 2009.
8. ISO 10307-2: Petroleum products Total sediment in residual
fuel oils Part 2: Determination using standard procedures for
ageing, 2009.
9. STANISLAUS, A. and MARAFI, M., Catal. Today 109, 167, 2005.
10. ASTM D 4740: Standard Test Method for Cleanliness and
Compatibility of Residual Fuels by Spot Test, 2014.
Alex Cedillo, Honeywell UOP,
USA, describes how membrane
module technology developed
specifically for natural gas
applications with condensing
conditions has helped to
improve plant performance
and productivity.

MARVELLOUS
MEMBRANES
F
or more than 35 years, gas separation membranes have
been used commercially in natural gas process
applications, mostly limited to CO2 removal. Membrane
technology acceptance initially was slow and limited
because many process design parameters were largely unknown.
However, membrane technology has experienced significant
advances, and property improvements have made them more
robust and stable against common natural gas contaminants.
Membranes operating in condensing services have been used
for three specific applications: carbon dioxide enhanced oil
recovery (CO2-EOR), natural gas liquids (NGLs) recovery, and
simply to eliminate pretreatment costs in EOR applications for
NGL recovery. Market demand for these applications has been
driven by tertiary oil recovery and carbon capture and
sequestration (CCS) opportunities. Nearly 90% of CO2-EOR
projects in the world are in the US, and the opportunities for
condensing applications with high CO2 concentrations and NGL
recovery continue to increase.
The most common NGL recovery methods are:
n Recovery of NGLs from the produced gas stream. In this
scenario, the produced gas is first compressed and
dehydrated, followed by a method of NGL recovery involving
the chilling process (such as refrigeration or the
JouleThomson [JT] valve). The recovered NGL typically
contains CO2 and H2S, and requires further processing to
sweeten the stream, or is sold at lower prices as sour NGL.
Recovered CO2 is compressed to injection pressure.
n Recovery of NGLs and hydrocarbon gas from the produced
gas stream. In this case, the produced gas is first compressed
and dehydrated, followed by a method of sour NGL recovery

HYDROCARBON 27 December 2016

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Typical capacity decline of a membrane
system over time.
Figure 2. Laboratory test equipment.
Figure 3. Whiting NGL cumulative production.
Figure 4. NGL-Extract dry to wet cycle effect.
December 2016 28 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
(such as refrigeration, membrane, amine, or a combination
thereof). A gas process is then used for the separation of
hydrocarbons from the separated CO2, which is then
compressed and re-injected. The Whiting Oil & Gas plant
in Wickett, Texas, uses this processing option.
There are several advantages of using membranes as a part
of the solution for NGL recovery. Some of the key advantages
of using membranes are:
nn Membranes are ideal for bulk CO2 removal compared to
solvent systems. Since NGL recovery applications involve
feed gases with high CO2 content, economical removal of
CO2 is achieved by using membranes.
nn The ability of a membrane system to deliver a CO2-rich
stream at elevated pressure relative to an amine system
reduces the compression cost (capital and operating
expenditure) associated with CO2 reinjection. A membrane
system typically eliminates at least one stage of
compression, saving space as well.
nn Meeting and changing feed gas conditions is easier for a
membrane system due to its modular nature.
This article summarises the performance of
HoneywellUOPs NGL-Extract membrane, which is a new
membrane module product being offered for natural gas
applications in condensing conditions. NGL-Extract membranes
have been successfully commercialised since November 2015,
demonstrating significantly improved plant performance and
productivity. The high permeability of the NGL-Extract
membrane has increased gas production by nearly 70%, while
using 35% less membrane area.
The Whiting Oil and Gas Corporation sought to increase
capacity at its Wickett, Texas, plant by adding a fourth
membrane train. In the meantime, there was an immediate
benefit if the Whiting plant could process additional gas with
existing infrastructure. Honeywell UOP proposed to install
NGL-Extract membrane modules in one of Whitings skids to
test plant and product performance and process capability. The
objective was to maintain or increase production levels while
maximising NGL recovery and maintaining or reducing operating
costs.
The NGL-Extract membranes have been operating
successfully since November 2015. The Wickett plant has three
membrane trains processing approximately 211millionft3/d of
feed gas with 96.5 mole% CO2. The feed gas is dehydrated via a
temperature swing adsorption (TSA) unit and the dew point is
controlled to less than 34F.
The membrane separation is performed in two steps. The
first membrane stage operates at <360 psig of pressure, while
the second membrane stage operates at <580 psig of pressure.
Valuable NGLs are produced as the membrane separates CO2
from the feed stream. The Joule-Thomson effect takes place
due to the CO2 expansion, as the CO2 is permeating through the
membrane, causing the feed temperature to decrease. The plant
recovers NGLs after the two stages, which are recombined and
sent to a common separator. The average liquid production is
approximately 315 bpd. The CO2 concentration in the product
gas stream from the first stage ranges from 60% to 75%
depending upon existing membrane conditions and age.
Gas removal capacity of membranes declines over time.
Membrane system designs take this into consideration and are
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 and would material balance. NGL samples were taken and
analysed before and after the skid startup.
Field data collection was executed in two levels:
nn Level 1: data collected from the entire skid. For the first
four weeks data was recorded on a daily basis; data
recordings were then reduced to twice a week.
nn Level 2: data collected for the single bank of elements.
For the first four weeks data was recorded on a daily
basis; recordings were then reduced to twice a week.
Three NGL-Extract elements were retrieved from one of
the banks to evaluate their mechanical integrity and measuring
membrane intrinsic performance.

Figure 5. CO2 rate and selectivity versus CO2 Laboratory tests

concentration in condensing conditions. Condensing conditions were also simulated in the laboratory
to complement the commercial data collected. A three by
four factorial laboratory design of experiment (DOE) matrix
Table 1. Performance comparison before and was created. To simulate condensing mode conditions the
after element change out laboratory DOE considers the variation of pressure,
Before After Change (%) temperature, carbon dioxide concentrations, and the amount
Feed flow 21 36 71% of liquid loading in the feed stream. There was also a study of
(millionft3/d) the effect of ageing on the membrane, and a cycle test
NGL (bpd) 1250 1300 4% between dry and condensing conditions to simulate the
shutdown and startup cycle of a commercial system. Figure 2
Gain in annual revenue US$0.67 million
sweet NGL shows the laboratory equipment setup used in testing the
NGL-Extract membrane.
Gain in annual sales gas US$0.69 million
revenue
(@US$/millionBtu) Results
Total gain in annual US$1.36 million
revenue Field test
(NGL + sales gas) Honeywell UOP proposed loading 35% less membrane area in
Skid membrane area 30% the skid to process the same amount of gas prior to loading
reduction the NGL-Extract elements. The plant originally produced an
Calculated based on NGL composite price at Mont Belview, average of 1250 bpd of NGL while the skid was processing
Texas, closing at US$4.92/million Btu dtd. 31 August 2016 approximately 21 million ft3/d. After the NGL-Extract elements
and spot NG price (Henry Hub) of US$2.94/million Btu dtd. were loaded, the feed flow rate increased to 36 million ft3/d
31August 2016. and the NGL plant production increased to 1300 bpd. With
less membrane area, the improvement is significant, providing
supplied with enough membrane area to compensate for a capacity increase of 72% and a plant NGL production rate
capacity decline over the expected service life. The graph in increase of 8%. Figure 3 shows the cumulative plant NGL
Figure 1 shows the nature of expected capacity decline over production at Whiting before and after loading NGL-Extract
time for a cellulose acetate membrane system in CO2 removal elements. The readings in November show an NGL rate
service. This capacity decline strongly depends upon decline due to plant compressor problems, which were fixed
operating pressure, temperature, feed gas composition, and at the end of the month.
membrane material. In general, capacity declines follow an Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene (BTEX) are
exponential trend. The majority of the capacity decline components that negatively affect membrane performance.
happens rapidly within the first few months of operation, and NGL analysis indicates that there is 1060 ppm of BTEX in liquid
is then followed by gradual decline over the remaining life of phase, which showed no negative impact on the membrane
the system. rate and selectivity.
Honeywell UOPs NGL-Extract membranes have been
Field test successfully operating since November 2015. The skid
One of the plants membrane skids was fully loaded with continues to process 36 million ft3/d of gas, maintaining an
NGL-Extract elements, except for one bank (a skid contains a average NGL production rate of 1320 bpd.
total of six banks with four tubes per bank). This particular Three NGL-Extract elements were retrieved from the skid
bank had a staged number of membrane elements in each and returned to Honeywell UOP testing facilities for further
tube, as the number of elements loaded in each tube evaluation. The first element to process the feed stream
increased to test the NGL-Extract individually and operated in dry conditions. The next two elements were
collectively. exposed to liquid hydrocarbon during operation. All three
For a high performance assessment, special attention was elements were tested for mechanical integrity and membrane
given to skid instrumentation to ensure the data was accurate performance, and all three elements demonstrated good

December 2016 30 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
performance after testing at standard quality control (QC)

Feeling a pinch
conditions.

Laboratory tests
The DOE provided information which defined the membrane
optimum performance boundaries.
in your process?
Laboratory test results showed that as the CO2 feed
concentration increased in the presence of liquid hydrocarbon,
the membrane permeability increases up to 30%, while the
selectivity decay can be as low as 10%. Open it up with
TWISTED TUBE
Cycling the membrane between condensing and dry
conditions was completed to simulate a skid shutdown and
startup in which the membrane was completely depressurised
and partially dried, then exposed to liquid hydrocarbon again.
The results presented in Figure 4 show no membrane Heat Exchanger
performance decay during the cycling process, demonstrating
the robustness of the NGL-Extract membrane. Figure 4 shows technology!
the three day cycling study. Through each cycle sequence, the
membrane performance tends to stabilise with time in the
presence of liquid hydrocarbon. Common applications
Laboratory tests (Figure 5) also revealed that when dry include:
NGL-Extract membrane is first exposed to liquid Crude preheat
hydrocarbons, the permeability and selectivity loss decreases exchangers
as the CO2 feed concentration increases. Overhead condensers
Similarly, as the temperature increases the membrane Reboilers
permeability and selectivity loss decreases. The dominant
Feed / Effluent
factors for both membrane permeability and selectivity loss
exchangers in:
are CO2 concentration followed by the temperature.
Hydrocracking
Conclusion Hydrotreating
Honeywell UOP NGL-Extract, developed specifically for (diesel or naptha)
natural gas applications with condensing conditions, has been Reforming
successfully tested and commercialised. NGL-Extract has
demonstrated significant improvement in plant capacity and
productivity. The high permeability of the NGL-Extract
membrane has increased gas production by nearly 70% while The drop-in solution for increased flows, greater heat
using 35% less membrane area. Field and laboratory results recovery and reduced pressure drops. TWISTED TUBE
confirm NGL-Extract robustness in the presence of BTEX while
Heat Exchanger technology is your solution for
operating at high CO2 concentrations.
The production increase and the resulting economic enhancing the performance of your shell & tube heat
benefits at the Whiting Gas plant are shown in Table 1. exchangers.
Despite plant process interruptions, the NGL-Extract
continues to exceed expectations. Furthermore, the evaluation
of the three elements retrieved from the field indicated the Tube-side Flow Shell-side Flow
mechanical integrity of the membranes was not compromised.
Membrane systems offer a flexible solution to gas
processing requirements associated with NGL recovery. With
relative ease of operation and simplicity of maintenance,
membranes are the technology of choice for NGL recovery
and bulk removal and reinjection of CO2. Current research and
product developments from Honeywell UOP have helped the
Whiting Gas plant push beyond its original design basis,
allowing for increased product revenue at a reduced
operating cost.

Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank Gary Norwood of Whiting Oil
& Gas in Wickett, Texas, who provided expertise and
operational data that assisted the performance and analysis of
Honeywell UOPs solution. For related trademark
information, visit:

www.kochheattransfer.com
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WEIGHING UP
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iven the global challenges of investing in new gas
processing capital projects, unlocking the potential of Gary Bowerbank, Pavan Chilukuri
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Such solvent swaps can bring a range of benefits, including:
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studies that demonstrate
the value of solvent
swaps for enabling the
treatment of higher
contaminated feed gas (case 1),
reducing operational expenditure and reducing
solvent degradation products (case 2) and meeting tighter product
specifications (case 3) to increase plant profitability.
In addition to the technical elements, effective execution is
important for the success of solvent swaps in brownfield assets.
Through its owner-operator-licensor experience, and
the execution of numerous solvent swaps
worldwide, Shell has developed best practices
for solvent swaps. The due diligence regarding
risk assessments, logistics, updating of
procedures, etc., is emphasised, and the
potential benefits of offline and on the
run solvent swaps are discussed.

Modern technology
solvents
In the current economic climate,
there may be little appetite for
investing in complex greenfield gas
processing projects. However,
competition remains intense and
operators are seeking ways to
unlock the potential of existing
operating facilities without major
investments.

HYDROCARBON 33 December 2016

ENGINEERING

Table 1. Original and new feed gas contaminant
levels and treated gas specifications
Original design New condition
Feed gas H2S content, mol % 1.0 2.0
Feed gas CO2 content, mol % 2.5 3.3
Relative feed gas flow, % 100 100
Treated gas H2S 3.5
specification, ppmv
Figure 1. Existing process lineup.
Figure 2. Option 1 process lineup.
Figure 3. Option 2 process lineup.
One way to create additional revenue, with minimal
expenditure, is to swap the solvents in existing gas processing
trains. When unit performance is satisfactory, there may not be
a strong case for upgrading to newer technology solvents such
as ADIP-X and Sulfinol-X. However, when operators seek to
increase capacity, reduce energy consumption, achieve deeper
contaminant removal or reduce solvent degradation without
major investment, a solvent swap can be an attractive option.
Case study 1: treating higher
contaminated feed gas
This case study presents a scenario where a gas plant operating
company needed to process feed gas with higher H2S content
(almost double) and 30% more CO2 than it was designed for,
while meeting the same treated gas specifications (Table 1). The
December 2016 34 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
existing process configuration employs Sulfinol-D solvent
(Figure 1).
The plant operator asked Shell Global Solutions to
evaluate the options for upgrading the performance of its gas
treating unit. Two options were considered.
Option 1: new pretreatment acid gas removal
unit
A new acid gas removal unit was considered, which would
include an absorption system, a flash drum, a regeneration
system and, depending on the acid gas quality, an acid gas
enrichment section (Figure 2). The new pretreatment unit
would reduce the feed gas H2S and CO2 content to the design
values for the existing Sulfinol-D system. However, such
equipment would require considerable capital investment,
need space and add operational complexity, which would
likely reduce unit reliability.
Option 2: solvent swap to Sulfinol-X
Detailed evaluation showed the relative unit performance
improvement for Sulfinol-X compared with the existing
solvent (Table 2). This demonstrated that the treated gas H2S,
CO2, COS and mercaptan specifications could be achieved
with a similar solvent circulation rate. The lean solvent
temperature to the absorber column would also be similar.
Reboiler duty and steam consumption would be
approximately 9% higher owing to the much higher acid gas
flow. However, the higher reboiler duty was within the
equipment design specifications, so there would be no need
to modify the reboiler. Indeed, the evaluation work showed
that the solvent change would not require any major
equipment modification. Sulfinol-X has similar fluid properties
to Sulfinol-D, so the swap would have no impact on pump
seals or seal material and the solvent circulation would be
within the operating range of the pumps.
Sulfinol-X has a higher loading capacity than Sulfinol-D,
which is why higher amounts of H2S and CO2 can be
removedfrom the feed gas at the same solvent rate.
Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) reacts 1:1 with CO2, whereas
diisopropanol amine (DIPA) reacts 2:1. Consequently, it is
possible to load an accelerated MDEA-based solvent more
(upto 1molCO2/mol amine) compared with a DIPA-based
solvent (up to 0.5molCO2/mol amine). This provides
operational cost savings, as less solvent pumping and heating
duty are required, and helps to debottleneck capacity for
existing Sulfinol-D units.
Sulfinol-X offers faster CO2 and COS reaction kinetics than
Sulfinol-D. Its faster CO2 reaction and different reaction heat
gives Sulfinol-X a different temperature profile in the absorber
to that of Sulfinol-D.
Hydrocarbon co-absorption by the solvent would be
lower with Sulfinol-X compared with Sulfinol-D because of its
different composition. Consequently, there would be less
hydrocarbon content in the acid gas, which would mean that
the Claus unit would need less air and have more room for a
capacity increase.
Comparison of options
The proposed solvent swap would require very little capital
expenditure, as there would be no major equipment

