1.

i. How does Thomas Kuhn employ the concepts Paradigm and Scientific Community to
explain the following.
A. Normal science
Normal Science is the first step of the Kuhn Cycle. The cycle was first described
in Thomas Kuhn's seminal work, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, in 1962.
This showed how scientific fields all undergo the same basic cycle. They begin
in Prescience where they have a problem area of interest but are unable to
make much progress. When at last they have a guiding model of understanding,
which Kuhn called the field's paradigm, they advance to Normal Science, where
they remain most of the time except when their paradigm undergoes a cycle of
paradigm revolution. The basic cycle is shown.) Normal
Science means research firmly based upon one or more past scientific
achievements, achievements that some particular scientific community
acknowledges for a time as supplying the foundation for its further practice.
Normal Science, the activity in which most scientists inevitably spend almost all
their time, is predicated on the assumption that the scientific community knows
what the world is like. Much of the success of the enterprise derives from the
communitys willingness to defend that assumption, if necessary at considerable
cost. Normal science, for example, often suppresses fundamental novelties
because they are necessarily subversive of is basic commitments.
B. Revolutions in science
According to Kuhn the development of a science is not uniform but has
alternating normal and revolutionary (or extraordinary) phases. The
revolutionary phases are not merely periods of accelerated progress, but differ
qualitatively from normal science. Normal science does resemble the standard
cumulative picture of scientific progress, on the surface at least. Kuhn describes
normal science as puzzle-solving (1962/1970a, 3542). While this term
suggests that normal science is not dramatic, its main purpose is to convey the
idea that like someone doing a crossword puzzle or a chess problem or a jigsaw,
the puzzle-solver expects to have a reasonable chance of solving the puzzle, that
his doing so will depend mainly on his own ability, and that the puzzle itself and
its methods of solution will have a high degree of familiarity. A puzzle-solver is
not entering completely uncharted territory. Because its puzzles and their
solutions are familiar and relatively straightforward, normal science can expect
to accumulate a growing stock of puzzle-solutions. Revolutionary science,
however, is not cumulative in that, according to Kuhn, scientific revolutions
involve a revision to existing scientific belief or practice (1962/1970a, 92). Not
all the achievements of the preceding period of normal science are preserved in
a revolution, and indeed a later period of science may find itself without an
explanation for a phenomenon that in an earlier period was held to be
successfully explained. This feature of scientific revolutions has become known
as Kuhn-loss.

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2.
i. Explain briefly the views of Paul Feyerabend regarding the uniqueness of science among
other knowledge systems.
Feyerabend argues that it is not justifiable to take science as the superior system of
knowledge than other systems. He also says that there may not be any decisive
argument in favor of science over other systems of knowledge incommensurable with it.
If science is to be compared with other systems of knowledge, then it is necessary to
investigate the aims and methods of science , nature and other systems of knowledge.
To do this we need to study textbooks, historical records, original papers, records of
meetings and private conversations and also letters and so on. It is hard to conform that
for a given system of knowledge which is under investigation must conform to the rules
of logic as they are understood by contemporary philosophers as they were understood
by classical logic. An example offered by Feyerabend concerns modern quantum
mechanics. So may be to investigate whether some theory involved in modern quntum
mechanics violates the classical logic or not it may be necessary to investigate quantum
mechanics and the way in which it functions.
ii. Expplain briefly the two conditions which ought to be met by any theory that is
proposed for acceptance by the philosophers of science, namely consistency
condition and corresponding condition

The expression of consistency is applied to systems or sets of statements. From a

contradictory system any statement can be derived. Therefore, contradictory systems
are basically useless. It is characteristic of a consistent system that not every statement
can be proved within it. Within a system, consistency may be demonstrated, but not
beyond the boundaries of this system, since the use of the symbols and the set of
possible objects are only defined for this system. Within mathematics, and only there
applies that the mathematical objects, which are mentioned in consistent formulas,
exist.

3.
i. What are the basic assumptions of Reductionism which guide modern science ?