Table 2. Unit performance modelling results for
Sulfinol-X, relative to Sulfinol-D
Sulfinol-X
Relative feed gas flow, % 100
Relative solvent circulation flow, % 100
Relative acid gas flow, % 133
Relative reboiler duty, % 109*
Relative steam consumption, % 109*
*The increase in reboiler duty and steam consumption is due to
much higher acid gas content in feed gas.
Figure 4. Proposed lineup.
modification. The operating costs would also be considerably
lower than for a new pretreatment unit. Following a solvent
swap, the unit would have the same operational complexity. In
contrast, the installation of a new pretreatment unit would
increase operational complexity and most likely reduce plant
reliability.
The evaluation concluded that a solvent swap to
Sulfinol-X would be the most attractive option for meeting
the new feed gas contaminant levels. It would provide the
existing unit with the means to treat more highly
contaminated feed gas at considerably lower capital
investment and operating expenditure than the alternative,
while maintaining the same level of operability and reliability.
Case study 2: solvent losses and
degradation
A Middle Eastern operator needed to process contaminated
gas in its gas sweetening unit. The design used a DIPA-based
solvent. The DIPA reacts with CO2 to form carbamate, which
reacts irreversibly to form oxazolidone. In this case, the high
partial pressure of CO2 would have led to an accelerated
buildup of DIPA-oxazolidone and other related degradation
products.
Even though the DIPA-based Sulfinol solvent had been
performing well, continuing to use this solvent with the feed
gas containing a high CO2 volume would have meant higher
operational expenditure through frequent solvent
replenishment or the additional capital cost of a new solvent
reclamation unit, due to DIPA contribution to the solvent
degradation.
The operator worked with Shell Global Solutions to find
an alternative solution. A solvent swap to Sulfinol-X was
proposed. The solvent swap was made without needing
additional capital costs. With Sulfinol-X, the gas sweetening
unit met the required specifications for CO2 and sulfur (H2S,
COS and mercaptans) removal using a similar solvent
circulation rate. Compared to Sulfinol-D, for the same
December 2016 36 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
sulfolane content, Sulfinol-X requires a lower reboiler duty to
remove the same amount of CO2 in the regenerator, as the
overall heat of reaction for the accelerated MDEA is lower
than that of DIPA. In this example, the reboiler duty was
approximately 10% lower compared to the Sulfinol-D case.
The solvent change did not require any equipment
modification to the gas sweetening unit or the downstream
units. The solvent circulation requirement was within the
operating range of the pumps and had no effect on pump
seals or seal materials. The composition chosen for Sulfinol-X
was within the material selection guidelines for
sulfolanebased solvents, so there was no impact on material
selection from the solvent change.
In addition to avoiding frequent solvent replenishment,
or a new solvent reclamation unit, the performance of the
unit was checked for a higher gas throughput. The unit can
handle 10% additional gas throughput with approximately
12% higher solvent circulation rate. The solvent composition
for Sulfinol-X has lower sulfolane content compared to
Sulfinol-D. This gives a lower solvent temperature in the
reboiler and, hence, increased reboiler capacity. In this
example, reboiler duty was limiting capacity, so, instead of
reducing reboiler duty (steam requirement), the reboiler was
kept close to full capacity to be able to increase the gas
processing capacity.
The unit has been running successfully with Sulfinol-X for
a significant number of consecutive years.
Case study 3: meeting tighter gas
specifications
A gas processing operating company wanted to reduce the
total sulfur content of its final product to meet tighter gas
specifications. In collaboration with Shell Global Solutions, a
solvent swap from diethanolamine (DEA) to Sulfinol-X was
proposed.
Detailed evaluation as part of a feasibility study showed
that using Sulfinol-X in the absorber (Figure 4) would reduce
the total sulfur content in the treated gas to the target levels.
Swapping to Sulfinol-X would reduce the mercaptan
content in the treated gas from the absorber. The regeneration
gas could be used as fuel and its lower sulfur content would
help to ease boiler corrosion issues.
Evaluation demonstrated that Sulfinol-X would remove
H2S, CO2, mercaptans, COS and organic sulfides to the
required treated gas product specifications in a single process.
This would cut the equipment count significantly compared
with alternative multi-process lineups and, thus, reduce capital
costs. With fewer equipment items to operate and maintain,
unit availability should increase and operating costs should
decrease. Operating costs could also be reduced, as Sulfinol-X
has a lower steam requirement for stripping of the absorbed
acid gases compared with alternative aqueous amine solvents.
Effective solvent swap execution
In addition to getting the best technical solution for each
opportunity, achieving effective project execution is
important for the success of solvent swaps in brownfield
assets. Through its experience and execution of numerous
solvent swaps worldwide, Shell has developed best practices
for solvent swaps, built on continuous improvements during
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 50 years. The company has designed and commercialised
more than 250 operating units to date.
To prepare for an effective solvent swap, the following
factors should be considered as part of the sites management
of change process:
nn The adequacy/capacity of the existing unit design,
including, for example, the relief capacity and tray
hydraulics.
nn The new heat and material balance resulting from the
changed temperature profile of the unit and new solvent.
nn Update of site hazard register and chemical safety
datasheets.
nn Reconfiguration of flow and level instruments in response
to the new solvent properties.
nn Turndown limitations, which may be an issue in some
cases, for example, the flash gas pressure control valve
and the regenerator reflux loop.
nn The requirement for new or additional stainless steel
cladding in certain column sections, although
temperatures are generally lower.
nn The requirement to clean the unit thoroughly beforehand.
nn Assessment of solvent quality with potential to reuse in
the new solvent.
nn Onsite storage of new and existing solvents, and
washwater, and the eventual disposal of the existing
solvent inventory.
nn The prevention of cross-train contamination through
common facilities and connections needs in the case of
multiple trains and a staggered solvent swap. This might
require additional facilities, for example, a drain vessel and
solvent storage.
In performing due diligence ahead of a solvent swap, risk
assessments, logistics, updating of procedures and shutdown
planning (if required) need to be considered.
Solvent swap: on the run versus
offline
Depending on the similarity of the new and existing solvent
ingredients, the solvent swap can be performed on the run or
offline. For example, a solvent swap from MDEA to Sulfinol-X
may (if the existing solvent is of acceptable quality) be
performed on the run, while a solvent swap from Sulfinol-D to
ADIP-X or Sulfinol-X needs to be offline.
On the run solvent swaps are performed while the unit is
in operation. In this case, it is recommended to reduce the
feed gas flow rate and consequently the solvent rate, change
the activated carbon filter and perform hydrocarbon skimming
in the unit before the solvent swap. The new solvent
ingredients, for example sulfolane, for a solvent swap from
MDEA to Sulfinol-M, can be added to the storage tank (buffer
vessel or regenerator sump) and then pumped back gradually
to the unit until the desired solvent composition is achieved.
Water will also need to be bled from the system via the reflux
to reduce the water content and maintain the overall
inventory. Following confirmation of the right solvent
composition, the solvent rate and gas rate can be gradually
increased to normal operating levels. While performing the
solvent swap procedure, the following operating parameters
have to be constantly monitored:
nn Treated gas composition at the absorber outlet.
December 2016 38 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
nn Absorber pressure and temperature profile.
nn Acid gas composition and flow rate.
nn Regenerator operating parameters.
nn Mechanical filter pressure drop.
An offline solvent swap is performed while the unit is in
shutdown. In general, the following steps need to be
followed:
nn Draining of the existing solvent inventory.
nn Hot water wash and draining of washwater.
nn Second water wash and draining of water wash.
nn Loading of the new solvent.
It is prudent to align an offline solvent swap with a unit
turnaround and a thorough cleaning of the unit to ensure
best performance on restart. The number of days required for
offline solvent swap depends on the size of the unit and
whether it is performed during a turnaround or cleaning
event. The time needed for each step is estimated based on
the inventory and the planned activities. At least two
complete water washes of the system are typically required.
For example, when swapping from Sulfinol-D to ADIP-X, the
residual Sulfinol-D level in the final rinse water should be less
than 1.0 wt%, and the wash water is typically heated and
circulated for 8 - 12 hours.
Conclusion
Solvent swaps can help to increase revenue from existing gas
processing trains with no or minimal capital expenditure.
The first of three case studies demonstrated the value of
swapping to Sulfinol-X for treating more highly contaminated
feed gas at considerably lower capital investment and
operating expenditure than an alternative pretreatment
option, while maintaining the same level of operability and
reliability.
In the second case study, a switch to Sulfinol-X to treat gas
with a high CO2 content reduced solvent losses and solvent
degradation without any equipment modification
requirements. The improved solvent performance avoided the
need for high operational expenditure through frequent
solvent replenishment or the additional capital cost of a new
solvent reclamation unit. The unit is capable of handling 10%
additional gas throughput with an approximately 12% higher
solvent circulation rate.
The final case study shows how a gas processing operating
company can meet tighter treated gas product specifications
in a single process using Sulfinol-X. This would cut the
equipment count significantly compared with alternative
multi-process lineups and, thus, reduce capital costs.
In addition to the technical elements, effective execution
is important for the success of solvent swaps in brownfield
assets. In certain circumstances, an on the run solvent swap,
which avoids shutting down the unit, can be performed with
appropriate procedures and monitoring.
Notes
This article is based on a paper first presented at the
MiddleEast Sulphur Plant Operations Network (MESPON)
2016, which took place form 9 - 11 October in Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates.

E
quipment malfunction or unplanned shutdown of an
amine system can have a devastating effect on both
profits and the environment. The goal of this article is
to determine and focus the natural gas industrys
attention on the main threats to a facilities reliability. These
threats were identified by analysing 300cases of amine system
failures investigated by AmineExperts over the last 18years for
the root causes of the corrosion, foaming, hydraulic
restrictions and specification problems that have limited or
crippled gas processing facilities around the world. The most
prevalent causes of failure in amine systems in gas processing
are determined, and strategies to prevent these are given.
Amine systems function by absorbing the hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) and/or carbon dioxide (CO2) from hydrocarbon
streams into the circulating liquid amine solvent. This is
carried out in a contactor/absorber column and allows for
the hydrocarbon product to be further processed,
Philip le Grange, Mike Sheilan and
Ben Spooner, Amine Experts, a
division of Sulphur Experts, Inc.,
evaluate the evidence surrounding
why amine systems fail in natural
gas treating systems.
transported and sold without the corrosive potential and
dangers associated with H2S and CO2. The amine solution is
then regenerated in the regenerator/still/stripper column by
decreasing the pressure and adding heat, which releases the
H2S and CO2 from the amine solution so that it may be
reused. The H2S and CO2 may be further processed, reinjected
or incinerated.
Failure of an amine system to deliver its rated capacity of
on-specification product can have a devastating effect on
production and the environment. The authors have analysed
several hundred cases from Amine Experts field
troubleshooting history, as well as cases from literature, to
ascertain the most frequently occurring root causes of these
failures. The intention behind this article is to use historical
lessons from the industry to focus the attention of plant
personnel on the best strategies to provide the most
significant risk reductions to production reliability.
HYDROCARBON 39 December 2016
ENGINEERING
 article. The cost in terms of lost production ranged from
US$250000 to US$250 million per case, with the lost production
from all the failures in this database representing several billion
dollars worth of production losses for the industry.
The types of production failures experienced fall broadly
into five categories: off-specification hydrocarbon product,
corrosion, foaming, flooding and excessive amine loss (excluding
foaming losses). The relative frequency of their occurrence
specific to natural gas treatment (148cases) is shown in Figure 1.
From the figure, it is clear that the most frequent failure areas
facing the gas processing industry are foaming, product quality
and corrosion.
Figure 1. Number of cases of critical failure in natural
gas plants.
Foaming
Foaming occurs when gas is mechanically incorporated into the
amine liquid phase, resulting in a froth in which gas bubbles are
surrounded by a liquid film. The formation and stability of the
foam tends to be more strongly dependent on surface
characteristics of the liquid phase than physical conditions such
as temperature and pressure.1 A foaming amine plant is
characterised by high and erratic differential pressure
measurements in the absorber and/or regenerator columns.2 It
may also exhibit fluctuating level measurements and erratic flow
valve positions and, generally, results in reduced treating
efficiency, amine carryover to downstream systems and loss of
production capacity.
Root causes of amine plant foaming have been divided into
Figure 2. Root causes of foaming in natural gas 12 categories (Figure 2). 36 of the 46 recorded cases of amine
treating systems. system foaming in natural gas treating plants were found to have
foam promoting contaminants entering the plant with the feed.
From this finding it becomes evident that the proper treatment
Table 1. Inlet contaminants of the feed gas is key to lowering the foaming risk in gas plants.
Solid Liquid There are numerous potential feed gas contaminants
(Table1) that can promote or stabilise foaming. In order to
Scale Compressor lube oils
remove these before they enter the amine system and
Desiccant fines Hydrocarbon condensates
accumulate, a combination of three phase separators, knock out
Corrosion products Amines drums, particle filters and coalescing filters are typically used. For
Dirt (silica, sand, etc.) Glycols certain feed streams with unconventional contaminants, water
Iron sulfides Pipeline chemicals washes and silica gel beds may also be necessary.
It is critical that inlet separation equipment is attentively
Iron oxides Completion fluids
monitored and well maintained. A good review of these systems
Adamantane/diamantane Condensed water and how to operate them correctly is given in the paper by
Well brines Sheilan and Engel.3 Specific areas to be cognisant of include:
Organic acids nn Differential pressure over a filter should rise gradually with
time. Zero differential pressure for long periods of time is
To the authors knowledge, this is the first time that such not indicative of healthy filter operation and should be
a database has been compiled and published, specifically investigated.
focused on amine systems in natural gas plants. While the nn Differential pressure instruments should be in good working
root causes of these failures are not revelations to the order and operating limits not exceeded to prevent particle
filter and coalescing cartridge blow out.
industry, the frequency and likelihood of specific root causes
nn Cartridges that are present in particle filters and coalescers
occurring, relative to other common root causes, has not
should be installed correctly and securely to prevent
previously been qualified to this level of detail.
bypassing; filter cartridge elements are only as good as the
sealing surface between the element and the vessel, so care
Failure types must be taken during the cleaning and installation stages to
Of the 300 cases compiled in the study, 243 come from Amine ensure very close seals.
Experts field troubleshooting reports, with an additional nn Level control instruments and valves should be maintained
57being sourced from literature or other industry experts. In in good working order for equipment to function.
consideration of these cases, situations where production was
heavily impacted and an in-depth onsite analysis was carried out In gas plant service, the majority of foaming incidents
were looked at by an AmineExperts consultant or author of the occurred in the absorber or throughout the whole system. There

December 2016 40 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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Figure 3. Root causes of product going
offspecification in natural gas treating systems.
Figure 4. Root causes of corrosion in natural gas
treating systems.
Figure 5. Corrosion locations in natural gas treating
systems.
were very few cases of regenerator only foaming recorded in
the natural gas industry. This is a result of the large role that inlet
contamination plays in foaming incidents, as the first area to
come into contact with surfactants in an inlet contamination
incident is the amine absorber. Once the amine has been
contaminated, foaming will continue until the contaminant has
been removed or diluted. In these cases, antifoam injection,
flash tank skimming, reflux purges and proper operation or
maintenance of the particle filter and carbon bed are critical.
Off-specification product
Gas leaving an amine absorber must meet certain H2S and CO2
specifications. It was determined that the most common
December 2016 42 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
reasons for gas to be off-specification are high lean loading or
improper amine temperature (Figure 3).
The idea behind the counter-current flow between gas
and amine in an absorber tower is that the last thing the gas
comes into contact with is the cleanest possible amine
(i.e.,with the lowest amount of acid species). The reason this is
important is because the H2S in the gas phase will be in
equilibrium with the H2S in the liquid amine solution. This
means the more H2S in the lean amine entering the top of the
tower, by default, the more H2S will remain in the treated gas.
This effect is more pronounced the lower the overall pressure
of the absorber.
Having high lean loading as the root of a production failure
may be a result of insufficient heat being supplied in the
reboiler, insufficient contact with steam in the regenerator
column or the contamination of the amine with a strong base.
Strong base contamination is often the result of an over
vigorous addition of sodium or potassium ions, in order to
neutralise acidic components that build up in the system over
time.
Furthermore, there were 18 cases of insufficient exchanger
duty in the database, with duty limitations in the reboiler being
at the root of more than half of these cases. A reboiler duty
limitation in turn results in a high lean loading and puts the
product off-specification. Thus, high lean loadings are a
dominant precursor to off-specification production and should
be monitored frequently.
Depending on the desired specification for H2S and CO2,
the lean amine temperature can play a large role in treated gas
composition. Lower lean amine temperatures will result in lower
H2S and high CO2 values in the treated gas. For this reason, the
industry standard is to maintain lean amine temperatures at
50C (122F) or lower (although there are plenty of exceptions).
Higher pressure absorbers and better regenerated amines
are more resistant to temperature effects. A good tactic for a
plant struggling to meet specification as a result of amine
cooling limitations is to lower the lean loading by increasing the
stripping of the amine solution.
Corrosion
Corrosion is described in many ways, but primarily it is the
destruction of a metal by the electrical or electrochemical
reaction with its environment. In the case of amine units, the
environment includes a number of serious corrosion promoters,
such as acid gases (H2S and CO2), heat stable salts and their acid
precursors, chelants (that can remove any protective films that
may be formed), velocity and high temperature.
Historically, hydrogen embrittlement or hydrogeninduced
cracking (HIC) has been a frequent cause of corrosion in the
amine industry. However, most facilities built post-1990 use HIC
resistant steels and, with the widespread adoption of post-weld
heat treating, this form of corrosion is no longer the scourge to
the industry that it was before the 1990s.
Figure 4 provides a summary of the probable conditions
that led to the corrosion failures. Figure 5 provides a summary of
the corrosion locations where localised failures have occurred.
Almost 75% of the locations are related to zones in the plant
where temperatures are higher, with almost 50% of corrosion
incidents occurring in the reboiler and bottom section of the
amine regenerator column, which is connected to the reboiler.
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Figure 6. Reboiler housing corroded by excessive
acid gas breakout.
With the exception of ionisation, corrosion in amine units is
always highly localised (uncontaminated amine is in fact a
corrosion inhibitor). The key to troubleshooting corrosion
incidences is to determine the local mechanism, and then
determine why that particular part of the plant failed to be
protected from corrosion. In natural gas plants, the majority of
corrosion is related to acid gas breakout and the subsequent
attack of the metal surface, usually at areas of elevated
temperature. Since corrosion is a chemical reaction, high
temperatures will always accelerate corrosion activity because
reactions occur faster and more aggressively at higher
temperatures.
Under-stripping is a situation where a large amount of the
acid gases in the rich amine are stripped in the reboiler (Figure 6)
rather than in the regenerator column, making it the easiest
form of corrosion to prevent. Excessive amine stripping in the
reboiler will often result in pitting type corrosion in the reboiler
and lower regenerator. This is avoided by maintaining adequate
heat medium flow to the reboiler. Industry guidelines vary
between advising that 95- 99% of the acid gases present in the
rich amine are stripped in the regenerator rather than the
reboiler.
Good amine system hygiene is vital in preventing corrosion
and requires limitation of the potentially corrosive
contaminants that may buildup in the system. These
contaminants include: solids, degradation products, heat stable
amine salts and amino acids.
Solids in the amine system
Solids in the amine system contribute to corrosion via the
erosion of the metal or the passivation layers protecting it. Total
suspended solids should ideally be kept below 10ppmw based
on a 0.45 m absolute filter test of the solution. Real solids
levels in the system will differ as a result of increased solubility
of many solid precipitates with pH, agitation and temperature.
Adequate mechanical filtration and maintenance of the filters is,
thus, indispensable.3 Under deposit corrosion is also a very real
possibility if solids are allowed to settle anywhere in the unit.
Heat stable amine salts
Heat stable amine salts (HSAS) form via a reaction of the
amine with a contaminant acid that typically enters the
December 2016 44 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
system with the feedstock. The resulting acid-amine salt that
forms is not readily regenerable at amine system stripping
conditions, and is hence called heat stable.
HSAS build up to levels greater than 3 wt% significantly
increases the corrosive potential in the system. This is a
standard industry guideline that is generally consistent with
the information in the database; however, there were some
cases where corrosion was observed at lower levels. Heat
stable salts can be removed from an amine system by several
methods:
nn Amine replacement.
nn Ion-exchange.
nn Electrodialysis.
nn Vacuum distillation.
nn Thermal reclamation with base addition.
nn Neutralisation to HSS (limited due to precipitation and
corrosive potential).
Degradation products
Degradation products will build up within the amine system
over time as a result of thermal exposure and the reaction of
amine with CO2 or O2. Some degradation products are
corrosive and levels should be regularly monitored and kept
within vendor recommended limits. Limiting reboiler tube
temperatures to less than 165C (330F) will largely eliminate
thermal degradation in an amine system. Degradation
products are normally removed via installed thermal
reclaiming or vacuum distillation, depending on the amine
type.
Amino acids
Amino acids develop in amine systems as a result of the
ingress of oxidising components, e.g., O2, SO2 and SX, into an
amine system causing oxidative degradation of the amine
followed by subsequent reaction to amino acids. Bicine is one
of several amino acids found in amine systems and has been
linked to corrosion.6, 7, 8 Bicine functions as a chelant,
increasing the solubility of iron in amine by a factor of just
under 500.8 While several industry limits have been proposed
for bicine, a review of the data does not reveal any
consistency in the level at which bicine will corrode a system.
This may be due to the presence of other amino acids9
(e.g.,HES) that have historically not been analysed in amine
systems. Amino acids can be partially removed by ion
exchange and electrodialysis techniques or completely
removed by vacuum distillation.
Conclusion
Foaming, off-specification product and corrosion are the three
biggest challenges in reliably operating amine units and have
cost the industry billions of dollars over the last 30 years.
Foaming problems in gas plants have been found to be due,
predominantly (75%), to inlet contamination of the feed with
impurities that have surface tension affecting properties.
Adequate inlet separation equipment and proper maintenance
of existing equipment is critical.
Product not meeting its H2S specification is most commonly
caused by high lean amine loadings and incorrect amine
temperatures. Corrosion is the most complex operational issue
to troubleshoot, as well as the biggest health, safety and

environment (HSE) risk. In a well designed system, that does not
have a significant prior history of corrosion, the biggest risk
factors are the amine solution quality and excessive reduction
of the heat medium to the reboiler.
Review of the catastrophic failures of 148 gas plants
showed that approximately 50% of the failures could
havebeen eliminated if the following had been in
place/performed:
nn Adequate and well maintained inlet separation equipment.
nn Proper regeneration of the solvent, such that lean amine
loading is low and the bulk of the regeneration occurs in
the regenerator.
nn Regular solvent quality
monitoring and having a
strategy to maintain HSAS,
degradation products,
amino acids and solids
within acceptable limits.
survey', Oiland Gas J., 5June 1989, pp. 45 - 52.
5. SHEILAN, M., VAN HOORNE, E. and SPOONER, B., 'Iron Sulphide: Friend or
Foe', 57th Annual Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference, 2007.
6. CRITCHFIELD, J. E. and JENKINS, J. L., 'Evidence of MDEA degradation in
tail gas treating plants', Petroleum Technology Quarterly, Spring 1999,
pp. 87 - 95.
7. BOSEN, S. F and BEDELL, S. A., 'The Relevance of Bicine in the
Corrosion of Amine Gas Treating Plants', NACE Paper No. 04481,
NACECorrosion 2004.
8. CUMMINGS, A. L., WAITE, S. W. and NELSEN, D. K., 'Corrosion and
Corrosion Enhancers in Amine Systems', Brimstone Conference,
Alberta, April 2005.
9. CLOSMANN, F., THOMPSEN, J. and SCHUETTE, G., 'Advances in the
Identification of Amino Acids and other products in degraded amine',
63rd Annual Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference, 2013.

Based on these findings it is

advised that plant operators
recite the following motto on a
daily basis: separators on, heat YOUR COMPETITIVE EDGE IN
in, salts out.

Acknowledgement PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER TECHNOLOGY

The authors would like to
acknowledge the
AmineExperts consultants
whose fieldwork and Do you need accurate heat exchanger technology for
experience provided the cases
for this database. They would real-world situations? Software and technical services to help
also like to thank the authors you design equipment that performs under the broadest range
ofthe external cases who have of operating conditions? IF SO, YOU CAN RELY ON US.
published their experiences
with sufficient care and detail
that others might learn from
them. HTRI is a leading provider of products
and services that help engineers
Note RESEARCH
around the world rate, simulate,
This article is based on a paper
design, and enhance the performance
first presented at the
GPAEurope Annual Conference
of heat exchangers. Our extensive TECHNICAL
on 21-23September 2016 in expertise is the result of more than SERVICES
Athens, Greece. 50 years of applied research
conducted in our industrially relevant
References testing facilities. We deliver research, TRAINING
1. SHEILAN, M. H., SPOONER, B.H.
and VAN HOORN, E., 'Amine technical services, training, support,
Treating and Sour Water
Stripping, 10th Ed.', Amine and software, including our acclaimed
Experts 10thEd., 2015. Xchanger Suite, to assure our SOFTWARE
2. KPHL, A. L. and RIESENFELD,F.C.,
'Gas Purification', 3rd Edition, customers the highest operating
GulfPublishing Company, 1979.
confidence in equipment designed
3. SHEILAN, M. H. and ENGEL,D., TECHNICAL
'The Seven Deadly Sins of using our technology.
Filtration & Separation Systems SUPPORT
in Gas Processing Operations',
GasProcessors Association
Annual European Chapter
Conference, 2015.
4. RICHERT, J. P., BAGDASARIAN,A.J.
and SHARGAY, C. A., 'Extent
of stress corrosion cracking Visit www.htri.net
in amine plants revealed by
to learn more.
 COVER
FEATURE

Brad Cook,
SabinMetalsCorporation,
USA, discusses how
petroleum and petrochemical
refiners can enhance bottom
line profits by adjusting their
precious metal management
programmes.

December 2016 46 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
I
n lean times, cost effective internal policies ensure a company's survival.
Oil refining production revenues in the billions often appear to dwarf the
millions spent on precious metal catalysts, but mismanagement of these
high value materials can hit a company directly in the bottom line.
In many ways, the management of precious metal commodities is
counterintuitive, and therefore this article will present a look inside the world
of precious metals in order to demonstrate why and how a precious metals
management programme should be open to adaptation.

Platinum group metals

Platinum group metals (PGMs) are used in the production of a wide range of
everyday products, such as contact lenses, razors, mobile phones, fibreglass,
ibuprofen, pacemakers, fertilizer, cars, planes and boats, as well as in
applications such as eye surgery. These are but a few of the ways that this
group of elements (platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and
osmium) have changed, and continue to change, the quality of human life
around the world.
The grand total of all PGMs ever mined is estimated to be approximately
20 000 t. Three quarters of that was in the last 30 years, and 60% was in the
last 20 years. To put that in perspective, the global production of iron is
around 100 million t/month.1
Precious metals are likely to be among the most recycled substances on
the planet, as their value makes it worth the time and effort to retrieve it
from whichever form it is in. This article will start by looking at supply and
demand, and the technology behind them.

The market: historically and today

Figures 1 and 22 show platinum and palladium demand by application over the
last 10 decades; as one would imagine, demand for PGMs is growing steadily.
The demand picture over the last six years is quite interesting (Figure 3).
PGM as investment exchange traded funds (ETFs) is down almost 40% year on
year, jewellery use has fallen everywhere except Japan, and chemical and
industrial purchase has also slipped.3 The increasing demand for these metals
is almost entirely driven by automobile market expansion in the emerging
world. Automobile sales in emerging markets are predicted to double by
2030, but recent Chinese GDP figures might lower that estimate somewhat.4

HYDROCARBON 47 December 2016

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Platinum 1920 - 2015.
Figure 2. Palladium 1920 - 2015.
Figure 3. PGM demand 2009 - 2015.
Figure 4. PGM mined supply 2009 - 2015.
December 2016 48 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Supply is slightly more complicated.2 South Africa produces
over 70% of platinum and almost 40% of palladium annually, and
these are some old mines. They are getting deeper and deeper
every year, and the ore quality continues to deteriorate. Mine
production has obviously recovered from the strikes, and they
continue to move stocks from inventory to maintain cash flow.3
Russia accounts for around 14% of platinum production and
over 40% of palladium production annually. While there is not
enough time to analyse Putin and the Russian government, it is
suffice to say that in the West there is little reason to hold great
confidence in the market stability in either of these regions, and
they hold roughly 80% of the worlds platinum and palladium
underground reserves.
The recycling picture is deceptive (Figure 5). The industry has
recaptured 20- 25% of the demand over the last 10 years, but
recycling has fallen almost 20% from 2014- 2015. Analysts agree
that this is being caused by hoarding: the auto catalyst recyclers
are simply amassing stockpiles and waiting for the PGM prices to
rebound.2 The hidden concern is that more PGMs now end up in
the hands of consumers and small collectors than in the hands
of industry, and the difference in recovery from these two
groups is substantial.
When demand, supply and recycling figures are overlaid,
Figure 6 is produced. Total platinum supply is short of demand
by 750000troy ounces, and palladium is short by nearly
500000.2
On the mining side, developing new technologies is the only
way to reduce costs while keeping workers safe in more harsh
conditions and working with lower ore quality. Clearly, however,
the industry needs to improve its recycling efforts.
The old paradigm in precious metals recycling was fairly
controlled; the industry returned over 90% of the PGM to the
refiners, and refiners knew what to expect as far as the elemental
matrix received. Refining systems were, therefore, built to handle
large streams of the same product and the clients were
corporations. This system began to radically change in the 1980s
when electronics and automotive catalysts became the new
main sources of recycled precious metals.
Auto catalyst, electronics, mobile phones, tablets and home
computers have created two major changes: one, many of the
obsolete items never make it back to the recycling process due
to improper disposal (somewhere between 20 and 40% of the
PGM is lost, according to some estimates); and two, the PGMs
within these devices have been combined with dozens of other
elements, making recovery complex and costly.
For example, Encyclopedia Britannica notes that there are
44elements in the average mobile phone.5 So, even when the
consumer does put his or her obsolete device into the recycling
chain, it must first go to the collectors, dismantlers and other
middle men, necessarily adding costs. Combine that with more
strict environmental controls, international shipping challenges
and five and 10year lows in PGM prices, and the growing
problem is observable; profit margins are shrinking, while
concurrently the consumer recycling model is dispersing smaller
profits over an increasingly long chain of secondaries. In short, it
is getting more expensive to recycle though environmentally
responsible behaviour and more cost effective recycling is what
the world needs.
So what can the users of precious metals begin doing
differently?
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Sabin's all inclusive one stop recovery and refining services eliminate the need to send
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Figure 5. PGM demand 2009 - 2015.
Figure 6. PGM stock movement 2009 - 2015.
What must change?
First, a company needs to forget about the conventional wisdom in
purchasing and procurement that looks for the lowest price, because it
is a red herring. In PGM refining, the lowest price is often determined by
a US$0.05 - US$0.10/lb difference in processing fees. The important part
of this equation is not the processing fee per pound, but the proper
weighing and sampling and accurate analysis, for without these PGM
values cannot be correctly determined. It takes trained personnel,
calibrated equipment, time and experience to accomplish this. Degrees
of accuracy are in direct correlation to the investment made in creating
them.
There are companies that make taking the lowest bidder their
corporate policy. Granted, these companies are trying to save on costs,
but is it considered wise to purchase the cheapest solution available?
True wisdom would seek to create a balance between performance
and quality and the fairness of price. As clients seek deeper and deeper
discounts, the vendor does everything to reduce costs of labour and
raw materials, etc. Costs can be cut, production speed can be increased,
but only to a point. Those who cross the line will suffer the
consequences in some way, usually because they receive a poor quality
of product. In the precious metals business, the consequences would be
improper sampling, improper disposal of wastes, or other improper
behaviour.
To illustrate the false economy: platinum is currently selling for
US$1000/ounce, and ABC Petroleum is set to reclaim 10 000 kg of spent
catalyst. It can save US$0.10/kg over the nearest competitor by recycling
with Brand X. So the company saves 10 000 x 0.10, or US$1000, the same
as one ounce of platinum. Meanwhile, the improper or erroneous
processing, sampling and/or laboratory work at Brand X can easily put
December 2016 50 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
tens of thousands, or, in some cases, hundreds of thousands
of dollars at risk. The traditional lowest price for services
strategy is counterproductive in the precious metals (PM)
industry because it gives no thought to the real money: the
hundreds of thousands, or even millions, of dollars in
precious metals value.
Most companies believe that the value of their assets
are known, so sell their catalyst by the kilogram to a broker
to save money. This is the biggest risk of all as there is no
way to determine precious metal content or values without
weighing, processing or sampling the entirety of the spent
catalyst, and then running a complete laboratory analysis.
This is what a responsible and effective PM refinery is
designed to accomplish. Therefore, the only way to obtain
maximum value return is to understand and actively control
this process:
nn A full understanding of the contract terms and
conditions should be ensured.
nn The proposed processing and sampling methods should
be reviewed with the PM refiner.
nn The PM refinery should be visited and its procedures
audited.
nn A reputable third party witnessing firm (or what is
known as an umpire company) can be hired to verify
the custody control, weights, etc. The best of these will
have accredited laboratories and can run assays on
behalf of a business.
The precious metals refining customer must also change
its understanding of the differences between precious
metals refining companies. All precious metals refiners are
not the same, technically or ethically. One major technical
example of the differences between refiners is how the
metals are refined: pyro-metallurgical, that is, melting; or
hydro-metallurgical, where catalysts are dissolved in acids or
strong caustics. Dissolving can be problematic due to the
many factors that can create insolubility (a high temperature
event in the reactor, large amounts of powders or fines,
excessive carbon or other elements content, etc).6
Finally, there is another unfortunate difference between
precious metals reclaimers to bring up: ethical compliance.
Extremely low terms can be given by the company that
distorts the PGM content by the tiniest fraction of a
percent.
Conclusion
It may have been said before, but there is no place where
this is more relevant than in the precious metals industry: it
does not matter what a company knows until it knows what
matters. A company should know what its true monetary
priorities are and educate its employees. It should know the
details on how materials will be sampled and treated and
have them verified, and, most of all, know exactly with
whom the company is dealing.
References
1. USGS, 2016.
2. Johnson Matthey website, Market Research (May 2016).
3. GFMS Annual Survey, Thompson Reuters website (September 2
016).
4. SC-Abeam Automotive Consulting (2014).
5. Encyclopedia Britannica (2014).
6. JACOBSEN, R. T., 'Rhenium: A Hidden Asset,'
HydrocarbonEngineering, June 2013.
SEARCH
AND
IDENTIFY
Graham Shelver, 908 Devices, Inc.,
USA, discusses the use of ballistic gas
chromatography and high pressure
mass spectrometry to rapidly identify
hydrocarbons in complex matrices.
R
ecent technological advances have enabled many
laboratory-based testing analysers, such as Raman,
fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and
X-ray fluorescence (XRF), to be re-engineered into
smaller form factors weighing just a few pounds. These
analysers are robust, reliable, rugged and capable of
performing complex analysis by non-technical users in the
field. While there will always be a need for laboratory analysis,
the availability of new fieldable technologies provide
capabilities that facilitate immediate actionable answers at the
point of need. However, when it comes to the petrochemical
industry, such advances need to be balanced against a history
of slow adoption of new technology.
For the crude refining industrys roughly 650 primary
production facilities, which process upwards of 88millionbpd
of crude, ensuring process stability and consequent product
purity of petrochemicals such as benzene, toluene and the
xylenes remains paramount. Refineries have been deploying
laboratory-based gas chromatography (GC) instruments for
this purpose for decades and, today, a wide range of GC
analysers are used to monitor petrochemical production
processes using time-based compound detection. These
analysers often require multiple valve/column combinations,
have poor size, weight and power (SWaP) signatures, and can
lack the selectivity required to rapidly and positively identify
specific compounds within complex hydrocarbon mixtures
produced by catalytic reforming and steam cracking.
Mass spectrometry
While GC will no doubt continue to be used as the primary
indicator of overall process performance, ensuring consistent
product quality requires more definitive analyses to be
conducted using alternative analytical techniques. Mass
spectrometry (MS) is a well established analytical
methodology for measuring the mass of charged molecules.
Since the mass/charge ratios (m/z) of molecules and their
HYDROCARBON 51 December 2016
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Total ion current (TIC) and extracted
selected-ion monitoring (SIM) traces of a reformate
sample showing selectivity and increased sensitivity
of SIM over TIC.
Figure 2. At the heart of GC-HPMS analysers are
molecular traps a thousand times smaller than those
in conventional mass spectrometers.
Figure 3. With GC-HPMS analysers, users can rapidly
perform testing in-line, at-line, in the laboratory and
at remote field-based settings.
fragments are unique, MS provides users with the ability to
distinguish between thousands of different molecules. As a
result, this technique is often referred to as the gold standard
of chemical analysis.
Traditional GC-MS instruments combine the compound
separating power of GC with accurate MS-based identification
and quantitation of molecules. However, despite having clear
advantages over regular GC detection, laboratory scale GC-MS
systems have seen limited deployment at petrochemical
production sites for various reasons. High initial cost, a large
December 2016 52 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
footprint, system complexity, an absolute requirement for
continuous high vacuum (0.0001 Torr) and the specialised
maintenance needed to keep these systems operating
continuously are just a few of the reasons why the systems
have seen limited deployment.
GC high pressure mass spectrometry
Recently, a new generation of devices that represents the
combination of two enabling analytical technologies the
separating power of ballistic GC and the compound
identifying capability of a microscale, 3D Ion Trap High
Pressure Mass SpectrometerTM (HPMS) has been shown to
have several advantages over conventional GC-MS offerings.
The key differentiator is HPMS, which is quite literally the act
of performing mass spectrometry at much higher pressures. A
high pressure mass spectrometer typically operates at
pressures of 1 - 4 Torr, which is up to 10 000 times less vacuum
than that required by conventional mass spectrometers. HPMS
enables several key components of the mass spectrometer to
be miniaturised, and the three elements that make up the
HPMS, namely the glow discharge ioniser, microscale ion trap
and faraday plate detector, are packaged in a 1 in.3 compact
core that can be easily removed and replaced by operators. As
a result, the need for large, continuously operating roughing
and turbo molecular vacuum pumps, which limit deployment
of conventional mass spectrometry within production
environments, is eliminated.
Unlike conventional GC analysers, which rely on inefficient
air ovens for column heating, lightweight, portable GC-HPMS
devices instead use highly efficient resistive heating by
applying an electrical current across the metal capillary GC
column itself. These columns are capable of ramping at
5C/sec., which is 10 times faster than the heating rate of
conventional GCs and the low thermal mass of the thin walled
capillary column allows almost equally rapid cooling, as only
the column itself gets heated. The resultant analytical GC run
times, using GC-HPMS devices, are measured in seconds rather
than minutes and the combination of rapid heating rates with
short 4 - 8 m columns allows for ultra fast runs with
compound peak resolution being preserved.
The combination of the speed and efficiency of resistively
heated ballistic GC column modules, the reduced size and
vacuum requirements of the HPMS, and integrated, operator
centric software, enables the GC-HPMS devices to run
analyses with unprecedented levels of selectivity and
sensitivity in the low parts per billion range.
GC-HPMS offers analysts and plant operators a number of
unique benefits over conventional GC systems being used for
petrochemical analysis. Due to decreased cycle times,
improved selectivity and sensitivity, these systems can rapidly
identify and quantify petrochemicals such as methanol,
ethylene, propylene, butadiene, benzene, toluene and xylene,
as well as low level impurities that include oxygenates and
sulfur species, within product reformate streams. Since
GC-HPMS devices have been designed to have a favourable
SWaP signature and, unlike most current laboratory MS
systems, are well suited for onsite use, these systems can be
easily deployed for routine online and at-line analysis.
Unlike conventional two dimensional, time versus response
GC detectors such as a flame ionisation detector (FID) or
thermal conductivity detector (TCD) HPMS
operates using an additional mass axis. This provides
users with the ability to positively identify and
quantify individual compounds in complex mixtures.
Figure 1 shows an example of the total ion
current(TIC) signal, the MS equivalent of an FID trace,
of a reformate sample. In order to confirm the
presence of benzene and toluene in this partially
unresolved mixture, two single ion mode (SIM)
extractions were analysed at 78m/z and 91 m/z,
respectively. The use of SIM also increases the signal
to noise ratio, which in turn significantly increases the
sensitivity of analysis, making it possible to quantify
these two compounds present in the reformate
without having to completely resolve these Figure 4. A critical component of GC-HPMS systems is the
components. Complete separation and resolution of JetStream system control and data analysis software. This
combines data from multiple detectors into a single stream of
each component would be a requirement for FID
quantitative results when needed.
analysis as this detector type is unable to discriminate
between hydrocarbon species if co-elute occurs,
which is common in complex mixtures. The use of are open to adopting new analytical technologies that ensure product
the new GC-HPMS significantly improves the ability quality and maximise the bottom line. However, for any new technology to
to accurately detect individual components and be successful, it is equally important for industry innovators to partner with
shortens analysis times from minutes to seconds, an forward leaning technology adopters to deliver unique solutions with real
important consideration within production value. These adopters must also be ready to rapidly scale the solution
environments. being offered. By leveraging purpose built and user-centric analytical tools,
such as GC-HPMS devices with their unique analytical capabilities, small
Conclusion size and low power consumption, there is enormous potential for
As petrochemical producers move forward, it is improved efficiencies that can result in time and cost savings for companies
important that decision makers within the industry involved with the production of petrochemicals.