The basic assumptions of reductionism which guide modern science are

A. The ontological assumptions
a. That a system is reducible to its parts
b. That all systems are made up of the same basic constituents which are
discrete and atomistic
c. All systems have the same basic processes which are mechanical
B. The epistemological assumptions
a. That knowledge of the parts of a system gives knowledge of the whole
system.

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 b. Experts and specialists are the only legitimate knowledge seekers and
knowledge justifiers.

ii. Controlled experiment in the laboratory is a central element of the methodology of

reductionist science. Explain briefly the main drawbacks of this methodology.

Deception and lack of informed consent The Hawthorne effect gives rise to the firs
ethical disadvantages often found in experiments it is often necessary to deceive
subjects as to the true nature of the experiment so that they do not act differently,
meaning that they are not in a position to give full, informed consent. This was the case
in the Milgram experiment, where the research subjects thought the (invisible) person
receiving the shocks was the actual subject rather than themselves.

Laboratory experiments lack external validity sociologists hardly ever use lab
experiments because the artificial environment of the laboratory is so far removed from
real-life that most Sociologists agree that the results gained from such experiments tell
us very little about how respondents would actually act in real life. Take the Milgram
experiment for example how likely is it that you will ever be asked by scientist to give
electric shocks to someone youve never met and who you cant see when they give the
wrong answer to a question youve just read out? Moreover, when was the last time
you were asked to do anything to anyone by a scientist? In the real world context, many
of the Milgram respondents may have responded to real-world authority figures
demands differently.

harm to respondents. In the case of the original Milgram experiment, many research
participants were observed to sweat, stutter, tremble, bit their lips and dig their nails
into their flesh, full-blown, uncontrollable seizures were observed for three subjects.

Practical problems include the fact that you cannot get many sociological subjects into
the small scale setting of a laboratory setting. You cant get a large group of people, or a
subculture, or a community into a lab in order to observe how they interact with
independent variables. Also, the controlled nature of the experiment means you are
likely to be researching one person at a time, rather than several people completing a
questionnaire at once, so it may take a long time to get a large-sample.

4. Write short essays on the following ecological crises created by reductionist science and
technology
i. Eucalyptus Planting
Certain elements of today's ecological crisis reveal its moral character. First among
these is the indiscriminate application of advances in science and technology. Many
recent discoveries have brought undeniable benefits to humanity. Indeed, they
demonstrate the nobility of the human vocation to participate responsibly in God's
creative action in the world. Unfortunately, it is now clear that the application of these
discoveries in the fields of industry and agriculture have produced harmful long-term

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effects. This has led to the painful realization that we cannot interfere in one area of the
ecosystem without paying due attention both to the consequences of such interference
in other areas and to the well-being of future generations, the gradual depletion of the
ozone layer and the related "greenhouse effect" has now reached crisis proportions as a
consequence of industrial growth, massive urban concentrations and vastly increased
energy needs. Industrial waste, the burning of fossil fuels, unrestricted deforestation,
the use of certain types of herbicides, coolants and propellants: all of these are known
to harm the atmosphere and environment.
The resulting meteorological and atmospheric changes range from damage to health to
the possible future submersion of low-lying lands. While in some cases the damage
already done may well be irreversible, in many other cases it can still be halted. It is
necessary, however, that the entire human com-munityindividuals, States and
international bodiestake seriously the responsibility that is theirs.
The most profound and serious indication of the moral implications underlying the
ecological problem is the lack of respect for life evident in many of the patterns of
environmental pollution. Often, the interests of production prevail over concern for the
dignity of workers, while economic interests take priority over the good of individuals
and even entire peoples. In these cases, pollution or environmental destruction is the
result of an unnatural and reductionist vision which at times leads to a genuine
contempt for man. On another level, delicate ecological balances are upset by the
uncontrolled destruction of animal and plant life or by a reckless exploitation of natural
resources. It should be pointed out that all of this, even if carried out in the name of
progress and well-being, is ultimately to mankind's disadvantage.
Finally, we can only look with deep concern at the enormous possibilities of biological
research. We are not yet in a position to assess the biological disturbance that could
result from indiscriminate genetic manipulation and from the unscrupulous
development of new forms of plant and animal life, to say nothing of unacceptable
experimentation regarding the origins of human life itself. It is evident to all that in any
area as delicate as this, indifference to fundamental ethical norms, or their rejection,
would lead mankind to the very threshold of self-destruction. Respect for life, and above
all for the dignity of the human person, is the ultimate guiding norm for any sound
economic, industrial or scientific progress. The complexity of the ecological question is
evident to all. There are, however, certain underlying principles, which, while respecting
the legitimate autonomy and die specific competence of those involved, can direct
research towards adequate and lasting solutions.
These principles are essential to the building of a peaceful society; no peaceful society
can afford to neglect either respect for life or the fad that there is an integrity to
creation Eucalyptus are 20% of major reforestation plantings for timber and fuelwood;
uses also include wind protection and honey. Advantages include: adaptability to a wide
range of altitudes; climates and sites; high growth rate; tolerance of low fertility. Species
are classified for use in dry, wet, intermediate zones and in upland locations. Forward
annual plans are for 4,000 ha of this, 10-15% will be eucalypt. Main demand is
transmission poles, sawn timber and railway sleepers; fuelwood is a secondary product
but E. Canadensis and E. tereticornis are grown on short 7-year rotations for this.