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The New Flagship Refining
and Petrochemicals Event
for the Middle East
22-24 January 2017 | Manama, Bahrain

Under the Patronage of Esteemed advisors include:

H.E. Shaikh
Mohammed bin
Khalifa bin
Ahmed Al Khalifa
Minister of Oil
Kingdom of Bahrain Eng. Awadh Mohammad Ghazi Ahmad A Al-Ohali
M. Al-Maker Al-Mutairi Chief Executive Officer
Executive Vice CEO Saudi International
President, Technology Kuwait National Petrochemical
& Innovation Petroleum Company Company (Sipchem)
SABIC (KNPC)

To register go to
mertc.events.gtforum.com or contact Rosie on r.brewster@theenergyexchange.co.uk
Save 10% when booking by quoting HE10 at the online checkout

Brought to you by the organisers of and 17th annual

DISCOVERING
DIGITAL
Jaime Ruiz Cabrero and
AsheeshSastry, The Boston
Consulting Group, Singapore,
examine the ongoing
digital revolution within
SoutheastAsia's petrochemical
industry, examining how the
region has transformed to reap
the rewards of tomorrow's
technology, today.
I
ndustry 4.0 and its impact on the petrochemical and chemical industry is not
only inevitable, but it is in many ways already here. Multiple petrochemical and
chemical companies are already changing the way they operate their plants or
interact with clients, or are outright building new businesses through business
model innovation. All of this is enabled by the new digital capabilities and
opportunities available. To date, changes in most cases have been incremental, but
disruption will take place sooner rather than later.
The question is: how prepared is the industry to disrupt and not be disrupted? Is
disruption ready to be harnessed to get ahead of the curve and build a new
competitive advantage?
Southeast Asia is one of the regions where strong chemicals demand growth is
still expected. For example, polyethylene demand is expected to increase at 4.5%
over the next decade (Figure 1). However, Southeast Asian countries will not really
enjoy a feedstock advantage as the US shale gas has changed the cost curve.
Moreover, any remaining feedstock advantage is going to decline in the near future
for the few companies that have this privilege currently (Figure 2). In the authors
view, fully embracing digital and riding the S-Curve will not only help contain the
threat from feedstock advantaged regions, but can also enable players and
companies in the region to develop a new competitive advantage. Building this
capability will be essential to regain the competitive advantage
Why now?
Not a single technological change on its own is really responsible for the digital
revolution, but rather a combination of building blocks of technology, including very
diverse elements such as cloud computing, big data, ubiquitous connectivity, sensors
or cognitive computing, that are enabling the revolution (Figure 3). Digitalisation of
HYDROCARBON 55 December 2016
ENGINEERING
 Table 1. Digital opportunities in existence across the value chain
Feedstock sourcing Manufacturing Marketing Sales, distribution and logistics Application industries
Integrate with Predictive Direct channels E-commerce platforms. Compounding
the supplier maintenance. to access new Tracking customer placements Faster product development
procurement Profit maximisation customers. (trucks/shipments) and optimising enabled through 3D printing.
systems and reduce based on real time data Digital channel to logistics costs. Develop/test prototype of
inventory costs. for feedstock and end increase customer Sales force enablement. various industrial parts including
products. reach. aerospace, automotive, drones.
Link to key customer Product Automotive
data (grades, volumes) information and Develop tools that integrate
to adapt production ordering tools. automotive refinish value chain.
changes faster. Customer data Packaging
Automated analysis. Intelligent packaging that
manufacturing Online advertising. monitors product quality and
processes. informs consumer.
Impact: e.g., Impact: e.g., reduced Impact: e.g., Impact: e.g., reduction in supply Impact: e.g., ~2% increase in
reduction of maintenance expense GeoAnalytics chain costs by 2 - 5% of total revenue and >1% increase in
inventory costs by 15%; reduction in used to improve costs. profitability without additional
from 40% to 10%. unplanned maintenance pricing and margin Capex by improving converter
actions by 95%. improvement by 2%. performance.

and cognitive computing is enabling the development of new

Table 2. Chemical companies going digital
BASF Elementum solution for end to end visibility with
radio frequency identification (RFID) leveraged to track
valuable assets.
SOLVAY Created a 'digital office', which kickstarted innovations
in supply chain collaboration and internal processes.
LANXESS Automated processes in logistics, barcoding and
signalling for tracking and tracing of shipments.
Dow Uses spend analysis for raw materials spend; co-built
Chemical comprehensive exchange rate risk models.
Company
Syngenta Uses an e2e network hub that automates business
transactions with downstream distributors.
P&G Pioneered control tower usage, handles 200terrabytes
of data across 40 'Global Business Spheres.
3M Uses a big data program for low error forecasting from
customers, sales, orders and suppliers data.
sources of insights across the value chain. These technologies
have reached market maturity. That is, they deliver the expected
performance reliably, are easy to use, flexible and cost effective.
Who in each company is harnessing all of this data and
technological change to understand new opportunities be it
in manufacturing, supply chain optimisation, or customer
requirements and rapidly developing new
products/solutions and deploying them in the field? Chances
are, no one is.
Why embrace digital?
Boston Consulting has noted a surge in interest and appetite for
digital in Southeast Asia, but also globally. Interest is picking up
quickly and 'digital innovation' is now a key agenda on the
C-Suite not just a problem for the chief information officer
(CIO).
There are a huge variety of areas where petrochemical
companies can benefit from looking to a digital future, each of
them with a distinct value proposition: feedstock sourcing;
manufacturing; marketing; sales and distribution; and application
industries especially in all the cases with very clear impact
and/or value propositions (Table 1). Assuming a company
decides to immerse into digital, then the next question
becomes: where? Arguably the trouble begins here, as digital
can mean many different things, and its applications and new
possibilities can be applied in diverse steps of the value chain.
If one looks at what some leading chemicals companies are
doing in the digital arena, two areas stand out. On the one hand,
it is clear that chemical companies are jumping into digital and
the trend is just starting. On the other hand, each of them is
taking a completely distinct approach (Table 2).

How does a company go digital?

Figure 1. PE demand in Southeast Asia.
business processes is occuring in every area, ranging from plant
operations, product movements, supply chain/logistics and
product pricing, all spewing rapid amounts of big data in real time.
Cloud computing is establishing a 'single of truth' on the data
generated in a company enabling connectivity. Artificial intelligence
Going digital requires a carefully thought out strategy, a clear
path forward and a programme mentality. It is not something
that can be improvised. Multiple companies have been assisted
on their digital journeys and the following are some of the
lessons learned (Figure 4).
Similar to any other strategy, the first step is to define a
cross-business unit (BU) digital vision and develop an initial
portfolio of digital initiatives. If a real digital transformation is

December 2016 56 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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Figure 2. Global ethylene cost curve.
Figure 3. Many former technology dreams are now a
reality.
Figure 4. A digital transformation, typically structured
in four phases.
desired, a significant change in management efforts is needed. It
is critical to instill a digital mindset across an organisation and
re-think the setup required to support a truly transformative
digital vision. Really successful plans tend to include a classic
100 day plan it is important to signal to the organisation that
the change is real, and not just a new logo and website.
Digital transformations, structured in three distinct waves,
should be examined. Firstly, companies need to capture the
obvious and immediate operations improvements derived from
new technology opportunities. The sooner the table stakes are
embraced, the earlier efficiency benefits can be captured.
December 2016 58 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Furthermore, it is easy to establish quick wins and fund the digital
transformation ahead, both financially, but also to capture the
attention and buy-in of a company's employees.
As a second step, companies are advised to adopt the digital
commercial transformation. A company's digital journey now
becomes visible to external stakeholders, namely clients and
suppliers. At this stage, companies need to start digitally enabling
the organisation; employees need to feel that the digital
transformation is real. When internal stakeholders are affected, this
is when a company can reach the leading edge and start capturing a
competitive advantage from the digital transformation. While this is
applicable to more flexible and agile companies, it also includes
companies with higher and better client intimacy and engagement.
Reaching the bleeding edge, that is, fully embracing the
potential of digital, implies developing really disruptive business
model innovation. Re-thinking what to do and how this will be
executed means developing new platforms for growth.
The bleeding edge requires innovative
organisations
Taking the digital transformation to its maximum opportunity, that
is to innovate new digitally enabled business models, requires an
overhaul of an organisation's culture, structure and capabilities if
the company is to be successful in the effort.
An organisation with a flat hierarchy and flexible roles and
responsibilities is ideal. Cross asset/functional collaboration
between units must be effortless and fluid, as traditional hierarchies
may stifle innovation.
The processes that govern an innovative digital company, or
business unit, need to encourage such collaboration and enable trial
and error cycles. In disruptive businesses it can be hard to get it right
the first time. An environment that fosters experimentation, and
avoids slow approval processes that could essentially choke the
organisation's innovations efforts, is beneficial to the process.
The physical environment and infrastructure has to be
conductive of the above. It requires the latest technology and must
allow for physical mobility, flexibility and temporariness, even
within the actual working space. It is critical to avoid lack of space
and a feeling of real state inflexibility. Being close to other
innovation centres is also important to facilitate cross-pollination.
As stated above, a key element of success is to truly embrace an
innovation culture, one driven by passion and motivation for
technology, ready to allow for fast failures that are seen as a way to
experiment and learn until a successful innovation can be launched.
Of course, the cornerstone is having the right people. Digital
natives are essential to any such team, these being individuals well
connected in the startup scene. This does not necessitate a huge
amount of people, but rather a few digital leaders. The challenge, of
course, is to find and attract those individuals to a company. Getting
the rest of the elements right will help to attract such individuals.
Conclusion
The industry is at the cusp of witnessing disruptive models in the
chemicals space albeit in niche areas across the value chain to
start with, which can and will quickly spread across. Getting ahead
in this game requires companies to start now, develop a digital
strategy and understand how unique assets can be leveraged to
build a competitive advantage. Established players with strong
assets are best positioned to lead this disruption. But they need to
be prepared for the journey.
AN ACTIVE 3D
ENTERPRISE
PLATFORM
John Bell,
INOVX Solutions,
USA, explains how
active 3D model
platforms can assist
downstream operators
in improving
asset productivity
and reducing
maintenancecosts.

O
ne of the biggest challenges faced by companies
operating in hazardous environments such as refining,
oil and gas, and other industrial settings, is the
administration of ageing assets and related
infrastructure. Moreover, the lack of awareness among
organisations about the status, deployment and utilisation of
assets can be detrimental to the operational effectiveness of a
facility. Effective asset management and asset integrity
management systems will help augment the value of assets,
improve reliability, and decrease wrench time and downtime.
The challenge is to be able to leverage vast amounts of asset
data into a user friendly coherent and reliable environment
without a prohibitively costly data warehouse initiative and
multi-year data management initiative. Organisations must have
effective business applications in place that interoperate with
one another to optimise the operational management of both
inspection and maintenance processes. In order to accomplish
this, there must be a platform in place that captures active
realtime data, along with data from systems of record, from all
enterprise assets
Active 3D models
The majority of 3D tools currently available have been created
for the exclusive domain of design and build engineers and, as
such, were designed to be passive in their nature and for end
user viewing only. This can be problematic due to the fact
that within the first few days after a plant handover, or as the
plant goes live, any changes made to the plant could render a
passive 3D model immediately out of date, and could quite
possibly become a danger to the inspection or maintenance
user. Therefore, the use of an active 3D model in the
operation of an industrial plant is essential for successful
operations.
The ability to interoperate with all of the major business
applications is crucial to add value to the inspection and
maintenance execution. This is achieved through an active

HYDROCARBON 59 December 2016

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Users can have immediate access to plant
data from any mobile device.
Figure 2. Mobile access that provides 3D asset
integrity management.
3Doperational model of the entire plant. The active 3D model
answers the fundamental questions: what is the asset? Where
is the asset? How is the asset performing? What are its
operating procedures? When is its next inspection due? Are
there any permits open or overdue? A myriad of questions,
where an immediate, up to date visualisation is the best way
to represent the current status, and to answer: what needs to
be carried out to maintain optimum performance? In addition,
the end users should be able to engage with assets in the
manner they choose, whether at their desk in the engineering
office, as a field inspector utilising a notebook or tablet, or as
a maintenance engineer using a combination of media, from
paper to android, or a mobile device of their choice. Remote
workers may also be required, and so the presentation of a
3Denterprise model through a web browser can extend the
use still further.
Management of change
Fundamental to a 3D enterprise model adoption is its ability to
effectively represent the current ('as is') status of the plant. A
3Dmodel becomes redundant if it is full of inaccuracies, or is
out of date. Therefore, the importance of having a sophisticated
but simple to use 'model management of change' becomes
essential to the 3D platform adoption and continual use.
Mobile and web-based solutions
INOVX Solutions has been a primary player in the evolution of
technology in support of operational inspection and
maintenance in industrial facilities. The companys 'asset
virtualisation and deployment anywhere' concept has focused
on advanced solutions in support of operational engineers and
maintenance engineering uses. As such, it provides a platform
December 2016 60 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
and solutions for 3D asset integrity management to companies in
the process industry. INOVX integrates the operational
management of both inspection, maintenance and safety processes
with accurate and complete active 3D models of all enterprise
assets, specifically designed for the end user operator.
The web-based solution is designed in such a way that it is
interoperable, customisable and extensible. The intuitive
3Dinterface allows end users to access plant information for
decision support, work planning, execution and analysis, reliably
and efficiently. In addition, the interface provides the tools for the
operator to reflect change requests within the model itself and
allow an integrated workflow to route any change request for
approval. Changes within an active 3D model can take minutes,
without users being forced to go offline while changes are made.
Finally, using the engineer's mobile device of choice, maintenance
routines can be optimised to continually survey asset points close
to the point of operation. The end result delivers a 24/7 active
model, always current, and interoperating in real time with all
associated data sources.
Mobile device access is leading the next wave of carrying out
business and allowing end users immediate access to data. Rather
than print out an inspection routine with 2D isometrics, asset
history, shutdown procedures, etc., onto hundreds of pages of
paper, users can utilise the information that has been created for
online access via a browser, mobile devices, or packaged onto a
portable file to a mobile device for offline navigation, with or
without network connectivity.
All too often, plant engineers are uninformed because data is
either unavailable or not interoperable. This is due to the lack of
available platforms containing information that leverage enterprise
data, which can ultimately result in productivity gains in the
workflows of both inspection and maintenance. In response to this,
INOVX has launched a new software platform, V-Suite. The
3Dasset integrity management platform integrates operational
management of both inspection and maintenance processes with
accurate and complete active 3D models of enterprise assets. The
search engine allows users to navigate to, and view in detail, any
asset and automatically associate data that can provide intelligence
with regard to asset performance, location and access points,
interconnected dependencies, real time isometric preparation,
integrated piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), shutdown
and startup procedures, asset performance history, etc.
V-Suites web-based and mobile device deployment can add
significant additional value by presenting asset information and
specific end user applications in support of organisational needs in
ways not otherwise possible. This is further enhanced by
integration with existing enterprise asset management (EAM)
systems already in place within an enterprise. In preparation of
inspection routines alone, companies measured 40% productivity
gains, greater accuracy of observation uploads, and seamless data
uploads and interoperativity.
Case study
INOVX has experience in the management of plant industries,
heavily focused on deployable, functional operational business
applications based around an active 3D model. Recently, a
company development team was commissioned by a large
industrial complex in the MiddleEast to place thickness
measurement locations (TMLs) across the sites entire pipeline
network. The extensive engineering design would have required
over 3000 TML placements, requiring a great amount of time and
resources. By applying a sophisticated placement algorithm
designed by the development team, the number of TMLs required
was reduced by half, thus shortening the data gathering and
analysis by half, without any compromise of the pipeline
network. This resulted in a saving of thousands of hours and
hundreds of thousands of dollars for the complex.
The use of 3D interoperability with the sites inspection
application allowed the company to automate the creation of
intelligent workpackages (KnowledgebooksTM), which included
full isometric 3D images to locate and identify TMLs scheduled
for review and any associated dependancies and equipment
requirements (lifts, scaffolding, etc.) within minutes. Whereas
previously the workflow could take days of data gathering and
print outs, it is now completely automated and free of paper.
Of further value was to link the risk-based inspection (RBI)
programme, which, although rich in function, without the
interoperability of the 3D enterprise platform, had no ability to Figure 3. An active 3D enterprise model in the
create the visualisation necessary to immediately identify hot operation of an industrial plant is essential for
spots and the location of high risk assets. The result was instant successful operations.
identification of assets with associated data for shutdown and
startup procedures, and engineering drawings from the
organisations content management system, all prepared in a applying the technology into plant operations, 3D has largely
Knowledgebook within seconds of triggering the RBI query. been passive and design engineer focused. Effective active 3D
The INOVX 3D platform, initially installed to provide greater model platforms are based on relational database technology
insight for the inspection team, is now providing huge value designed specifically for plant operation management, rich in
across a number of areas, inlcuding maintenance, operations, end user functionality. The addition of full mobility provides a
health and safety, and hazard and operability (HAZOP) studies, deployable active 3D solution for plant operations. The end
and will continue to be the sites enterprise plant result includes higher asset productivity, reduced maintenance
3Dvisualisation and interoperabilty platform for years to come. costs and increased visibility of the operations and asset
performance all of which lead to enhanced situational
Conclusion awareness and certainty regarding information about assets. This
3D has been the domain of the design engineer for over provides operators with greater safe uptime and predictive asset
20years. Despite operational management seeing use in performance, thus optimising overall plant infrastructure.
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 Marc Laing, NEL, UK, explores the use of computational fluid dynamics for flow
modelling in oil and gas applications.
A MODEL
SOLUTION
M
ost engineers are used to working with what is
known as analytical modelling, a mainstay of
engineering design and analysis where derived
equations are used to evaluate an exact solution to
a given problem. However, the problem with analytical
modelling is that, as companies attempt to model ever more
complex phenomena, the underlying equations also increase in
complexity. This ultimately becomes a barrier when the
equations become too complex to be solved using analytical
mathematics.
Used to predict and simulate the detailed three
dimensional behaviour of complex, multi-component fluid
flows, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling is a
powerful technique used in a wide range of industrial
applications.
CFD uses complex differential equations to analyse fluid
flows affected by influences such as heat transfer, chemical
reactions, phase changes or pipework configurations. The first
academic developments in CFD were made in the 1960s and
1970s, but it was not used extensively in the commercial world
until the 1980s, first by the aerospace industry and later by the
automotive industry.
CFD is now extensively used by the oil and gas industry
because it allows engineers to quickly tackle complex problems
and optimise designs on a timescale that would have been
unthinkable only a few years ago.
The recent advancement of computer technology,
combined with high performance computing (HPC) and cloud
computing solutions, have dramatically increased the detail that
can be included in modern models.
HYDROCARBON 63 December 2016
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. CFD model of a mixer.
Figure 2. CFD model showing gas volumes through
pipe.
CFD applications
Unlike physical testing, there are no size or weight limits when it
comes to CFD modelling, and, for complex models, users are
only limited by the computational power available. One area
where it can prove invaluable is in the development of
equipment for use in the field. Using CFD to undertake
computer simulation before physical testing means that a
model can be tested using multiple variables, with
comparatively little cost compared to physical testing, and can
highlight any potential issues early in a project lifecycle.
CFD also has advantages over physical testing physical
testing can often be very complex, and expensive to measure
and control all of the required parameters, such as fluid film
thickness, droplet size and sand particle concentration. With
CFD it is possible to measure as many parameters as required,
thus the data produced from CFD analysis is likely to be far
more comprehensive than could reasonably be achieved
through physical testing.
When operating a refinery, it is important to maximise
uptime to achieve the maximum profit possible. Any undesired
downtime can have a huge effect on the operating margins and,
therefore, should be eliminated or kept to a minimum by
comprehensive analysis of the plant. This can be carried out
using CFD to predict the performance of different components,
as well as helping to predict equipment lifetime.
December 2016 64 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Maldistribution of flow can result in catalyst exhaustion, which is
costly to recover. Separation is also a critical process and this can be
optimised with the use of CFD. This can provide an operating
window where it is known that good separation will be achieved.
Thermal fatigue of mixing tees is also a common issue, which
again can be resolved with CFD. CFD can be used to determine the
temperature distribution across the mixing tee, and the results from
this can be coupled to a finite element analysis (FEA) tool, which can
predict the lifetime of the tee under the conditions modelled. This
can be factored into the maintenance schedules and changed before
failure occurs. Operating a successful plant requires each component
of the process to operate at a high efficiency.
As the proposed number of floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG)
projects grows, due to the requirement to produce stranded gas
reserves in very remote offshore locations such as Africa and
Southeast Asia, it is necessary to comprehensively consider the
safety aspects of this type of operation.
CFD is being used to model the layout and spacing of
equipment/vessels to minimise the risk of explosions, overpressure
and fire exposure damage. CFD is also used in these types of
situations to predict the performance of their proposed designs to
internal and external fluid flow.
CFD can also be used to improve flare metering accuracy on
both floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) vessels and
refineries. In general, flare metering systems use single path ultrasonic
flow meters. Single path ultrasonic meters are very sensitive to
disturbances in the flow profile, and this can often result in large
metering errors. Owing to the physical constraints of a plant, it can
be difficult to position the flow meter in an ideal location, therefore
metering errors are inevitable.
CFD is used to compare the flow profile of the 'as installed' case
to that of the ideal installation and, thus, produce a correction factor
that can be applied to the meter. This allows the meter to be used in
the non-ideal location with the effect of the metering error negated.
This can be carried out easily for flare gas systems, but could not
be applied as readily to custody transfer meters given the degree of
uncertainty required.
Complex process
While CFD offers a simple solution, it actually involves a complex
process to achieve reliable predictions. As the capabilities of
computers have increased, this has allowed ever more sophisticated
conjugate simulations, which enable engineers to take into account a
wider range of physical phenomena within a single simulation, in
order to better replicate field conditions.
This demonstrates a real step forward in capability compared to
even five years ago. Computational meshes are now typically in the
order of tens of millions, compared with 10 years ago when models
would have less than 1million cells in total.
While this step forward in computing and engineering capability
has enabled the industry to address problems that were previously
unthinkable, with it they bring the risk that engineers are losing touch
with their inherent understanding of the numerical methods they are
using and why they need to be applied to particular problems.
The increased usability of modern software interfaces means
that the industry is starting to rely too heavily on computers, and
losing touch with the ability to make engineering judgements
beyond what the technology informs the user a solution should be.
While it is possible to start running simulations immediately, with
little formal training, the danger is that it disguises the underlying
 complexity of the problem and allows engineers to attempt to
tackle problems without a full understanding of the issues
involved.
One of the issues here is that, as numerical modelling
becomes more complex, it is increasingly difficult to keep a
handle on the sensitivity of the solution to given modelling
choices, such as the numerical methods, boundary conditions,
solution controls, etc. This makes engineering experience critical
if one is to be confident of obtaining a good solution.
In essence, it is critical that CFD modellers fundamentally
understand the physics being solved by the software in order to
obtain accurate predictions. If this is the case, modelling errors
can be significantly reduced by ensuring that models are not used
outside of operational range. The use of physical test data for
validation purposes also adds further confidence to predicted
results from CFD.
To reduce levels of error and increase confidence in a result,
model validation is, therefore, vital. This is because, before a
company can consider using a modelling approach for a real
world application, it must first be confident that the method
selected to solve a problem is correct. If the inputs, in the form of
the model chosen, are incorrect, then the resulting solution to
the problem will be inaccurate. By validating the correct model,
one can be assured that the degree of error characterised allows
for acceptable safety margins to be applied when using modelling
when designing pipeline systems.
There are a number of ways a CFD model can be validated. It
can be compared against analytical calculations that are simple
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and, therefore, more robust. Alternatively, the final CFD model
can be cross-checked by using multiple software solutions or
different modelling approaches. If the various results concur, then
the CFD model can be relied on.
There is, of course, also the priceless approach of the
engineers skill and knowledge, using engineering judgement and
experience, which can be used to examine the CFD output to
determine whether the solution is at least logical and roughly
correct.
Conclusion
CFD is therefore a complex but, at the same time, flexible tool
that can be used in a vast range of applications. The hope is that,
as accuracy increases, the amount companies spend on testing
may reduce, since a test matrix may be conducted numerically
with only the need for a validation test, which would streamline
the testing phase. Although this is still some time off, the synergy
between numerical modelling and physical testing is clear.
However, despite its wide reach across industry, it is
important to remember that CFD is still just a prediction method.
Without clear and traceable model validation, there is no
definitive means of assessing just how accurate a solution might
be. Numerical modelling should, therefore, always be
accompanied by some form of validation. This might take the
form of engineering experience gained over years of CFD
modelling, comparison with simple analytical modelling,
engineering judgement or ideally experimental testing, or real
world data.
SPONSORS
SPEAKERS
 Paul Hill, Hill Consultants Ltd,
UK, debates whether performance
standards can be applied in
onshore hazardous facilities.

ONSHORE
SAFETY
STANDARDS

December 2016 66 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
P
erformance standards have been used in the offshore oil
and gas industry for many years and have successfully
guided the design, selection and measurement of the
effectiveness of safety critical equipment. By providing a
group of performance standards for an installation, all interested
parties can determine if the current status of the safety critical
equipment allows for the production of the hydrocarbons and the
associated transportation to onshore facilities.
These performance standards can be categorised into the major
accident hazards associated with an offshore installation. Examples
of these could include loss of containment, helicopter failure, ship
collision and diving incidents. All of these high level risks have safety
critical equipment to minimise or control the risks. These barriers
need to be integrated into the facility, and must be available and
meet some minimum criteria to allow a safer production facility to
function.
An onshore facility, such as a refinery, can be spread over many
square kilometres. A failure in one part can impact multiple streams,
units and zones. If the process design and instrumented systems
have taken into account the loss of a stream, or multiple streams,
then safeguards within the units will prevent, or minimise, the
hazardous event occurring. How often are these safeguards function
tested for correct performance in the event of an emergency
condition? The difficulty with this question is 'how safe is safe', and
how does an older refinery or petrochemical complex achieve this?
Where an older facility requires upgrading, the process and
safety design is normally revisited and appropriate safety
equipment added. There is a high risk when introducing fast acting
instrumented safeguarding systems that it will introduce response
times that the processing unit has not been designed for. This can
lead to perturbations in the process resulting in an overall loss of
process control, as the safeguarding dominates the system and
prevents successful operation for extended periods. Design
pressures and temperatures of the equipment and piping cannot
normally be modified following construction and first operation.
Fast acting instrumentation and the replacement/re-tuning of
shutdown valves can result in the unit or facility seeing higher
upstream overpressures, causing other instruments to initiate other
controls and/or safeguards. These may cause hydraulic shocks in
the system, that did not previously experience them, can lead to
mechanical protective devices being initiated, e.g.,pressure relief
valves popping, if they are present, and can react fast enough to the
pressure transient. Obviously, if there is no control of these
overpressures, there is a potential for a loss of containment, with its
consequences of chemical release, possible explosion and fire, etc.,
and resultant harm.
Improving safety in a facility can increase reliability and unit
availability, with the potential of increased production. However,
this must be balanced by an increased requirement for maintenance
activities of the safety and environmentally critical equipment and
systems. Having an understanding of the safety systems installed,
and their importance in protection, allows the operations teams, in
consultation with the technical safety engineers, to determine
when and if production must be stopped, or, if operations can
continue with the addition of temporary safeguards, following
failure of a safety critical equipment item. To help in the decision
making processes, the performance standards, where these are
available, can be reviewed along with the process safety and
process and instrument drawings. Reviewing the latest and most
recent risk assessments for the units, such as the hazard and
operability (HAZOP) study, the layer of protection analysis (LOPA) or
regulatory criteria and licence to operate conditions, will be of great
help. Reviewing all the relevant sections for these data sources is
time consuming and not always straightforward. Therefore, the use
of performance standards can significantly speed up the review and
decision making. Links to the relevant documents and operating
manuals can be included. These can be used to check that there
have been no changes in the process or safety design intent.
HYDROCARBON 67 December 2016
ENGINEERING
 What is required in a performance
standard?
Performance standards are specific to a particular type of
safeguard, including, for example, flammable gas detection, fire
and smoke detection, overpressure protection, or to enable
evacuation and escape, such as access and evacuation routes,
escape lighting, temporary refuges, etc. Within each category the
scope is defined, along with the goal to be achieved and the
main functions that need to be performed in an emergency. In
addition to these, the requirements for the availability and
reliability for the category needs to be addressed and recorded.
The various elements that fall under the particular performance
standard can then be listed. In this way, a single performance
standard might apply to many pieces of equipment. For example,
a performance standard for safety valve(s) may have only one
valve detailed, or it could apply to 20 or more.
How a performance standard requirement is written is also
very important. The requirement described in the performance
standard should be, wherever possible, written in a way that can
be easily measured and recorded. An example would be the level
of lighting required to escape from an area. The performance
standard could be written to say:
nn Lighting to a certain lux level is required at floor level at
night time. This would require using a light meter to
measure and record this.
nn Alternatively, the lighting along the escape route is sufficient
so a person is able to see obstacles along their route.
The second of these is simpler to determine, to test and
does not require additional equipment. Auditing of compliance
should be easily demonstrated, or not, and, if required, high
priority maintenance undertaken to rectify the situation. The
relationship of a performance standard may be influenced by
other performance standard(s), and so reference to associated
performance standards should be provided on each as required.
Getting priorities right
An increased use of performance standards could improve
standardisation in a process design and allow for the
simplification of maintenance activities. These are then
undertaken on the highest priority requests first (based on safety
or environmental risk ranking), as well as the routine daily task
order sequence.
Some companies use at least three levels of prioritisation:
nn Immediate (within a shift to a few days).
nn Medium (within one week to a few months).
nn Low (non-critical after a six month, or longer, timeframe).
Using this type of approach allows critical equipment to be
repaired quickly and then routine maintenance and medium
priority equipment repairs are completed, before any of the low
priority requests. Low priority maintenance activities can move
up the list from low to medium if they start to impact on the
safety or environmental compliance.
Maintaining the status of the items covered by the
performance standards allows an operating company to
manage its production profile. Some units may be able to
produce at full capacity, while others are at reduced capacity,
but at all times the level of risk exposure is known. The
performance standards are only part of the understanding of
risk on the hazardous facility and they are significant in the
technical safety management of the complex. Due to the size
of refineries or petrochemical complexes, with many tens of
units, the management of all this information can become a
complex and daunting task. Documenting the risks and
December 2016 68 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
associated safeguards, along with additional links to
maintenance procedures and the facilities' responsibility matrix,
can allow rapid resolution of non-compliance conditions.
Use of modern techniques, such as BowTie assessments, can
provide visual pictures of the various risk levels in different parts
of the refinery or petrochemical complex for major accident
hazards. Linking BowTie diagrams to audit questions generated
by the safety specialist using the diagrams, and responded to by
the operators, can be entered back into the BowTies. Using the
performance standards and other criteria, such as layer of
protection analysis (LOPA), the responses can be assessed, and
the health status of each of the safeguards within each unit
determined.
Improving the process
It is important to ensure that the performance standards are
regularly reviewed and all associated documents updated, if
relevant systems are changed due to a process, instrument or
operation modification(s). The requirements for each
performance standard should be the lowest acceptable criteria
that allows the systems it is associated with to be safely
shutdown. However, the functional criteria actually achieved by
the safety critical item can, and should be, significantly better.
This can increase the time between complete maintenance tasks
(this may need a plant section to be shut down and positively
isolated for testing) and enable partial testing of the safety
critical item's functionality requirements.
Protecting the equipment and support systems that have
safety critical equipment items and performance standards must
be the first priority of all personnel on site. In the end, multiple
layers of protection are typically required to eliminate or reduce
the severity and the probability of the hazardous event(s)
occurring. Organisations that have invested sufficient time and
effort into maintaining the functional criteria of their safety
critical elements tend to have a culture that prioritises safety and
environmental compliance. In turn, the safety and environmental
compliance leads to less surprises, with any event managed and
controlled. The introduction of Safety Integrity Level (SIL)
assessments in the form of IEC61511 Functional safety safety
instrumented systems for the process industry sector and the
equivalent ANSI/ISA 84.00.01-2004 in the US, has re-emphasised
engineering companies, designers and technical safety engineers
into understanding where and when instrumented barriers need
to be applied. The best safeguard is to implement the principles
of inherent safety from the start. For example, using vessels and
piping design pressures above that which can be achieved by the
process can significantly reduce the number of safety critical
equipment items required. This, in turn, can reduce the number
of instrument tappings needed and their potential leak points.
Older facilities that need upgrading are not always able to
benefit from this approach and engineers use the application of
safety critical equipment and barriers in an attempt to prevent
the high/low pressure and high/low temperature interfaces
from damaging the weaker system(s). This increase in the safety
equipment count will require more maintenance, with associated
staffing and contractor support on site. This increase in the
number of people on site can elevate the risk level, due to the
additional personnel exposure.
Conclusion
Where safeguards are required, and maintained to a specified
standard and functionality, when an uncontrolled event occurs
there should be a reduced likelihood of further failures in the
unit or refinery. For these reasons, understanding the safety and
environmentally critical equipment should be a high priority.
The third eye

in the field
Benedikt Eckert, Bartec GmbH, Germany, discusses how a base oil producer used
explosion proof mobility solutions to effectively protect personnel, equipment
and the environment in hazardous areas during a routine inspection.

I
n order to improve marketing for its high quality base
oils and achieve a more economical production process,
while effectively protecting people, the environment
and equipment in hazardous areas, Puralube Germany
relies on explosion-proof enterprise mobility solutions
supplied by Bartec.
The view through the fence of the company premises is
reminiscent of science fiction; the man in blue overalls
looks at a flat screen on his arm, he has a camera on his
helmet. With the following head movement, a red point of
light travels through the complex system of pipes and
valves to a certain destination in the system. Using his
bluetooth headset, the mobile worker communicates with
a colleague. He presses a button on the helmet camera,
looks down at the screen on his arm and continues on to
the next inspection point.
At the threshold
What still sounds futuristic today could soon be standard
equipment in the process industry at least in the
speciality chemicals or petroleum industries, with their
high technology products. Puralube produces high quality
and sustainable base oil specialities, which are made from
used oil from the Zeitz industrial park, according to the
UOP HyLubeTM process. Market requirements are becoming
even higher, as the specifications are becoming increasingly
more stringent. Low viscosity oils for cars are getting
thinner, but under no circumstances may they lose the
lubricating function that is vital for the operation of the
engine. In order to honour promises such as this to the end
customer, not only must the production processes be
documented completely, but they must also be monitored
more carefully.