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 Eucalypt (14 yrs.)
soil studies noted lower organic matter, N and K compared to teak and natural forest
but organic matter, N and K were greater under eucalypt than in bare soil. No significant
difference in soil physical properties, porosity and bulk density was noted in these forest
covers. Fertiliser application is needed. Undergrowth is less (particularly in the dry
zone); litter is an erosion counter but frequent firing of it causes serious erosion
problems. Moisture content is lower in dry zone compared to levels in teak or natural
forest. Lower levels of fauna exist in eucalypts. Concern is voiced in environmental
degradation with allegations of adverse effects on: soil, hydrology and habitat. Abstracts
of local eucalypt research are included The water cycle, interception loss, through fall,
stem flow and water use were covered in the publication of Poore and Fries. The
general conclusion was that, while there is a difference in the yield of water from open
plots and sites with trees, the behaviour of Eucalyptus spp. was not very different from
forests of sal (Shorea robusta), pine and oak scrub. Studies since 1985 confirm the
findings on interception loss, throughfall and stem flow and hence these are not
discussed in this report. The conclusions on run off and water erosion were that most
eucalypts are not good trees for erosion control. Papers published since 1985 generally
deal with the use of eucalypts for soil erosion control because of its other advantages
but the basics of its effectiveness in controlling erosion have not been dwelt upon.
Hence, as the earlier findings remain valid, this issue is not discussed.[6] In the present
paper issues discussed under ecological aspects are: water use of eucalypts, nutrient use
of eucalypts and eucalypts in shelter belts and agroforestry mixtures. These have
remained as issues. There are some positive aspects of Eucalyptus spp. Benefitting the
ecology of a locality of region, not covered in the earlier report. An analysis of the
results of the studies in this field is included.
ii. Pesticides
Pesticides a substance used for destroying insects or other organisms harmful to
cultivated plants or to animals. Cambridge online dictionary gives us the meaning as
mentioned. Pesticides are man made. As philosophy speaks, As Thomas Kuhn states
reductionism is not the perfect way. So it says the researches done inside a lab may not
be the best solution to problems out there. A pesticide is a substance used for
destroying insects or organisms harmful to cultivated plants or animals. So are they
good for the animal or the plant ? For the moment we may say yes. But In the end it
seems like it is not, all around the world there is voice calling us to go green. Why ????
The substance that we used to destroy our enemies are destroying us. The significant
increase of using pesticides and other chemicals to plantations has witnessed a increase
in the kidney disseases. of people in the north central province has diagnosed with
kidney disease.
So are we really planting ? are we really killing harmful to us ? seems like its not. Our
soil is ruined, Land of Sri lanka had a very rich soil. But the modern cultivators seem to
have no knowledge of the great cultivation techniques used by our ancesstors. Also
another fact says Sri lanka is ranked 3rd in highest pesticide using country list. So it
seems like a time to look back and think.