HYDROCARBON 69 December 2016

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. In the speciality chemical and oil industries,
enterprise mobility solutions in hazardous areas are
insisted upon.
Figure 2. Special tablet PCs bring the office into
hazardous areas. Integrated barcode scanners and
optional sensors are available for mobile data
acquisition.
Full process control
As a result of this development, the testing and inspection
intervals are shortening. At the end of the development, there is
a process capability index (CPI) value of nearly 100%. However,
this is only realistic if the employees are always connected
online with the processes onsite at all times, and can
immediately recognise deviations. Starting from an extremely
high level of automation, Puralube Germany also wanted to
close the last gap in the direction of real time access to the
process data. In the future, if an operator at the refinery wants
to query the current situation in a particular bubble tray, he or
she does not have to make a decision first, but rather can do
this directly from the relevant column. A glance at the display is
sufficient. If the light is green, everything is fine.
Strategically motivated solutions
To make process information available to operators while
mobile and, thus, further sustainably increase the company's
profitability, Puralube Germany is consistently moving towards
December 2016 70 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
becoming a mobile enterprise, as part of its ongoing
repositioning as a high tech company. The right partner for this
evolution has already been found, and the choice was Bartec.
The companys explosion protected portfolio of solutions
ranges from smartphones and tablet personal computer (PC)
systems to Wi-Fi helmet cameras and cross device mobile
devices management (MDM) with corresponding cloud services.
Intrinsically safe smartphones
All partial solutions of the mobile strategy were developed
directly from practice. For example, the ATEX and IECEx
certified (Zone 1), high end smartphone, Impact X, arose from a
close collaboration with Shell. For use in the petroleum
industry, the device has a touch display protected by 2 mm of
Gorilla Glass, which can be reliably operated both in heavy
rain, as well as in direct sunlight, and even when wearing thick
safety gloves. Moreover, the Impact X also has three cameras
and a battery capacity that lasts twice as long compared to
consumer devices.
A mobile office
If technicians and engineers want to safely bring their office into
potentially explosive areas, this is possible either via Wi-Fi or
mobile data radio with the ATEXZone2 and
ULClass1Div2certified tablet PC system, Agile X. The high
resolution 10.1 in. LED display is also well suited for visualising
plant layouts. AgileX is equipped with an integrated barcode
scanner for mobile data collection. Optionally, there are other
sensors to choose from, for example, a radio frequency
identification (RFID) reader, which is connected through a rear
port. Puralube Germany intends to ensure that every stage, even
the last document process at the refinery namely the
incoming and outgoing goods will be mapped digitally.
A third eye
The Zone 1 by CSA, IECEx and ATEX certified Wi-Fi helmet
camera, Orbit X, aims for more flexible and efficient operation, a
better workflow and fast, accurate onsite decisions. As a result
of two integrated LED lights, a built in laser pointer and optional
accessories, such as headsets, wall mounts and telescopic rods,
Puralube Germany also developed, with Shell, more high tech
solutions designed for dark and difficult to access areas. The
clear, colour intensive, 8 megapixel (MP) photos and 1080 p
videos can be stored either locally on the device, or wirelessly
streamed at a high quality. Therefore, the included Androidapp,
SIPIDO Mobile Telepresence, supports not only all session
initiation protocol (SIP) enabled video conferencing systems and
applications, but also the browser-based real time
communication via web real time communication (WebRTC).
Mobile device management
For rapid deployment and management, Bartec has developed a
scalable mobile device management solution, Collaboration X.
With this, Puralube Germany can roll out and remotely
administer all mobile devices from Bartec uniformly including
video conferencing and camera settings. Due to the additional
cloud storage service, online photo and video storage can also
be managed. In addition, the Bartec portfolio includes wireless
equipment for a mobile enterprise strategy, in particular
ex-protected access points and antennas.
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 maintenance and repair work, or training, become safer and more
efficient. In the second stage, explosion proof smartphones, or
tablet PCs, enterprise resource planning (ERP) software,
MicrosoftOffice, or visualisation applications in hazardous areas,
are used to improve mobile workflow and communication.
Finally, the third stage allows real time collaboration; for example,
via video conference, the control centre, or external experts can
call in and decide on which action to take quickly and accurately.

Long term objective

Figure 3. The Puralube facility in Saxony-Anhalt,
Germany.
Bartec acted as a driving force that informed Puralube about
new potential; however, the desired continuous process
monitoring could not be realised overnight, which is why gradual
introduction is recommended by the project partners in their
advisory capacity.
Three stage implementation
For the first optimisation wave, the use of helmet cameras that
capture images and video from hazardous areas in HD quality
becomes possible either online via the network or offline via
the local device memory. Typical operations in potentially
explosive environments, such as routine and ad hoc inspections,
As Puralube Germanys long term objective is to be certified
according to the current standard ISO/TS 16949 within three
years, the company thus far has decided to avoid time wastage
through implementing its system. In order to meet the most
stringent quality requirements of the automotive industry, the
comprehensive monitoring of the company's production
processes is essential, and, in preparation for the concerned
audits, the mobile enterprise solution from Bartec will be in
operation.
Conclusion
With the help of Bartec's enterprise mobility solutions, Puralube
Germany was able to move significantly closer to its goal of full
process control. Maintenance and service processes were
optimised, the monitoring was improved and an effective
cooperation was established across the boundaries of hazardous
areas. Last but not least, Bartec's complementary cloud services
and the integrated mobile device management provides the
necessary cost efficiency for the strategic innovation.

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Tim Hill and Ron Kessler, QuestIntegrity,
USA, examine how the varied inspection
methods of fired heaters can provide the
most comprehensive asset
integrity solution.

T
he reliable operation of fired
heaters is vital to the successful
longterm performance of any
petroleum refinery. Current industry
demands require equipment to operate at peak levels,
pushing assets to run longer and harder than ever before.
As a result of operating under extreme conditions, furnace
tubes are often affected by damage mechanisms, including
creep, corrosion, erosion, pitting and oxidation, which can
significantly limit operational performance. Fortunately, there are a
number of inspection and assessment methodologies that, when
used together, aid operators in developing effective and
comprehensive optimisation plans, allowing facilities to reach their
full asset and operating potential.
This article will illustrate the benefits of utilising a
multidisciplinary approach to fired heater asset management.
Bycombining repeatable and preventative infrared (IR) tube
temperature asset monitoring with ultrasonic smart pig inspection
technologies, remote digital video inspection and advanced

HYDROCARBON 73 December 2016

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Infrared imaging indicating localised hot
spots in horizontal tube.
Figure 2. Fired heater configuration illustrating
radiant and convection sections.
Figure 3. Smart pig navigating return bends.
Figure 4. Visual data reveals extensive damage within
convection section of a fired heater.
December 2016 74 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
engineering assessments, operators can be confident in their
complete asset condition over the course of an assets
lifetime. The benefit of such a system is reflected both short
and long term, ultimately resulting in cost reduction and
decreased risk of unplanned asset failures.
Preventative health monitoring
The first step of an effective health monitoring programme
defines what is happening inside the process heater while in
operation. IR thermometry has been used for over 30years to
monitor tube metal temperatures in refining and chemical
furnaces. When utilised on fired heaters, IR thermometry is an
exemplary diagnostic tool for detecting tube hot spots from
internal fouling and heat distribution anomalies. The hot spots
detected using this inspection method indicate areas of
potential damage including creep, corrosion, short term
overheating, bulging, ovality, oxidation and more. For example,
elevated tube metal temperatures detected by IR
thermometry from internal fouling can move the fired heater
tube operating conditions into the creep regime, which can
significantly affect the reliability of the heater over time. This
preventative inspection monitoring provides
non-destructive, non-intrusive, non-contact mapping of thermal
patterns on the tubes surface, as well as the other internal
firebox components, allowing for asset optimisation while
in-service. By employing an effective IR monitoring programme,
operators are able to detect early indications of these potential
damage mechanisms, long before a failure occurs.
Once the IR thermometry data has been collected, custom
software is used to automate correction calculations in order
to remove common errors from IR thermometry tube
temperature measurements. This allows the operator to
collect repeatable and accurate tube metal temperature
measurements that indicate where damage may be occurring
within a unit (Figure 1). All infrared measurements, whether
made by an imaging camera or pyrometer, are subject to
measurement factors. The fired heaters environmental
measurement factors are the target tubes emissivity, target
reflectance and the flue gas effect on the measured
temperature. The instrument factors affecting the temperature
measurement are the instrument infrared wavelength,
calibration, size of source effect (SSE), vignetting and the
emissivity setting. Each of these factors must be understood
to achieve an effective infrared inspection programme.
Without this understanding, measurement errors as much as
180F can occur, which also affects the repeatability of the
measurements.
Fortunately, a comprehensive and effective infrared
inspection programme designed for fired heaters (or
reformers) can account for these measurement factors. By
following simple field data collection practices and then
applying rigorous correction calculations, the tubes surface
temperature can be accurately measured. This process will
allow any operator using either IR instrument to collect
repeatable tube temperature measurements. The correction
calculations employ algorithms based on well established
physical principles of blackbody infrared radiation and
radiation exchange, including a specific geometrical model of
the subject fired heater and characteristics of the
measurement instruments.
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Figure 5. Ultrasonic inspection data indicating areas
of severe wall thinning.
An effective infrared inspection programme is vital to
monitor the integrity of in-service fired heater tubes, as
well as provide a wealth of quantitative data that may be
used to further evaluate the performance and integrity of
fired heater components that are susceptible to failure.
Ultrasonic smart pig inspection
technology
After assessing the online factors affecting the performance
and reliability of fired heater assets, the next step is offline
health monitoring. The most effective offline tube
inspection method is ultrasonic (UT) smart pigging
technology, which provides inspection coverage of the
radiant and convection sections of fired heaters.
Section573.9.6 of the API code recognises the use of
intelligent [smart] pigs/in-line inspection devices that utilise
immersion-based ultrasonics to accurately measure inside
tube diameter and wall thicknesses. Based on service
providers and tool specifications, several thousand to several
million unique diameter and wall thickness readings can be
obtained for an inspection and used in a reliability
management plan. By conducting a UT smart pig inspection
when an asset is offline, the operator is able to quickly assess
the tubes condition for repair or replacement.
Unlike most non-destructive testing (NDT) inspection
methods, UT smart pigging tools can travel untethered
through the entirety of the heater, detecting and measuring
existing damage mechanisms, including internal or external
corrosion, erosion and pitting, along with deformation such
as bulging, swelling, ovality and fouling in serpentine or arbor
coils. The use of custom ultrasonic sensor technologies,
combined with powerful graphical data displays, results in
high resolution, digital and quantitative inspection data and
visualisation for the entire piping coil. This efficient and
non-intrusive inspection method allows the unit to return to
service quickly, ultimately minimising cost and plant
downtime, while improving heater reliability and
maintenance schedule accuracy.
December 2016 76 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Certain ultrasonic smart pigging tools are highly adaptable
and can inspect heater coils of any length, including those
with unlimited short radius, 1.0D return bends. The latest tool
designs can also negotiate mule-ear or plug headers. These
tools travel and function bi-directionally, allowing the tool to
be launched and received at the same location.
When preventative infrared (IR) thermometry is used in
conjunction with ultrasonic smart pig inspection technologies,
operators receive accurate and verifiable data during two
imperative unit phases when the unit is operating, and when
the unit is taken offline during scheduled maintenance
intervals. For example, in a heater experiencing previously
undetected fouling, IR thermometry conducted during plant
operation can identify the early stages of damage due to
elevated tube metal temperature. During the next scheduled
plant turnaround, an ultrasonic smart pigging inspection then
identifies the extent and type of damage previously detected
during the routine IR thermometry inspection. By utilising a
combined online and offline inspection programme, operators
maintain a comprehensive understanding of tube condition
during all stages of asset life, essentially eradicating the risk of
unplanned facility outages.
Multi-disciplinary inspection case
study
An example of this type of collaborative inspection plan
was seen during a 2015 inspection conducted by
QuestIntegrity. The inspected fired heater asset was next
scheduled for routine maintenance and shutdown in 2018.
In order to ensure the assets long term reliability, the
operator requested that Quest Integrity perform both
IRthermometry and an ultrasonic smart pigging inspection
on the fired heater, as well as complete a comprehensive
engineering assessment.
The data from both inspections and assessment
concluded that no current damage mechanisms were
affecting the heater. It was also determined that the radiant
and convection coils were fit for continued service until
the next scheduled shutdown in 2018, providing the peak
tube metal temperatures detected during the
IRthermometry inspection were not exceeded. By utilising
two powerful inspection methods, the operator was able
to confidently determine not only the current condition of
the asset, but also plan for future maintenance intervals
with a high degree of confidence.
Remote visual inspection and
verification of significant damage
The damage mechanisms detected by routine infrared and
ultrasonic in-line inspections may be further evaluated
visually by employing remote digital visual inspection (RDVI).
RDVI and careful evaluation of surface characteristics may
contribute to a better understanding of cleaning
effectiveness and surface condition, internally and externally.
RDVI utilises sophisticated and ruggedised remote
inspection instruments, deployment tools and operational
expertise to deliver clear and concise visual data. In
instances where severe fired heater damage is detected by
IR thermometry and UT inspections, RDVI is an excellent
method to further verify damage mechanisms by safely
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 deploying high resolution inspection cameras into
inaccessible areas. This minimally invasive inspection
technique is particularly effective in areas of damage that
cannot be visually inspected or accessed by other NDT
methods. By incorporating a remote visual inspection (RVI)
service into a fired heater optimisation program, operators
are able to attain tangible imaging depicting the effects of
damage mechanisms within a fired heater unit.
The benefit of utilising a multi-disciplinary inspection
program that includes the use of RDVI is not only financially
significant but also allows asset operators to respond
proactively to asset health, avoiding untimely failures and
unanticipated downtime.
Engineering assessment solutions
Once the various inspections have been conducted, the data
from both the IR thermometry inspection and UT smart
pigging inspection can be assessed in one software platform,
providing the operator with the highest degree of accuracy
when determining fitness for service (FFS) and remaining life
in accordance with the current API 579-1/ASME FFS-1 industry
standard. These speciality software tools perform
comprehensive calculations of current and future operating
risk for each inspected furnace tube, and provide data
imaging indicating the varying degrees of change due to the
damage mechanisms (Figure5). Post inspection assessments
provide accurate metal loss and creep analysis, as well as
analysis of dents, gouges and crack-like flaws, ultimately
decreasing the risk of failure and helping operators achieve
extended run times.
For assets that require additional assessment and
analysis, a number of high level post inspection engineering
assessments are available to determine future operability,
acceptable level of risk and aid in tube removal and future
turnaround planning.
FFS and remaining life assessment
FFS assessments are a multi-disciplinary engineering analysis
to determine whether equipment is structurally fit for
continued operation, typically until the next scheduled
facility shutdown. In the case of fired heater optimisation,
assets may contain flaws, not meet current design
standards, or be subjected to more severe operating
conditions than current design allows. The product of an
FFS assessment is a decision to run as is, alter, repair,
monitor, or replace fired heater components, as well as
determine an appropriate future inspection interval. For
plant operators, assessing the FFS of operating equipment
provides confidence in long term turnaround planning,
without the risk of premature failure.
When a damaged mechanism is detected within a fired
heater, assessment engineers are able to utilise the data
collected from an inspection to determine the remaining
life of the affected asset. The life of fired heater tubes is
determined primarily by corrosion and creep damage
mechanisms. To assess the remaining life of the tubes, the
damage rate from these mechanisms must be accurately
measured during the inspection opportunities. Because the
data coverage is so extensive for todays inspection
technology, remaining life assessments that take advantage
December 2016 78 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
of the local metal loss rules of API 579-1 Standard may now
be completed. This allows for better defining the operating
risk and expected life of the tube. In many cases, an asset is
able to continue operation for a fixed amount of time
before replacement is necessary.
Failure assessment
When a premature asset failure occurs, or severe damage is
detected that causes an asset to be permanently retired, a
high level failure analysis and root cause assessment is used
to determine the contributing causes to the failure.
Materials engineering and metallurgical laboratory support
can also be used in the assessment to aid in the root cause
determination. By performing failure analyses, asset
managers are able to identify corrective actions to prevent
the re-occurrence of such damage in the future.
Optimisation plan
After accomplishing inspection and assessment, the
operating risk can be defined. Industry risk assessment
methodologies may be followed to obtain a more detailed
knowledge of how a component is likely to fail, and what
shortfalls currently exist that can lead to an unexpected
online failure event. An optimisation action plan that is
customised to each fired heater, based upon the assessed
operating risks, is prepared. The inspection data and
engineering assessment results enable the operator to
determine where the management shortfalls lie with each
fired heater, and what corrective actions must be taken. A
reliability strategy is developed that addresses the major
concerns and potential risks identified in the assessment.
The optimisation plan for each fired heater will include
policy and procedure changes, capital improvements,
inspection and test plans, performance monitoring and
maintenance plans and tube replacement plans. As the
optimisation plan is executed, the strategy should be
updated and plans adjusted as necessary to manage the
balance between reliability and performance demand.
Conclusion
Maintaining sustained performance and asset optimisation
can be difficult, especially since ageing assets require
frequent and varying maintenance over the course of their
lifetime. Problematic unplanned repairs or plant shutdowns
can be avoided by employing a preventative and long term
strategy for asset maintenance and inspection. These
essential maintenance methodologies provide refinery
operators with the necessary knowledge to achieve the
optimum balance between a fired heaters reliability and long
term performance.
By combining preventative IR thermometry asset
monitoring with ultrasonic smart pig inspection technologies,
digital video inspection and advanced engineering
assessments, operators can be confident in their complete
asset condition. While the individual methodologies outlined
in this article are accurate and effective when used alone,
they are powerfully conclusive when used together,
providing the preventative measures necessary to ensure
peak reliability and performance optimisation of fired heater
assets throughout their lifetime.
 Alexander Stotz, Kelvion,
Germany, describes
the efficiency and easy
cleaning characteristics
of fully welded plate
heat exchangers, based
on a reboiler application
in monoethylene glycol
regeneration systems.

I
n the hydrocarbon processing industry, including on
offshore platforms for oil and gas exploration, plate heat
exchangers (PHE) have become established as a reliable
alternative over the last 30 years. Plate heat exchangers
offer several advantages, primarily:
n Good heat transfer.
n Correspondingly low resource usage.
n Compact dimensions.
n Low weight.
n Low cost.
Other plate heat exchanger features are also crucial for
deployment in the oil and gas sector, including:
n Long service life.
n Low maintenance effort.
n Good self-cleaning effect.
n Easy cleaning.
n Easy repair in case of leaks.
These factors are essential for trouble free operation of
the heat exchanger, which in turn is a prerequisite for
avoiding shutdown of the entire extraction or preparation
process in many applications. Ideally, the heat exchanger
only needs inspection, maintenance or mechanical cleaning
when the entire plant is shut down for an overhaul or
turnaround.

HYDROCARBON 79 December 2016

ENGINEERING
 Table 1. Heat transfer coefficient and surface as sulfates (BaSO4, CaSO4, CaSO42H2O, SrSO4), carbonates
margin with and without heat exchanger fouling (CaCO3, FeCO3) and other substances, including salt, sodium,
Non-fouling Fouling iron sulfide and mercury sulfide, are filtered out of the rich
MEG. The water content of the rich MEG must also be
MEG flow 4.0 4.0
rate (m3/hr)
reduced. This is carried out in a specific thermal process. After
regeneration, the glycol has only a small residual water
Hot oil flow 9.5 9.5
content (lean MEG) and can be used again as an inhibitor.
rate (m3/hr)
In MEG regeneration, plate heat exchangers are already
OHTC 246 234 proven technology utilised as condensers after the distillation
(W/m2C)
stage. Currently, shell, tube or spiral heat exchangers are
Surface 26.7 5.1 generally used as reboilers. However, plate heat exchangers
margin (%) also offer advantages for use as reboilers. Their major benefits
compared to shell and tube heat exchangers are a smaller
footprint and much higher shear stress. This higher shear stress
makes plate heat exchangers significantly less susceptible to
deposit formation, thus increasing service life and reliability. As
faultless operation of the reboiler in the regeneration process
is essential for the entire gas production chain (reliable natural
gas transport is not possible without active MEG
regeneration), using plate heat exchangers as reboilers can
enhance the overall availability of exploration and processing.

Testing plate heat exchangers

Figure 1. The side panels of the KBloc heat
exchanger are easily removed for cleaning or repairs,
while all welds and plate gaps are fully accessible for
cleaning, maintenance and repair.
Figure 2. Heat exchanger plates with double dimple
corrugation are well suited to viscous or contaminated
media.
Advantages for monoethylene glycol
regeneration
Due to their specific features, in particular compact size, plate
heat exchangers are also used now in offshore monoethylene
glycol regeneration. Monoethylene glycol commonly called
glycol or MEG is used as an inhibitor to prevent hydrate
formation during natural gas transport from the bore hole to
downstream processing plants. Hydrate formation bears a high
risk of blocking the borehole or pipelines to the processing
plants, stopping exploration. To reduce MEG consumption and
make the process more cost effective, the glycol inhibitor is
extracted from the natural gas after transport and regenerated
in a multi-stage process.
During regeneration the MEG must be purified to remove
the solids absorbed from the natural gas. Contaminants such
The suitability of plate heat exchangers for use as reboilers in
MEG regeneration can be illustrated using a Kelvion KBloc as
an example. It is a fully welded plate heat exchanger with the
plate pack supported by a frame with four columns. The
enclosure consists of top and bottom panels and four side
panels, which can be unscrewed for maintenance and servicing
(Figure 1). The heat exchanger plates are welded alternately.
With a broad variety of plate materials and gasket materials,
the heat exchanger can be adapted to specific media and even
severe process conditions. That way an elevated corrosion risk,
which is present with, for example, sour hydrocarbons or high
chloride contents, can be dealt with.
The heat exchanger was tested for suitability in a pilot plant,
with the main focus of the study on its fouling characteristics,
susceptibility to deposits and ease of cleaning. The key factors
for the reliability and service life of a reboiler are how quickly
deposits form and how thick they are, how they affect
performance, and how easily the heat exchanger can be cleaned
under operating conditions. The nature, duration and
effectiveness of cleaning are major considerations for
downtime. Particular attention must be given to unplanned
operating conditions because there is a risk of fast and severe
scaling if a high level of solids reaches the downstream
regeneration process due to irregular treatment of the glycol. It
goes without saying that effective heat transfer is a basic
requirement for cost effective operation.
Countercurrent flow for high efficiency
To promote good heat transfer, the two media (in this case
thermal oil as a heating medium and MEG) are operated in the
plate heat exchanger in countercurrent flow. To minimise the
pressure drop, the glycol flows from top to bottom through the
plate pack. Thanks to good heat transfer, considerably less heat
exchanger area is necessary. Another advantage is that the heat
exchanger surfaces form a compact pack, so the plate heat
exchanger is about 70% lighter than a comparable tube heat
exchanger, and has a footprint approximately five times smaller.

December 2016 80 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 The compact and easily accessible construction is also
advantageous for cleaning and maintenance little space is
necessary for removing the panels. After the plates have been
removed, mechanical cleaning (for example, with a high
pressure cleaner or hot water and chemical cleaning agents) is
simple. The small footprint and minimal service space
requirement of plate heat exchangers are very beneficial.

Longer service life

The KBloc heat exchanger plates have corrugations, with a
choice of chevron pattern for maximum energy efficiency or
the double dimple version designed for high viscosity media
or media with particulate contamination. A KBloc with
double dimple corrugation was chosen for the glycol
regeneration test because heavy fouling or deposits are
possible due to the process conditions (Figure 2).
The plate corrugation creates high turbulence in the gap
between the plates, which minimises the tendency for fouling.
With regard to the glycol media (rich glycol), with the same
mass flow rate the plate heat exchanger has a self-cleaning
Figure 3. The KBloc plate heat exchanger in a pilot
effect about three times greater (wall shear stress three times plant for MEG regeneration.
higher) than a shell and tube heat exchanger.

Fouling test results
In the test system implemented with the KBloc, the focus was
on efficiency, susceptibility to fouling and ease of cleaning.
The first test in the pilot plant (Figure 3) was run with 90%
glycol by weight. The test was carried out with pure glycol
(non-fouling conditions) and with contaminated transport
media (fouling conditions). Fouling was induced by the
addition of salts, causing scaling of the heat exchanger by the
calcium carbonate present in the solution.
With a pressure of 0.95 bara on the evaporation side, a
heat transfer oil inlet temperature of 155C and an oxygen free
process, the calcium carbonate concentration was constantly
increased over the course of five days. This did not result in
deposits leading to a significant decrease in heat exchanger

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 performance or higher pressure drop. Consequently, a second
stage of the test was initiated in order to create an artificial
fouling layer on the heat exchanger surfaces.
Figure 4. In the second test run, scaling was first
induced over a period of four weeks before MEG
regeneration simulation was started.
Figure 5. CIP with a mild acid was sufficient to
remove all deposits from the media contacted parts
inside the heat exchanger.
Figure 6. After chemical cleaning, all media-wetted
surfaces were free from scale and unimpaired
operation was again possible.
December 2016 82 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Test under aggravated conditions
In the second fouling test, the heat exchanger was constantly
exposed to a water-salt solution (CaCl2 2H2O and Na2CO3) at
low supersaturation ratios, instead of glycol, for four weeks.
The temperature was raised stepwise from 40 - 90C. In the
end, a calcium carbonate scale layer with a thickness of
0.5mm formed on the plates. This scale provided a good
adhesion surface for contaminants entering the system in the
glycol. In operation with glycol (25%), the degree of fouling
rose with increasing wall temperature on the glycol side. In
order to reach the highest wall temperature that would be
achieved in normal operation, the oil volumetric flow rate was
raised to 9.5m/hr and the glycol mass flow rate was lowered
to 4m/hr. Under these conditions, deposits formed in
slightly less than eight hours of operation (Figure 4). These
deposits were subjected to analysis followed by chemical
cleaning (CIP).
The fouling of the heat exchanger plates in the second
test phase led to a decrease in the heat transfer coefficient of
less than 10%, from 246 W/m2C to 234 W/m2C. At the same
time, the pressure drop on the glycol side rose from 3mbar to
6 mbar (Table 1).
Subsequent chemical cleaning with an acid, specifically
chosen for the fouling, resulted in a surface virtually free of
residues, allowing restoration of the original design duty.
Visual inspection of individual plates did not reveal any
residual deposits that would impair operation (Figures 5 and 6).
Conclusion
In a pilot plant for MEG regeneration, the suitability of a
KBloc welded plate heat exchanger with double dimple
corrugated plates for use as a reboiler in both onshore and
offshore operation was demonstrated, along with its
remarkable efficiency and resistance to fouling. In the first test
under practical conditions, there was no significant formation
of fouling or deposits. Fouling levels that could be used for
cleaning tests in operation with rich MEG could only be
induced by exposing the reboiler to a saturated salt solution
for four weeks. The deposits were easily removed from the
heat exchanger using CIP cleaning, after which its original
performance was restored. In light of the typical advantages of
welded plate heat exchangers low weight, compact
dimensions, low procurement cost and easy repair the
KBloc is suitable for use both onshore and offshore as a
reboiler in MEG regeneration systems.
References
1. BANI KANANEH, A., STOTZ, A. and DESHMUKH, S., Effect of fouling
and cleaning on the thermal performance of welded plate heat
exchangers in an offshore reboiler application, Proc. International
Conference on Heat Exchanger Fouling and Cleaning 2015, Enfield
(Dublin), Ireland, 7 - 12 June 2015.
2. BANI KANANEH, A. and PESCHEL, J., Fouling in Plate Heat Exchangers:
Some Practical Experience, in Heat Exchangers Basics Design
Applications, ed. MITROVIC, J., InTech, Rijeka, Croatia, 2012,
pp.533-550.
3. HAQUE, M. E., Ethylene Glycol Regeneration Plan: A Systematic
Approach to Troubleshoot the Common Problems, Journal of
Chemical Engineering, IEB, Vol. ChE. 27, No. 1, 2012, pp. 21 - 26.
4. NAZZER, C. A., Advances in Glycol Reclamation Technology, Proc.
Offshore Technology Conference, 2006, Houston, Texas, USA.
5. NESTA, J. and BENNETT, A. A., Fouling Mitigation by Design, Proc. 6th
Int. Conference on Heat Exchanger Fouling and Cleaning Challenges
and Opportunities 2005, Kloster Irsee, Germany, 5 - 10 June 2005,
pp.342 - 347.
 Peter Klotzsche,
MAN Diesel & Turbo,
Germany, discusses the
challenging market conditions
facing refiners and EPC
contractors, and explains how
OEM technology systems can
help improve and streamline
downstream processes.

INDIVIDUAL
STANDARDS
T
he current market for refinery products is
challenging, for both refiners and engineering,
procurement and construction (EPC) contractors.
Although growth in demand has been stable over
the past few years, averaging at 1 or 2% annually, spot
market prices for both crude oil and related products are
volatile. Due to differing seasonal demand, rising
competition in an over-saturated market and political
circumstances that disrupt the supply of crude oil,
e.g.,embargoes, war, unrest and natural disasters, refiners
are forced to buy crude oil from several sources with
differing properties, in terms of heaviness and sourness.
Mixing different crudes in order to achieve the required
quality can create a lot of additional work for operators
using existing plant equipment. Technologies such as
fracking and mining that extract oil from rocks and sand are
changing the landscape of crude trading streams. Former
importers of oil and gas, such as the US, are becoming
exporters themselves, and are being challenged by the
specifications and regulations of importing countries.

HYDROCARBON 83 December 2016

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. The hydrocracking process.
Figure 2. Refinery trains standardisation does not
have to interfere with individual requirements.
Figure 3. As a singlelift unit, the ReTPac serves the
needs of refiners and EPCs.
Focus on ROI and environmental
constraints
The factors described above, and the fact that investors are
demanding short return on investment (ROI), have forced
refiners to plan investments for high operational flexibility.
Another issue facing refiners is the environmental
constraints imposed by legislation or agreements.
In addition to implementing measures in energy
management systems, to optimise energy consumption and
the yield of refinery products, there is also a strong focus
on the contaminants in the fuels, such as sulfur, nitrogen
December 2016 84 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
and particulates. These are subject to increasingly strict
limits worldwide.
In the US, for example, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) imposed the use of ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD)
with a maximum sulfur content of 15 ppm. Since 2014, all
highway diesel vehicles as well as non-road, locomotive and
marine (NRLM) vehicles and equipment must use ULSD. Similar
sulfur limits are mandatory in Europe, ranging from
10-50ppm. The high expense catalysts used in various refinery
processes, such as catalytic reforming or catalytic cracking, are
sensitive to contaminants as they impair and clog the catalyst,
thus reducing the lifetime, quality and product yields.
Strong competition amongst EPC
contractors
The majority of oil refineries and processing plants are built
by EPC contractors on the basis of a lump sum turnkey
contract (LSTK), which can expose them to scheduling and
budget risks. Due to low oil prices and decelerating growth in
Asia, the EPCs are faced with strong competition when
bidding for the limited number of projects with a good
chance of realisation. As investors are aiming for the shortest
possible ROI, there is consequent strong pressure to accept
unfavourable conditions in terms of delivery time, costs and
even financing and warranties, while also complying with
specifications and requirements. Additionally, EPC
contractors are focused on risk minimisation measures and
are looking for safe, reliable solutions with attractive Capex
and short engineering and delivery times.
Hydrotreating and hydrocracking as key
factors
Summing this up, refiners today have to monitor and optimise
their costs and need to be flexible in processing different
crudes with different product outputs, while complying with
environmental constraints. Consequently, major oil companies
emphasise the importance of hydrotreating a refinery
process intended to reduce sulfur, nitrogen and aromatics
while enhancing cetane number, density and smoke point.
Hydrocrackers are a key element to achieving greater refinery
agility that will comply with market fluctuations, while
maximising refinery margins. In these applications, hydrogen
management is essential in order to optimise the processes.
Hydrogen needs to be continuously recycled through the
catalyst to avoid clogging from particles, such as sulfur,
nitrogen and the build up of coke.
Altered technology requirements
The aforementioned changes in market and process
conditions for refiners also have effects on companies, such
as MAN Diesel & Turbo, that supply refinery equipment. In
view of the tough market situation, turbomachinery original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs) that deliver key
components for refineries are being forced to drastically
reduce prices, which means cutting costs. The standardisation
and modularisation of components, machines and complete
trains are a viable answer to this challenge. While
standardisation is nothing new in the business, the current
market situation is placing stronger emphasis on it.
Manufacturing turbomachinery will always be a type of
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Figure 4. Opex driven maintenance.
project-oriented engineering, particularly because refiners
tend to provide very individual specifications. The challenge
of standardisation and modularisation, therefore, is to
comprehensively meet one customers requirements, while
limiting the amount of variations.
Still, there is widespread belief that standardisation will
result in less high value equipment since standards might
limit customised requirements. However, choosing the right
extent of modularisation, while keeping options open for
uniquely customised solutions, does not mean it will conflict
with objectives. Rather it improves the reliability and
security of the procurement and manufacturing chain, and,
thus, the final product.
Refinery train packages
In response to the altered needs of refiners and EPC
contractors, MAN Diesel and Turbo has engineered a line of
standardised steam turbine-driven compressor packages,
named Refinery Train Packages (ReTPac), which focalise on
hydrotreating and hydrocracking applications. The modular
configuration of these compressor packages ranges from
preengineered train components, including centrifugal
barrel-type compressors, coupling, mechanical drive steam
turbine and baseplate, through to system components such
as lube and control oil systems, dry gas seal conditioning
systems and unit control panels. The API regulations form
the clear basis for the design. However, pre-engineered
options for the modules allow for the adaptation of almost
every specification for individual customers. This concept
ensures maximum flexibility when selecting compressor train
components, without compromising on efficiency and
reliability.
Modular packages cover a wide range of
requirements
The quality of the modular packages is secured by an
optimised supply chain (framework agreements with
suppliers), with benefits for the customer in terms of
attractive Capex and short delivery times (11 - 12 months) for
complete, fully tested units. ReTPac packages are available in
three sizes to cover a wide range of applications.
API617-compliant MAN barrel compressors (RB) are used to
perform process gas recycling, following the size of the
refinery process plant. Their capacity ranges from 118 ft3/min.
December 2016 86 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
(200 m3/hr) for the smallest barrel RB28 in its low flow casing,
to 16 500 ft3/min. (28 000 m3/hr) for the RB45 in the high flow
casing configuration. The pressures range from a minimum of
57 psig (4 bara) at suction to a maximum of 3700psig (256 bara)
at discharge. The speed range is 8000-16500 rpm for the
RB28 and 8000 - 12 500 rpm for the RB45.
Four API 612-compliant MAN steam turbine drivers, with
power ratings between 0.5 and 10 MW, were selected to drive
the three different sizes of compressor in line with speed and
power requirements. The absence of a gearbox allows for a
reduction in footprint, Capex and maintenance operations.
These steam turbines can operate between 70and 105% of the
rated speed, ensuring maximum flexibility for the whole system.
The API 671 coupling can be the flexible element disk or
diaphragm type, and, if so desired, a squirrel cage induction
motor can replace the steam turbine driver.
The package will be monitored and controlled by a
SIMATIC S7-400FH that will check for anti-surge, as well as
performance and auxiliary controls with a redundant central
processing unit (CPU) and power supply. There is also a Braun
or Woodward governor for overspeed protection and a
Bentley Nevada 3500 system for vibration and temperature
monitoring. The size of the ReTPac main skid depends on the
size of the compressor train and may vary in length from
9-11 m with a weight from 40 - 65 t.
Thanks to modularisation and scalability these trains are
upgrade friendly, in terms of power, volume flow and
pressure. In addition, pre-designed documents enable final
drawings to be submitted for site preparation within four
weeks of order placement.
Opex driven maintenance
While standardisation of machinery is heading for a fast ROI in
terms of reduced Capex, comprehensive maintenance and
servicing means an emphasis on total product lifecycle costs,
and therefore optimised Opex. Hydrotreating units are only
one albeit a crucial component of modern refineries, but
they provide a good example here. Turbomachinery Opex
depends not only on a high level of efficiency and consistent
integration into and alignment with refinery processes, but
also relies on regular maintenance carried out by skilled
personnel. This maintenance can be performed by the
companys own personnel trained by the OEM, or by the
OEMs service personnel itself. For example, MAN Diesel &
Turbos service provider, MAN PrimeServ, offers both options
for ReTPac and other rotating refinery equipment. While
Capex are the first figures to look at, this helps achieve
minimum Opex as well as maximum added value long term.
Conclusion
After evaluating current trends in the refinery business and for
related equipment, ReTPac turbomachinery trains provide a
good example of meeting them. The altered requirements of
refiners and EPCs led to a stronger modularisation of system
components and pre-designed solutions, aiming for: a stable
supply chain, the ability to breeze with engineered options,
optimised efficiency, API compliance, upgrade friendliness and
the rapid delivery of the product itself and its included
documents. With the ReTPac concept, the company has now
confirmed its 20th train order within three years.
SMART
DESIGN
Stephen Hiner, CLARCOR Industrial Air,
UK, evaluates an effective solution for
the prevention of fouling in gas turbines.
T
he design of an inlet filter house is vital to protecting
gas turbine machinery and maintaining its performance
to optimise process efficiency and profitability.
Selecting the best solution is dependent on numerous
considerations, including the installation environment, process
and operational strategy of a facility. The efficiency rating of a
filter is one selection criteria an operator needs to consider, but
by no means the only one, or the most important.
Weatherhoods are used to manage higher levels of
precipitation, and pulse systems where there are greater
volumes of dust. These are areas that can help manage some
environmental aspects, however the selection of the type of
filter media itself is a vital consideration. It may be simple for
operators to think that by selecting a higher efficiency filter
they are increasing the level of protection of their turbine;
however, the problem is that standard efficiency ratings do not
give the whole picture about how a filter will perform in a real
world environment. Take a high efficiency particulate
arrestance (HEPA) filter as an example its high efficiency
means that it will capture small particles of dust and other
contaminants, but what happens when it gets wet? Will
moisture cause it to block quickly and give rise to sudden
pressure spikes? Is its construction robust enough for some of
the harsh environments where gas turbines are found? Any
damage to the sealing or casing within the filter will mean that
contaminants can bypass the filter media altogether, making
any efficiency rating irrelevant to real world performance.
Alongside efficiency ratings, there are many areas that
operators need to consider to help them make the best
selection for their particular installation.
HYDROCARBON 87 December 2016
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Environmental conditions can greatly affect
gas turbine performance. Sites often have to deal with
multiple challenges all at the same time, including
dust, mist and hydrocarbons.
Figure 2. Salt is one of the toughest issues facing
turbine operators, as it can be found in wet and dry
form, and causes corrosion to turbine blades.
Environmental challenges to filtration
technology
The environment a gas turbine is installed in has a huge impact
on both how quickly the turbines performance will be affected
by local contaminants and how effective a filtration system will
be in protecting it. One of the stickiest issues (quite literally) is
salt. If a turbine is situated in an offshore or coastal site, salt
needs to be high on the list of considerations.
The problem with salt is that it is highly hygroscopic in
nature, absorbing water from its surrounding environment.
Even the relative humidity (RH) at a site can quickly change the
form in which salt is present. If a filtration solution does not
handle this moisture well, the salt may simply pass through
the filter media and have a severe effect on downstream
machinery. In offshore environments, salty aerosols are
produced from the mechanical disruption of wave crests
waves churn the surface of the seas causing air to become
trapped in the water. This rises to the surface as bubbles,
which explode into the atmosphere expelling small sea water
droplets that form salt aerosols carried by the wind. Aerosols
December 2016 88 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
of salt may dry out relatively quickly, but will leave behind salt
crystals that are small enough to remain suspended in the
atmosphere for prolonged periods of time. Onshore
installations must also consider these effects, as the wind can
carry the airborne salt particles for miles.
Of course, dry salt can be dealt with using traditional
particulate removal filters. As RH rises above 75%, however, it
becomes a liquid, which can pass straight through many similar
filters. As it begins to change from its liquid form with a falling
RH, it takes on a sticky, semi-solid form that is particularly
challenging for filtration systems.
Salt is particularly challenging for gas turbine systems
because of its presence in various phases, but also because of
the severe damage it can cause if allowed to reach the turbine.
Sodium in salt will combine with sulfur in the fuel within the
hot section of the turbine, which will produce Type I and Type II
accelerated corrosion. The chemical reaction between the
sodium sulfate and turbine metal, at the high temperatures
within the turbine, attacks the base metal of the turbine blades
and can cause catastrophic failure. The chloride in the salt is
also a pitting corrosion initiator, which can start off pits
throughout the machine, where accelerated corrosion can then
take hold quickly.
Mist: the wet equivalent of a
sandstorm
The moisture in the air is another threat in itself to the
performance of a filter. As well as carrying contaminants, such
as salt, through to the turbine in liquid form, moisture can also
combine with sand and dust to form mud. As opposed to rain
or snow, moisture in the form of mist has tiny water droplets
that can become trapped in the matrix of the filter media and
cause blockages. Mist can act like a liquid sandstorm formed
of a massive concentration of very fine droplets. As a high
efficiency filter uses fine media to capture small contaminants,
rapid plugging and high pressure losses can occur unless the
filter is either designed to handle this phenomena or a
strategy is used to turn the fine drops into larger ones, so they
can be handled in a different way. The inherent way some
media types work mean they are more or less prone to this
type of blockage. ePTFE filters, for example, use a thin, two
dimensional layer of high efficiency media, which is ideal for
capturing fine dust particles, but makes them prone to
blockage by moisture droplets. Glass fibre media, on the other
hand, is around 10 times thicker, which provides a greater
filtration surface area that makes it less sensitive to moisture.
Hydrophobic coatings are also sometimes used to stop
liquids or moisture passing through the filter. Care needs to be
taken, however, that these will continue to perform as expected
throughout the filters lifetime.
Hydrocarbon mists are always present to a greater or
lesser extent around gas turbine installations. In addition to
causing some filters to block, they can also make dry
particulates sticky, enabling them to adhere more easily to
turbine internals and cause fouling. Performance can be
restored with regular offline washes, but this adds to
maintenance overhead and reduces productivity.
Hydrocarbons can also be more challenging for some filter
media types, so ePTFE, which has a particular affinity for oils,
can rapidly become blocked by the hydrocarbon droplets.
VALUE CREATION

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In a typical gas plant demethanizer (shown below), the increased capacity of INTALOX ULTRA random
packing compared to IMTP random packing allows a smaller diameter vessel at the same height. This is
important because the vessel thickness is a function of the diameter.

For the same application, the increased efficiency of INTALOX ULTRA random packing results in a reduced
vessel height at same diameter compared to IMTP random packing.
90 86

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Example is based on a typical gas plant

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This technology is protected by one or more patents in the USA. Other foreign patents may be relevant.

Figure 3. The altair ODSY vCell is designed to
withstand physically harsh environments that many
refineries and other oil and gas applications operate in.
Considering how a plant operates and
performs
Other areas to consider when selecting the optimum filter
solution include evaluating the frequency of maintenance and
the impact it has on operational efficiency. This includes
frequency of offline washes to maintain turbine performance,
how regularly a filter needs to be changed, and selecting a
solution that will not produce unexpected and sudden
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shutdowns due to filter blockages. The actual cost of reduced
production efficiency will, of course, be dependent upon the
value of the process. If a turbine is in a remote location,
maintenance may in itself be very costly and the need to
regularly change filters becomes an ongoing problem.
With multiple environmental and operational considerations,
the selection of the best filtration solution is very much
dependent upon the individual installation. Filter efficiency
ratings are just one factor and may indeed mislead the buyer into
purchasing a system that will do more harm than good. The only
way to truly evaluate a filters performance is to base it on the
performance and output of the turbine it is protecting.
The best protection for machinery, the process and a plants
profitability comes from understanding all the contributing
factors that affect how a filter performs in the real world. When
it comes to the oil and gas industry, in particular, installations are
often in remote and harsh environments and any loss of system
availability can be very costly indeed. The ODSY vCell is
specifically designed with the environmental challenges of salt,
moisture, hydrocarbons and high volumes of dust in mind. The
filter has unique hydrophobic properties, which are combined
with high efficiency performance. It has an extended filtration
surface area that ensures low pressure loss and supports
extended filter life.
Filtration in harsh environments
The ODSY vCell is designed to physically withstand harsh
environments. It is made using fully potted pleated panels to
provide a complete seal and is mounted within a rugged,
impact resistant acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic
frame that incorporates tough protective grids on the
downstream surface. These contribute to a high burst pressure
rating of 25 in. water gauge (WG) more than adequate for the
severe under-pressure conditions that can be experienced in
gas turbine applications. The ODSY vCell is sealed into its
housing by means of a one piece polyurethane foam gasket to
ensure leak free performance.
Extensive field trials of the ODSY vCell have shown that its
use results in significant improvements in gas turbine output
degradation between compressor washes, leading to increased
overall generated output and extended periods between
washing with major financial benefits. Operation in high
moisture, high salt coastal sites also show negligible corrosion of
turbine blades after 20000fired hours a marked contrast with
typical experience using conventional filters.
The ODSY filter offers significant improvements over a
traditional high velocity system, with wet and dry salt removal
efficiency typically up to 10 000 times greater. They are used in
installations around the world and have been shown to protect
turbines, output efficiency and significantly reduce the required
maintenance frequency of activities, such as offline turbine
washes.
Conclusion
One filtration solution will never be able to meet the needs of
all installations. Each aspect of a filter house needs to be
assessed against individual conditions, costs and operational
strategy. Having been designed for the oil and gas sector, the
ODSY vCell technology, however, has been proven to give a
good return on investment in many different applications.
RETR FIT
F R
ENERGY
SAVINGS:
part TWO
Satyadileep Dara and Abdallah S. Berrouk, The Petroleum Institute, UAE, continue
their discussion of an amine sweetening unit retrofit with a split flow scheme.
A
process simulation model of split flow
configuration retrofitted for the commercial
amine sweetening unit is used to analyse the
effect of split fraction of the semi-lean amine on
the reboiler duty, condenser duty, total solvent cooling and
pumping loads. Throughout the analysis, sweet gas H2S is
kept constant by manipulating the reboiler duty. Thus, net
changes in the energy consumption are compared
quantitatively for given changes in the split fraction, while
maintaining constant sweet gas H2S specification.
Figure 1 represents the trend of the steam rate to the
reboiler as a function of the split fraction configuration. As
the semi-lean amine is only partially stripped, it has a
higher residual acid gas loading but, as it comes into
contact with the incoming sour gas, it can still absorb a
significant portion of the acid gas in the lower section of
the absorber. On the other hand, the amine flow rate in the
bottom of the stripper is much lower, and a lower rate of
steam can strip the amine sufficiently to achieve the
desired sweet gas specification. This clearly explains the
decreasing steam rate with increasing split fraction.
However, as the split fraction increases further, the flow
rate of the semi-lean solvent increases, which means that a
larger proportion of the total solvent has high acid gas
loading, thereby providing lesser driving force for gas
absorption. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that the lean
solvent from the stripper bottom is extremely lean to
provide the necessary driving force for absorbing the acid
gases to the given sweet gas H2S levels, which requires high
steam rates for thorough stripping. It can also be
summarised that, at constant reboiler duty, acid gas
absorption is promoted as the split fraction increases until
approximately 0.3, but follows a reversing trend thereafter.
Figure 2 represents the total condenser duty required as
a function of the split fraction. As expected, condenser
duty qualitatively follows the trend of reboiler duty.
Indeed, reboiler and condenser duties achieve their
respective minima at a split fraction of approximately 0.3.
As the total amount of pure amine solvent entering the
absorber column reduces, the CO2 absorption also reduces,
as shown in Figure 3. Sweet gas CO2 increases from 2.7 to
3% as the split fraction increases to approximately 0.5. Such
levels of sweet gas CO2 are acceptable for the commercial
amine sweetening unit under study, but it is essential to
verify its effect on the sweet gas heating value to make
sure the change in sales gas revenue is not significant.
HYDROCARBON 91 December 2016
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Steam rate variation, as a function of
semilean amine split fraction.
Figure 2. Condenser duty variation, as a function of
semi-lean amine split fraction.
Figure 3. Sweet gas CO2 content and high heating
value (HHV), as a function of semi-lean amine split
fraction.
Figure 4. Total solvent cooling and pumping duties,
as a function of semi-lean amine split fraction.
December 2016 92 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Figure 4 shows the reduced sweet gas heating value by
0.2%, which is negligible. As the solvent rate decreases, the
thickness of the gaseous and liquid phase boundary layer at
the gas-liquid interface increases, leading to higher
resistance of CO2 mass transfer.1
The total solvent cooling duty decreases marginally as
the split fraction increases to 0.5. Such a minor change in the
cooling duty is justified by two factors: the total solvent rate
is the same as that of the conventional unit and an
additional lean-rich heat exchanger is provided on the split
flow line by splitting the rich amine in the same proportions
as that of the lean amine, to conserve the heating/cooling
energy. Similarly, the total pumping duty does not have any
major effect on split fraction as the total solvent rate and
net head are constant, as shown in Figure6.
Economic estimate
Overall, the proposed split flow scheme results in a
significant reduction in reboiler and condenser duties, up
to a split fraction of 0.3, and marginally affects the heating
value, cooling and pumping loads while maintaining the
same sweet gas H2S specification. However, it is essential to
evaluate the overall savings in the operating energies
(reboiler duty, condenser duty, cooling and pumping load)
as revenue to identify the optimum split fraction that
achieves the lowest energy consumption of the unit.
Quantification of the savings is performed based on the
costs of steam and electricity produced in the commercial
amine sweetening unit under this study: steam and
electricity costs are US$3.77/t and US$0.03/kWh,
respectively. Net savings in the operating costs are
evaluated using the following expression.
nn Net savings in operating costs = ([savings in steam rate,
t/hr] x [cost of steam, US$/t]) + ([savings in cooling
energy load, MW] x [cost of electricity, US$/MW]) +
([savings in pumping energy load, MW] x [cost of
electricity, US$/MW]).
Figure 5 presents the trend of net annual savings in the
total operating costs as a function of the split fraction.
Clearly, a split fraction of 0.3 provides the optimum
operational scenario for the split flow scheme, with annual
savings of US$320 000.
Indeed, it can be concluded that until a global
maximum is reached, a split flow scheme retrofitted on an
amine sweetening unit results in increased savings, as a
function of solvent split fraction, and follows an opposite
trend thereafter.
Furthermore, the capital cost of the retrofit is
estimated for analysing the payback potential of the
scheme. Therefore, a process simulation model is
developed for a split flow scheme using Aspen Economic
Evaluation V 8.4 for evaluating the cost of the retrofit
components: liquid-liquid heat exchanger, circulating pump
and air cooler. Figure 6 shows the Aspen Economic
Evaluation model of a split flow scheme with the same
stream and equipment tags as that of the simulation model.
Capital cost data revealed by this model and payback
period analysis are provided in Table 1. Total equipment
costs for the retrofit scheme are estimated to be
US$527000.
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Figure 5. Net annual savings as a function of
semilean amine split flow fraction.
Figure 6. Aspen Economic Evaluation model of
splitflow scheme.
Table 1. Summary of economic analysis of the
retrofit scheme
Heat exchanger (XCHG-100)
Area, m2
Cost, US$
Air cooler (XCHG-101)
Duty, MW
Cost, US$
Booster pump (pump 1)
Duty, MW
Cost, US$
Circulation pump (pump 2)
Duty, MW
Cost, US$
Total equipment cost, US$
Total installation cost, US$ 2.476 million
Total annual savings, US$
Payback period, years
December 2016 94 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
A Lang factor (defined as the ratio of the total cost of
installing a process in a plant to the cost of its major
technical components) of 4.7 is considered, which
evaluates the total installation cost of the retrofit as
US$2.476million. Thus, economic analysis summarises that
the proposed scheme pays back its capital investment in
7.6 years. It is important to note that this economic study
assumes that the absorber and regenerator are already
provided with ports for solvent inlet and withdrawal,
respectively. In other cases, columns could require major
modifications for implementing this scheme, which may
make the proposed configuration uneconomical.
Conclusion
The feasibility of using a split flow scheme to reduce the
duty requirements of a Middle East-based amine
sweetening unit was investigated. The modelling results
indicated that the implementation of the proposed split
flow scheme to the existing design can significantly reduce
the total operating cost of the unit. The proposed method
proved to be a means of enhancing the system efficiency,
while complying with the product specifications. It was
also concluded that the optimum operational scenario
would be achieved at a split fraction of 0.3. Ultimately, a
detailed economic study was performed to conclude that
an annual saving of US$330 000 was achievable, and the
retrofit scheme would pay back in less than eight years.
Therefore, the authors concluded that retrofitting the split
407 flow scheme is highly recommended for any commercial
amine unit having suitable solvent inlet/withdrawal
89 000
provisions on the columns.
10 Note
180 000 Part one of this article was published in the August 2016
issue of Hydrocarbon Engineering.
0.15
Acknowledgement
63 000 This study was financially supported by The Petroleum
Institute Gas Research Centre (GRC).
0.53
195 000
References
1. YUEXIA, L., XINHAI, Y., SHAN-TUNG, T., JINYUE, Y. and DAHLQUIST,E.,
527 000 Experimental Investigation on CO2 absorption using absorbent in
hollow fiber membrane contactor, Research report funded by Swedish
Research Links Programme and the China Natural Science Foundation
(20606011).
325 000 2. Aspen Technology, Inc., 'Optimizing Process Manufacturing, (Economic
Evaluation)' https://www.aspentech.com/products/aspen-economic-
7.6
eval.aspx (26 Nov 2015).
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 15 FACTS ON...
CHRISTMAS
Phillips Petroleum Companys The Germans made In the UK the
significant EKOFISK OILFIELD the FIRST ARTIFICIAL demand for
discovery is referred to as Norways CHRISTMAS TREES out electricity on
CHRISTMAS GIFT OF 1969 of dyed goose feathers a winters day
is, on average,
Following the 1973 oil crisis, US state 36% HIGHER
governments requested that citizens than on a
not put up Christmas lights, with summers day
US scientists Oregon banning Christmas as well
calculated that as commercial lighting altogether, to In petroleum
SantaClaus reduce energy consumption and natural gas
would have to visit extraction, a
822 HOMES The Brent crude oil CHRISTMAS TREE
is an assembly
EVERY SECOND price is forecast to
of valves, spools,
to deliver all the worlds average and fittings
presents on Christmas Eve
US$48/bbl used for wells,
A household with an this winter, including oil,
EIA expects gas and
extravagant Christmas US households US$9/bbl higher
injection wells
light display will spend heating primarily than last winter
enough money to heat with natural gas
and power an average to spend US$116 MORE The worlds LARGEST
house for SIX WEEKS, (22%) more this THAN Christmas stocking,
and produce 400 kg
of carbon dioxide
winter compared
with last winter

According to the Centre for Global

160
COUNTRIES
made by the Childrens
Society in London on
14 December 2007, was
OVER 106 FT LONG
Development, the amount of electricity used CELEBRATE
CHRISTMAS AND 49 FT WIDE
for decorative seasonal lights in the USis
MORE THAN THE NATIONAL ELECTRICITY
Commissioned by Sir Henry Cole,
CONSUMPTION OF MANY DEVELOPING
British illustrator John Callcott Horsley
COUNTRIES, such as El Salvador, Ethiopia,
DESIGNED THE FIRST
Tanzania, Nepal or Cambodia
CHRISTMAS CARD IN 1843

The most lights lit simultaneously on a

Christmas tree is 194 672, and was achieved in
Christmas trees usually grow Malmedy, Belgium, on 10 December 2010
for about 15 YEARS before
they are sold

December 2016 96 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING