PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM IN EXISTING

DISTRIBUTION NETWORK IN NEPAL

A DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree
of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ALTERNATE HYDRO ENERGY SYSTEMS

By
MEEN BAHADUR DHAMI

ALTERNATE HYDRO ENERGY CENTRE

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE-247 667 (INDIA)
MAY, 2017
 CANDIDATES DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work which is presented in this dissertation report, entitled,
Integration of Photovoltaic System in Existing Distribution Network in Nepal,
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of
Technology in Alternate Hydro Energy Systems in Alternate Hydro Energy Centre,
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, is an authentic record of my own work carried
out during the period from June 2016 to April 2017 under the supervision of Dr. D. K.
Khatod, Associate Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, Roorkee (India).

I also declare that I have not submitted the matter embodied in this report for award
of any degree.

Date: ..., May, 2017 .........................................

Place: IIT, Roorkee (Meen Bahadur Dhami)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my
knowledge.

.........................................

(Dr. D. K. Khatod)
Associate Professor,
Department of Electrical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology,

I
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my respected

guide, Dr. D. K. Khatod, Associate Professor of Department of Electrical Engineering for
the continuous support of graduate studies. I am highly indebted for his guidance,
supervision, and help in providing all the necessary information and support during this
study. His creative thinking, motivation and immense knowledge have been source of
inspiration throughout this work.
I would like to express my gratitude to the faculties and staffs of Alternate Hydro
Energy Center for their kind co-operation and encouragement in the present work.
My sincere thanks also go to my friends and colleagues for their unlimited support
and having contributed to a good working environment. My special thanks go to the
Department of Hydrology and Metrology (DHM), Nepal and Nepal Electricity Authority
(NEA) for providing data for this dissertation work.
I express my thanks to ITEC program, Government of India for facilitating the M.
Tech. program. In addition, I would like to express my thanks to Government of Nepal, who
nominated me for this program.

(Meen Bahadur Dhami)

Date: - ... May, 2017

II
 ABSTRACT

Solar photovoltaic (SPV) has become a significant part of power generation in many
countries during recent years. This is a green and clean form of energy and hence is the most
popular alternative source of energy in the world. Through its policy, Government of Nepal
has recently declared to reduce present energy crisis by searching some quick possible
options of production of electricity like SPV. Solar photovoltaic (SPV) as distributed
generation (DG) in existing grid will minimize power loss, improve voltage profile and
power quality in the distribution system. But, inappropriate DG allocation in the system may
react adversely. Therefore, optimal location and size of DG plays important role in the
network.
In this dissertation work, the placement and sizing of PV in distribution network is
determined using optimization. Seasonal average hourly solar potential and load profile for
the four seasons are determined based on available data. Based on capacity factor (CF),
suitable solar PV module is selected.
Multi-objective optimization problem is formulated to minimize energy loss and to
minimize cost of SPV in a radial distribution system. The constraints are the size of SPV,
bus voltage, line current and maximum SPV penetration. The proposed methodology uses
Genetic Algorithm (GA) to optimize the multi-objective function. This technique increases
the diversity of the optimization variables and does not trap in a local minimum. In addition,
a fuzzy set theory is used to select the best compromising solution from the Pareto-optimal
set obtained from GA. To validate this method, an 11 kV, 21 bus radial distribution system
is selected which is situated in Kathmandu, Nepal. The obtained results illustrate the
effectiveness of the proposed method.

III
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CANDIDATES DECLARATION I
CERTIFICATE I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT II
ABSTRACT III
LIST OF FIGURES VII
LIST OF TABLES VIII
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS IX

Chapter - 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 General 1
1.2 Distributed Generation 1
1.2.1 Definition 1
1.2.2 Benefits of DG 2
1.2.3 Adverse effects of DG 3
1.3 Solar Photovoltaic 3
1.3.1 Solar photovoltaic cell 4
1.3.2 Types of solar PV system 7
1.3.2.1 Isolated solar PV system 7
1.3.2.2 Grid-connected solar PV system 8
1.3.3 Photovoltaic power output 9
1.4 Distribution system 9
1.5 Dissertation objectives 10
1.6 Organization of report 11

Chapter - 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12

2.1 General 12
2.2 Review of literature 12
2.2.1 Solar photovoltaic related studies for Nepal 12

IV
2.2.2 Review of solar cell material 13
2.2.3 Review of load flow method for distribution systems 14
2.2.4 Review of impact of photovoltaic on grid 15
2.2.5 Review of optimization for distributed generation sizing and locating problems 16
2.3 Gaps identified 21

Chapter - 3 PROBLEM FORMULATION AND SOLUTION ALGORITHM 22

3.1 General 22
3.2 Problem Statement: 22
3.3 Analysis of distribution system for load flow 23
3.4 Mathematical modeling of distribution line 23
3.4.1 Load flow analysis 26
3.5 Problem formulation 27
3.5.1 Formulation of optimization problem 27
3.5.2 Constraints 29
3.5.2.1 Equality constraints 29
3.5.2.2 Inequality constraints 29
3.5.2.3 Constraints Handling 30
3.6 Genetic Algorithm 32
3.6.1 Introduction: 32
3.6.2 Outline of Genetic Algorithm 32
3.6.3 GA based Solution Methodology 34
3.6.3.1 Coding of the solution 34
3.6.3.2 Objective Functions 35
3.6.3.3 Selecting the best result 35
3.6.3.4 Setting of parameters 36

Chapter - 4 SOLAR ENERGY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 37

4.1 General 37
4.2 Estimation of solar radiation on tilted surface 37
4.3 Selection of solar PV unit 41
4.3.1 Capacity Factor (CF): 42

V
Chapter - 5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 44

5.1 General: 44
5.2 Case Study: 44
5.3 Result and Discussion 46
5.3.1 Result of energy loss minimization 47
5.3.2 Result of cost minimization 50
5.3.3 Result of Multi-Objective Optimization 50
5.3.4 Result Analysis 55

Chapter - 6 Conclusion and future work 56

6.1 General 56
6.2 Conclusion 56
6.3 Future Work 57

REFERENCES 58

Appendix: A 63

Base case load flow program in MATLAB 63

Appendix: B 67

Single objective optimization using MATLAB GA Toolbox 67

Appendix: C 72

Multi-objective optimization using MATLAB GA Toolbox 72

VI
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1.1: Operation of PV cell 4

Fig. 1.2: Mono and poly crystalline silicon PV cell 5
Fig. 1.3A: Solar PV panel 5
Fig. 1.3B: Solar PV Array 5
Fig. 1.4: I-V and P-V characteristics curve of a SPV module. 6
Fig. 1.5A: I-V curve for various irradiances at constant temperature. 5
Fig. 1.5B: I-V curve at constant irradiance with varying temperature 6
Fig. 1.6: Isolated solar PV system 7
Fig. 1.7: Components of a grid-connected system 8
Fig. 3.1: Single line diagram of a distribution line 23
Fig. 3.2: Distribution grid with solar PV generator 25
Fig. 3.3:Genetic Algorithm Scheme. 33
Fig. 4.1: Seasonal variation of solar radiation in horizontal surface 38
Fig. 4.2: Seasonal global solar radiation in tilted surface. 40
Fig. 4.3:Daily solar PV power output of a 1000W PV array 43
Fig. 5.1: Distribution system with 21 bus 44
Fig. 5.2: Seasonal load profile for distribution network. 46
Fig. 5.3: Fitness function evaluation for 21 Bus 47
Fig. 5.4: Optimal size and allocation of PV units for 21 Bus 48
Fig. 5.5: Comparison of voltage profile with PV during maximum load condition 49
Fig. 5.6: Multi-Objective Pareto front representation 50
Fig. 5.7: Effect of PV capacity of the energy losses 53
Fig. 5.8: Effect of PV capacity on PV cost 54

VII
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: seasonal average global solar radiation (Wm-2) on horizontal surface 37
Table 4.2: Specification of different modules 41
Table 4.3: CF of the PV modules available 43
Table 5.1: Line Data and Load Data of the distribution system 45
Table 5.2: Parameters of Genetic Algorithm 47
Table 5.3: Result for PV size and location 48
Table 5.4: Annual total energy loss reduction with PV 49
Table 5.5: PV location and size for cost minimization 50
Table 5.6: Summary of multi-objective optimization results 53
Table 5.7: The best result based on fuzzy theory 54

VIII
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACO Ant Colony Optimization

AI Artificial Intelligent
BIBC Bus injection to branch-current
CBF Cost Benefit Factor
CF Capacity Factor
DE Differential Evolution
DER Distributed Energy Resources
DG Distributed Generation
DHM Department of Hydrology and Metrology
EA Evolutionary Algorithm
EP Evolutionary Programming
FCM Fuzzy C Mean
FF Fill Factor
GA Genetic Algorithm
GoN Government of Nepal
HS Harmony Search
IA Immune Algorithm
I-V Current-Voltage
LD Line Data
LP Linear Programming
MINLP Mixed Integer Nonlinear Programming
MPP Maximum Power Point
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracker
NB Number of Buses
NEA Nepal Electricity Authority
NLP Nonlinear Programming
NSGA Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm

IX
O&M Operation and Maintenance
OF Objective Function
PSO Particle Swarm Optimization
P-V Power-Voltage
RES Renewable Energy Sources
RET Renewable Energy Technology
SA Simulated Annealing
SPV Solar Photovoltaic
STC Standard Test Condition

X
 Chapter - 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Nowadays, life without electrical energy cannot be imagined. This is the

most essential daily needs for human life. The global energy consumption is increasing
day by day to improve the living standards of human life; however, the conventional
source of energy is on the verge of extinction. Present energy demand of Nepal has been
fulfilled from traditional sources of energy. One of the major sources of electrical energy
in Nepal is to develop hydropower plant, but it has many barriers such as economic and
technical constraints. Therefore, it becomes necessary to look for alternative sources for
electrical energy production such as wind and solar. Through its policy, Government of
Nepal has recently declared to reduce load shedding by searching quick possible options
for production of electrical power. One of the great opportunities to Nepal is that it has
large amount of solar energy incidence on the territory which can partially fulfill the gap
between demand and supply [1]. Knowing that fact, Government of Nepal has recently
shown the interest in solar energy system, particularly photovoltaic grid integrated
system to reduce energy shortage in a quick way without polluting the environment. In
addition, that, the present electrical networks are operating in their full capacity and
further loading them is very difficult. To reduce this type of problem distributed
generation are necessary to install at the load center.

1.2 Distributed Generation

1.2.1 Definition
Distributed generation (DG) is small power generating unit that serves electricity
closer to the consumer load. The main sources of distributed generator are solar
photovoltaic, small hydropower, wind energy, biomass, etc. [2]. Nowadays, it has gained
many popularity in power sector due to its ability in voltage improvement, power loss

1
reduction, low investment cost, and increased reliability. DG can be used as in isolated
way or integrated with grid. In distribution system, DG may provide benefit to the
consumers as well as to utilities. According to [3], the DGs can be classified based on
source of energy and size.
Based on energy source employed in power generation, the DG are categorized
as renewable DG and non-renewable DG. The renewable DGs includes small
hydropower, solar power, wind, biomass, geothermal, etc. While non-renewable DGs
are diesel, gas or natural gas which cannot be replenished. Based on capacity of
generation the distributed generation belongs the size smaller than 50MW [4].
Integration of DG requires to analyze several factors, such as: technology to be
used, numbers and capacity of DG, best location and type of network connection. The
operating characteristics of the network should be evaluated properly and the impact of
DG addition should also be evaluated. Otherwise, improper location and sizing of DG
may lead to higher system loss, increase in voltage and increase in investment cost which
is opposite as desired. Due to this reason, the proper optimization method capable for
the best solution in the given network is useful for the planner.

1.2.2 Benefits of DG
The role of distributed generation (DG) is increasing day by day in the emerging
modern power systems. The main reasons for usage of DG are as follows:
Decrease the overall system losses.
Decrease transmission and distribution related costs.
Easy operation and maintenance.
Generally, gestation period is shorter and investment risks are relatively low
for distributed generation (DG) plants.
Improve both the reliability and efficiency of the system.
Improve the system voltage and load factor.
It is easier to find the location for DG installation for small generators.
Latest technology available for wide range of capacity.
More flexibility in energy management system.
Renewable energy based DGs are more environmental friendly compared to
coal, oil or gas fired power plants.

2
1.2.3 Adverse effects of DG

Despite the numerous benefits of DG, there are certain drawbacks also:
The intermittency of the renewable energy based DG causes the instability to
the system.
Consumers that uses solar PV connected network are likely to be blackout in
night time because PV does not supply electricity at night time.
Voltage variations and power fluctuations and hence decreases quality of
power and increases instability in the system.
Power demand requires both active and reactive power but most of the DGs
like SPV supply active power only.
Integration of DG changes the direction of power flow; hence potential
effects on the metering and protection systems.
Inappropriate location and sizing of DG may degrade the quality of the grid.
Solar and wind based DG units are highly variable due to weather conditions
and hence these types of DG units do not support in base load or peak load.
Increases losses and power factor modification.
SPV like DG increases total harmonic distortion.

1.3 Solar Photovoltaic

Nowadays, solar photovoltaic (SPV) is the mostly used alternative source of

energy in the globe [5]. There are many areas where plenty of reliable solar radiation is
available but not the electricity. Therefore, utilization of solar photovoltaic is the good
solution to provide electricity for such areas.
Solar photovoltaic (SPV) systems are sustainable environmental friendly
distributed source of energy. There potential can be utilized where the conventional
power grid is absent. Technically, they can be installed near load centers, providing
benefits to the consumers that bulk power generation cannot be installed. In addition,
SPV energy system is fuel free, low maintenance, and noiseless. Its gestation period is
very short. It is highly mobile and portable because of its light weight. It also presents a
high-power capability per unit of weight. The SPV power output matches very well with

3
peak load demands [6]. However, solar PV power is highly intermittent in nature due to
variations in solar radiation and temperature levels [7]. Due to this reason, where the
solar power is directly connected to the load, the delivered power may not be reliable.

1.3.1 Solar photovoltaic cell

The sun delivers its energy in the form of light and heat. In solar PV based
generation, sunlight is directly converted into the electricity by using solar cell which is
called photoelectric effect. A solar cell is a diode that converts solar radiation into
electricity without any form for mechanical or thermal interlink. A PV cell is made of
silicon material having similar properties to p-n junction diode [8]. Because of the
positive charge on one side and negative charge on the other side, movement of this
charge in the material creates an electric field in the material.

Fig. 1.1: Operation of PV cell

When solar radiation strikes on the PV cell, electrons are dislodged from
depletion region. If an electrical conductor attached to the negative and positive
terminals of the cell, forming an electrical circuit, electrons will flow in the form of
electric current that is electricity. The electricity thus generated is in the form of direct
current (DC) as shown in Fig. 1.1 [9]. An inverter, a power electronic device that
transforms dc power generated from PV array into ac power that is the most useful form
of power used in ordinary electrical equipment.
Solar photovoltaic cells are made of thin coating of light-sensitive semiconductor
materials that use photons to dislodge electrons to drive an electric current. There are
two types of technology used for PV cell: crystalline silicon, as shown in Fig. 1.2; and
thin film, which is newer and growing technology.

4
 Fig. 1.2: Mono and poly crystalline silicon PV cell

Mono crystalline silicon PV cells are produced by melting high-purity silicon

crystal of diameter 150 mm and thickness 150-200 microns. Poly crystalline silicon cells
are manufactured by pouring pure silicon into a mold and crystalized. Poly crystalline
silicon PV cell are less expensive than the mono crystalline cell [5]. Thin film solar cell
is fabricated by forming a stack of thin continuous layers of silicon wafer barely 0.3 to
2 micrometers thick onto glass or stainless steel substrates. The cost of raw material used
in thin film solar cell is lower than the capital cost of processing and equipment because
the raw material used for layers are so thin.

Fig. 1.3A: Solar PV panel Fig. 1.3B: Solar PV Array

A PV module is formed by interconnecting individual cell in series and/or

parallel combination as shown in Fig. 1.3A. The combination of PV module is PV array
which is shown in Fig. 1.3B. The output power depends on the way of connecting the
multiple PV modules inside an array. The PV modules are connected in parallel to
increase the current and PV modules are connected in series to increase the voltage. To
increase the output power modules are combined in series and parallel configuration.

5
 Fig. 1.4: I-V and P-V characteristics curve of a SPV module.

The V-I and P-V characteristic curve for a typical value of solar radiation and a
fixed temperature is shown in Fig. 1.4. The curve shows the behavior of the PV system
under all load conditions from open circuit to short circuit. The current-voltage
characteristic curve of a SPV cell/module is non-linear which makes it difficult to
determine the maximum power point [7]. Therefore, a maximum power point tracker
(MPPT) is required so that the PV array always output maximum power. This will
increase the efficiency and reliability of the PV array.

Fig. 1.5A: I-V curve for various Fig. 1.5B: I-V curve at constant
irradiances at constant temperature. irradiance with varying temperature

PV modules in the field are not working on the standard test condition (STC) i.e.
cell temperature 25oC, solar radiation 1000 W/m2 and spectrum distribution with an air
mass AM=1.5. The above Fig. 1.5A & Fig. 1.5B show the effect of solar radiation and
temperature on solar PV modules. The short circuit current varies proportionally with

6
the effective solar radiation (H) while the open circuit voltage varies logarithmically
with H for constant temperature. As the cell temperature of PV module increases, the
open circuit voltage falls drastically while the short circuit current has minimal
increment at fixed solar radiation (H).

1.3.2 Types of solar PV system

Based on the end use application, the solar photovoltaic systems are classified
as: isolated and grid connected solar PV systems.

1.3.2.1 Isolated solar PV system

Fig. 1.6: Isolated solar PV system

Isolated solar photovoltaic (SPV) system is sometimes called Off-grid solar PV

systems. The general layout of off-grid solar system is shown in Fig. 1.6 above [5]; this
type of solar system is usually used where there is absence of utility grid such as rural
areas or off-shore islands. But they may also be installed in urban areas in case where it
is inconvenient or too costly to tap electricity from the grid. In many countries, traffic
lights are powered by stand-alone solar PV systems [5]. The stand-alone solar PV system
requires battery back up to store electricity and can provide electricity to users when
there is no sunshine such as at night or during cloudy weather. The deep cycle batteries
are used to store electricity for off-grid systems that may store more electricity for longer
duration of time such type of batteries are lead-acid, nickel-cadmium or lithium-ion
batteries.

7
 The main components used in off-grid solar PV system are solar array, charge
controller, battery banks, and loads. Charge controller plays major role in this type of
solar system to control the charge of the battery.

1.3.2.2 Grid-connected solar PV system

In this system, the power generated by the PV array can be either used by the
consumers or injected into the utility grid. Grid-connected solar photovoltaic (SPV)
system reduces the dependency on the grid and gives financial benefits to the users by
injecting the generated power into the grid. In a grid-connected PV system, the grid acts
as an unlimited energy storage capacity. This increases the overall reliability and
efficiency of the system. This type of solar system gives benefit to the grid as well as
users. During day-time when there is excess power generated from the solar system, the
power can be delivered to the grid and when there is shortage of power generation
electricity may be taken out from the grid. A typical grid-connected solar system is
shown in Fig. 1.7 below that consists of the following components:
PV Module/array: this convert sunlight directly to electricity.
Energy storage (optional)
Inverter: converts the DC current generated by the solar PV modules to
AC current.
Transformer (for Voltage step/down)
Utility Grid

Fig. 1.7: Components of a grid-connected system

8
 When photovoltaic system is connected to the power system, it is necessary to
analyze the dynamic study of the entire system. Inverter plays an important role in the
design of grid-connected PV system, because it acts as an interface between the PV
system and utility grid. The main function of inverter is that it helps in conditioning the
power output of the PV array and simultaneously provides a control that helps in
allowing the PV generated power to the grid.

1.3.3 Photovoltaic power output

The output power generated from the solar photovoltaic system depends upon
the active area of solar photovoltaic generator and the solar incident radiation on the
solar PV array. The power output, P, for a solar PV module can be determined as below:
= (1.1)

where, is the efficiency of the solar cell and

H is the total solar radiation on PV array and A is the area of the solar module
The efficiency of solar module is given as:

( ) =

= (1.2)

V and I are the voltage and current produced by the module respectively.

1.4 Distribution system

The electric power system consists of generating stations where primary energy
is converted into electric power, transmission lines and distribution systems. A
distribution system is the final stage in power delivery network which carries electricity
from the transmission system to the individual consumers. Industrial and large
commercial users usually get three-phase supply directly from the primary distribution
feeder, as they have their own transformers and in certain cases can directly utilize the
higher voltages. However, for the remaining consumers, who generally require only
single-phase power, power is usually transmitted for the last half-mile or so over lateral
feeders that carry one phase. A distribution transformer, typically mounted on a pole or

9
located underground near the customer, steps this voltage down to the secondary
distribution level, which is safe.
The power distribution system is generally operated in radial configuration where
there is only one source and power radiates from source to the load, but integration of
solar photovoltaic in the existing system will change the direction of power flow which
makes difficult for planning and operation [10]. In addition, that, other parameters such
as voltage control, power quality, protection system, faults and system losses also get
affected.
Generally, load flow studies are performed to determine the normal steady-state
operation of the power system. A load flow study uses simplified diagram represented
by per unit (pu) system and focuses on various forms of ac power (i.e. voltage, voltage
angle, real power and reactive power). The distribution networks have the following
features:
Radial or weakly meshed networks
High R/X ratios
Multi-phase, unbalanced operation
Unbalanced distributed load
Distributed Generation
The distribution system has high R/X ratio and hence higher voltage drop. Due
to this nature of the distribution network the conventional load flow methods are not
satisfactory [11].

1.5 Dissertation objectives

The main objectives of the dissertation report are followings:

1. To identify and select an existing distribution network in a particular site in
Nepal and to investigate the potential of solar energy over the area, by
identifying and analyzing the solar radiation and geographical data.
2. To develop a suitable objective function to minimize the energy loss and cost
of installation of PV system and to describe an optimal planning method to
determine the size and configuration for the PV system using multi-objective
Genetic Algorithm (GA).
3. To analyze the integration effect of solar PV systems on the voltage profile
of the network.

10
1.6 Organization of report

This dissertation report is organized in a total of seven (7) chapters. These are
introduction, literature review, problem formulation and solution algorithm, solar energy
resource assessment, result and discussion, conclusion and future work, and references.
Chapter 1 introduces basic information about the distributed generation (DG) and
its impact on distribution network. It also gives an overview of solar photovoltaic
system. This chapter discusses location and sizing as well as contributions and objectives
of dissertation. Chapter 2 discusses literature reviews related to the integration of
distribution generation. This chapter gives some issues related to the photovoltaic system
in Nepal, power flow analysis, different optimization techniques that were used earlier
for cost of DG placement, sitting and sizing, case studies, and software tools used.
Similarly, chapter 3 gives the problem formulation and solution algorithm.
Chapter 4 gives details about solar energy potential assessment. Chapter 5 gives the
results obtained from the simulations for the case study. Chapter 6 gives the conclusion
and future scope of work.

11
 Chapter - 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General

This chapter reviews literature studies and work done on previous similar studies
for the harnessing and development of solar photovoltaic system. An extensive literature
search was conducted to collect the available information on integration of photovoltaic
in existing grid.

2.2 Review of literature

Some of literature surveys are presented below:

2.2.1 Solar photovoltaic related studies for Nepal

Jha [3], presented the potential status of renewable energy based DG in
Kathmandu. He identified potential of the renewable energy based DG like PV, wind,
micro-hydro on hourly based potential for different seasons and succeeded to achieve
the optimal location and size of DGs in the distribution network to minimize energy loss
and DG cost. In this study, 12 bus distribution was selected and obtained results were
tested effectively using genetic algorithm tool.
Adhikari et al. [12], used daily global solar radiation, sunshine hours and
meteorological data for Jumla, Pokhara, Kathmandu, and Biratnagar to derive the
regression constants for the estimation of global solar radiation for those selected sites.
They found that high altitude location (Jumla) has high potential of global solar radiation
and low altitude location (Biratnagar) has least value of solar radiation.
Bhandari & Stadler [13], suggested that solar PV system is the convincing
alternative energy sources for rural electrification in Nepal. Because of the promotional
program from the government as well as from the private sector, the PV system
expansion would be increased in future until the government continues provide subsidy
for the PV system.

12
 Pokharel [14], introduced the main characteristics of alternative energy
technologies used in Nepal and discussed the barriers for the promotion of these
technologies. Gurung et al. [15], reviewed about the renewable energy situation in Nepal
and highlighted the policies and subsidies for the optimal utilization of the REs in rural
and isolated communities.
K.C. et al. [16], presented the status of renewable energy technologies (RETs)
such as micro-hydro, solar power, wind energy, bio-fuel etc. and highlighted the
opportunities and barriers for the RETs.

2.2.2 Review of solar cell material

Tan and Seng [5], presented about the material used in solar cell that is silicon
and semi-conductive in nature. The materials in use today for majority of solar cells are
mono-crystalline, poly-crystalline and amorphous silicon.
Boylastad and Nashelskey [9], presented the principle of photovoltaic action.
When a photon from Suns radiation hits a p-n junction and an electron is dislodged
across the depletion region in the n-side and accelerated by the field and pushed towards
the n-region and hole is pushed towards the p-region which creates the depletion region.
The operation of solar cell depends upon the action of solar irradiation and the
temperature. They discussed the characteristics of PV cell that the increase in irradiation
causes an increase in the current and a decrease results in decrease of the current. This
is because the current produced is directly proportional to solar radiation. Solar cell
temperature has an impact on the voltage of the cell. As the temperature increases, the
voltage reduces. The overall operation of a solar PV cell is affected by its efficiency,
irradiance and temperature. These parameters cause changes to the power output of the
cell and consequently the maximum power point (MPP).
Pihl [17], gave the importance of the solar power, an important renewable energy
source, which is being increased in the most part of the world. He also highlighted about
the principle of solar thermal power plant technology and the technology uses for the
photovoltaic effect known as solar photovoltaic power. In a solar PV system, a solar cell
is used to convert energy in sunlight into a direct current (dc).

13
2.2.3 Review of load flow method for distribution systems
Teng [10], proposed a direct method for load flow in unbalanced three-phase
distribution load using two derived matrices, the bus-injection to branch-current (BIBC)
matrix and the branchcurrent to bus-voltage (BCBV) matrix and multiply those
matrices to obtain load flow solutions. He used special topological nature of the
distribution network and he managed to achieve direct solution. The proposed method is
less time-consuming and useful for distribution systems.
Rupa and Ganesh [11], proposed a backward/forward sweep method to
determine the power flow in distribution network. They determined power losses for
each branch and voltage magnitude of each bus. This method has been tested on 33 bus
radial distribution system using MATLAB.
According to Haque [18], several methods have been developed to solve the load
flow problem of a high voltage system but these methods may not applicable for a low
voltage distribution network because a distribution system if fed at one point and the
branches of the system have a wide range of R and X values. Also, the R/X ratios of
branches in a distribution system are relatively high compared to a transmission system.
That is why the conventional Newton-Raphson Method, Gauss Seidel Method, Fast
Decoupled load flow method and their modifications are not suitable for the distribution
system.
Meerimatha et al. [19], recommended a novel load flow method in distribution
system using forward backward matrix method. The characteristics of distribution
network was fully utilized to make direct solution possible. In forward sweep a voltage
drop calculation is done with branch currents. Then, nodal voltages are updated in a
forward sweep starting from source node to the last node assuming constant power flow
in the branches. During Backward sweep the current or power flow solution is obtained
with possible voltage updates.
Bhujel et al. [20], proposed a simple model to study the load flow analysis for
a typical radial distributed system including the distributed generation connected to the
buses modeled as PV bus and negative PQ buses. This method is basically a modified
form of backward/forward sweep method for a radial distribution system and distributed
generations (DGs) were considered to test the effectiveness of the proposed model.

14
2.2.4 Review of impact of photovoltaic on grid

According to studies conducted by Widen et al. [6], the integration of solar PV

has a lot of challenges from the systems modeling and simulation point of view. The
study looked at the stochastic processes study of the impact of solar PV power voltage
levels with extensive use of MATLAB. This study along with Solanki et al. [22],
presented the effects of photovoltaic integration on the grid losses. Different penetration
levels were used to determine the impact of increased PV penetration on grid losses.
These studies showed that the system losses would decrease at lower photovoltaic
penetration and increase with increased penetration. This is because reverse power flow
increases the feeder line loading and consequently the losses. In addition, it could
interfere with protection operations in the grid.
According to Suri et al. [7], it was discovered that cloud cover has a huge impact
on solar PV output and the variability of clouds causes variable output of the power from
the PV generator. Furthermore, Paulescu et al. [21], explained the modeling of the
systems for better operation with varying climatic conditions. Therefore, it is very
important to consider the variability of cloud cover as an important parameter on the
power production when studying the effects or impacts of integrating solar PV power to
a grid.
Similarly, Shaha et al. [23], and Schoene et al. [24], had presented issues that
are related with integration of photovoltaic to a grid. One of the challenges of
photovoltaic integration discussed in the papers was voltage level and profile. The
integration could cause an increase in voltage level and profile but dependent on the grid
configuration and how it is from the source of main power.
According to Willis [25], feeders away from the substation experienced lower
voltage than the sending end voltage. Placement of SPV like DG in this type of
distribution system improves the voltage profile along the feeders is not the ultimate
factor in determining the maximum penetration level. Losses and line loading are very
important parameters of a power system. Photovoltaic integration to a grid has potential
to alter the two parameters. Transmission lines and feeders have a limit to which they
can be loaded. Additionally, losses can either reduce or increase the operation costs of a
distribution grid.

15
 Enernex [26], presented the feeder line loading in a radial grid. With distributed
photovoltaic, the line loading reduces with increased photovoltaic penetration until
reverse power flow occurs. Reverse power flow increases the line loading with
additional increase in penetration levels.

2.2.5 Review of optimization for distributed generation sizing and

locating problems
Shivarudraswamy et al. [4], presented a technique for optimal location and sizing
of distributed generation (DG) in distribution systems considering real time scenario.
Using this method, they managed to achieve an acceptable limit of reliability and voltage
profile. This method has been evaluated using 14 bus distribution network and
optimization method has been implemented using Genetic Algorithm (GA) technique
and for time varying loads.
The study by Widen et al. [6], showed that voltage level and profile other
parameters, for example, line loading and losses, should be analyzed together with
voltage level and profile in determining the capacity of grid.
Helal et al. [27], presented a methodology for the optimal distributed generation
location and sizing in distribution system using Genetic Algorithm Technique. In this
study, Cost Benefit Factor (CBF) was used to evaluate the benefits from the added DG
units to the system performance. They also discussed about the Genetic Algorithm(GA)
technique for optimization problem and formulated the aforementioned problem using
this technique.
Khatod, et al., [28], discussed about the evolutionary programming based
method for the optimal placement of solar and wind based DG in radial distribution
system. The load model and DG model were implemented by probabilistic model. A
sensitivity index method was applied to reduce the search space and quickly determine
the location and size of DG. The fitness function was to minimize energy loss by
considering different constraints to the system. In this method, they developed index
method to generate population and this reduces the computational time. This method
was tested on 69 bus, 12.66 kV test system and concluded with the significant amount
of loss reduction with voltage improvement.
Banihashemi et al. [29], suggested a new optimization method NSGA-II to
optimize the voltage profile, loss and investment simultaneously which facilitates the
planner to avoid from the pre-judgment before decision making and gives the

16
opportunity to choose the best answers. They used non-dominated sorting (NSGA-II)
for the optimization of DG problems. The NSGA-II provides the collection of optimized
solution that determines the best DG units to be installed in which location.
Sosic and Skokljev [30], studied the optimal location and sizing of photovoltaic
plant using genetic algorithm with two-fold objective function. The first objective was
to locate the network node and second, to maximize the sizing of the plant. They
implemented genetic algorithm (GA) for optimal location and optimal sizing of the
distributed generation. Genetic algorithm is a search and optimization technique
adopting the natural selection and genetics.
In [31], Saonerkar and Bagde, presented optimized DG placement problem in
radial distribution system using reconfiguration and capacitor placement in the system
using GA. In this study, genetic algorithm (GA) was used for finding optimum number
of DG units and optimum total power loss of IEEE 33-bus distribution system.
Walla et al. [32], attempted to establish the impacts on voltage and determination
the maximum distributed photovoltaic generation to the distribution grids in Sweden.
Three grids were considered in the studies and showed increase in voltage rise at the bus.
Of the three grids, two had voltage rise but without voltage violation and one of the grids
experienced overvoltage at some buses.
Hung et al. [33], implemented biomass and wind DG as dispatch able and non-
dispatchable distributed generation respectively to minimize energy losses by locating
and sizing of DG in a distribution system. They proposed analytical method to identify
power factor and size of DG units and simultaneously consider time-varying generation
and demand also. This method has been applied to different renewable DG with and
without power factor limit to 69 bus IEEE test distribution system. The result shows that
the despatchable or a combination of dispatchable and non-dispatchable DG sources can
minimize annual energy loss significantly.
Acharya et al. [34], proposed analytical approach to find the optimal location and
size of DG for power loss minimization. This method was implemented in three different
test systems by varying size and complexity. The results obtained from the proposed
method was compared with the exhaustive load flow method and that of loss sensitivity
method. From the results the loss sensitivity method is not suitable to the best placement
for DG.

17
 Murthy and Kumar, [35] showed that the sensitivity based approach for the
comparison of optimal DG allocation in a radial distribution network. They combined
the loss sensitivity and index vector method for optimal allocation of DG units. The
results were compared with the novel and voltage sensitivity index method. This found
out that the reactive power should also be injected to the system to improve voltage
profile and optimal size of DG units with lagging power factor and unity power factor
were separately determined. For these power factors, they calculated the cost of loss
savings and cost of power supplied through the selected IEEE 69-bus system. Based on
the obtained results, lagging power factor DGs were better than unity power factor DGs.
Singh et al. [36] presented that the assumptions under constant power load model
may lead to an inconsistent and misleading results. The load model affect the DG size
and location in the system. They presented different load models for different size of DG
to minimize active and reactive power loss. 38 bus system was implemented to show the
effect of various load models.
Abdi and Afshar [37], proposed Monte Carlo simulation method to determine the
result from the improved PSO method for optimal placement of DG in existing
distribution network. The objective functions were to minimize loss cost, to improve
voltage and reliability in the system. Voltage dependent load model for three consumer
areas namely residential, commercial and industrial were considered in the study. The
proposed method was tested on 33 bus IEEE test system and obtained result was better
than PSO.
Jabar and Pal [38], proposed an ordinary optimization method for locating and
sizing of DG. The best location and size of DG depended on the compromise between
the maximization of DG size and minimization of loss. This method selects few number
of alternatives from the large number of potential DG units and set objective functions
for selected samples using linear programming and simulate the functions using
objective function programming. The method has been implemented in MATLAB and
tested for 69 bus distribution system. The obtained result is fairly well for the DG system
because the ordinary optimization is deterministic and easily implemented in any
software.
Ameri et al. [39], proposed a GA optimization technique to find optimal sizing
and location of multi distributed generations in electrical networks. The objective
function was based on a linearized model to calculate the real power losses as a function

18
of power generators. The multi DG units have been used to minimize power loss taking
DG capacity, line capacity and voltage as constraints. This method was tested on 14, 30,
and 57 IEEE bus systems to demonstrate the effectiveness of the method. The results
showed that the GA with combined linear model was very efficient to reduce real power
losses by finding the optimal allocation of DG units.
Arya et al. [40], highlighted differential evolution (DE) technique considering
voltage stability for the planning of DG. A sub transmission line was selected to
minimize loss by optimal DG placement using incremental voltage (/) method.
This method was developed for wind based DG and tested on 6 and 30 bus system and
compared with the bare bone PSO method. This method was less time consuming and
efficient for DG placement in a distribution system.
Ziari et al. [41], determined the placement and sizing of DG in semi-urban 37-
bus Roy Billinton Test System using Discrete Particle Swarm Optimization (DPSO) and
Genetic Algorithm (GA). The use of DPSO was the diversity of the optimizing variables
that those variable not to be trapped in local minimum. Junjie et al. [42], proposed
immune algorithm (IA) for DG allocation in distribution system. This method is a
biometric intelligent behavior of the biological system. Since load growth in a system is
dynamic in nature and hence dynamic load model is required. The analysis was done
considering environmental cost, DG capacity cost, purchase power cost and loss cost.
Kumar and Gao [43], presented mixed integer nonlinear programming (MINP),
a mathematical programming with discrete and continuous variables and nonlinear in
objective function and constraints, to determine the optimal location and size of the DG
for hybrid as well as pool market. The objective was to minimize fuel cost as well as line
losses for conventional and DG sources. Firstly, they selected an optimal DG placement
with nodal price and power losses. Then MINP was implemented for selected site. This
showed that the actual price and power loss reduced significantly. It was observed that
the nodal price increases when demand increases but optimal DG location nodal price
goes down. However, more DG penetration in the network has no effect on the nodal
price. The proposed method has been tested on IEEE 24 bus reliability test system.
El-Zonkoly [44], utilized multi-objective index based method to select the
optimal location and size of multiple DG units considering non-unity power factor in
distribution system using different load models. This method suggested that the load
model can significantly affect the optimal allocation of DG in distribution network. The

19
proposed method considered active and reactive power loss, voltage improvement and
also considered short circuit level parameter to represent protection devices. Integration
of DG was proposed on most sensitive buses which were likely to be collapsed. The
proposed method was tested on 30-bus IEEE mesh system and 38 bus radial system.
Wang and Singh [45], presented an Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) algorithm
for optimal placement of DG with reclosers in a distribution network. The system
average interruption duration index (SAIDI) and system average interruption frequency
index (SAIFI) being the composite reliability indices that were minimized by optimal
allocation of DG. The proposed method was compared by taking two practical
distribution system using GA technique.
Mohammedi et al. [46] described a multi-objective optimization technique to
determine the optimal location and size of DG in radial distribution system. The main
objectives were to minimize loss and to improve voltage stability. NSGA-II was used to
obtain the Pareto-optimal set of solutions that form a of non-dominated set of solutions
to select the best compromise solution. A fuzzy-based technique was employed to select
the best solution. The method was tested on 12, 33, 69 and 85 bus systems to validate
the effectiveness of proposed method and detailed performance was analyzed.
Vahidinasab [47], proposed a multi-objective optimization and probabilistic
design for optimal planning of Distributed Energy Resources (DER) in competitive
markets. The suggested nonlinear programming based method has attempted to achieve
a compromise between cost minimization and pollution emission minimization
considering electrical load and market uncertainties. A hybrid fuzzy FCM-MCS model
was employed for modeling of electricity prices and a combined roulette-wheel/ Monte-
Carlo simulation model was used for generation of load scenario. The objective was to
determine type, location and size of wind, PV, fuel cell, micro turbine, gas turbine, and
diesel engine. The test was done on primary distribution network and provided to select
the best Pareto-optimal solution to the decision maker to its own preference.
Lamsal et al. [48], presented a new methodology for locating and sizing of
distributed generation to determine loss in distribution system using B-coefficient matric
method. The loss evaluation has been done by using different combination of distributed
generations (DGs). Use of B-coefficient matrix does not require separate load flow
calculation to calculate power loss in the system.

20
 Le and Qiang [49], carried out a research on optimal allocation of DG to
maximize the benefits of renewable energy based DG and improve voltage profile of the
system. They proposed PSO method which employed non-linear decreasing inertia-
weight to improve the convergence of the algorithm.

2.3 Gaps identified

From the literature reviews carried out in this chapter, following gaps have been
identified:
1. There are very few and limited studies available for integration of solar
photovoltaic system with existing grid in Nepal.
2. There are limited studies related to dynamic stability analysis due to the
intermittency of solar photovoltaic energy injection to the grid.
3. Many authors have proposed a load flow algorithm for solving balanced
radial distribution network, but practical distribution network is
unbalanced in nature.

21
 Chapter - 3

PROBLEM FORMULATION AND SOLUTION ALGORITHM

3.1 General

This chapter presents the modelling of distribution feeder and the solution
algorithm that has been adopted. The research work began from site selection, data
collection, modeling of distribution system, solar energy resource assessment, problem
formulation, and load flow analysis for base case. Load flow analysis was performed on
the test case, problem formulation was developed to find the optimal location and size
of solar photovoltaic system to reduce the system loss and investment cost. The problem
formulation was single objective and multi-objective to implement with the use Genetic
Algorithm technique. For load flow problem MATLAB software was used and for
optimization problem MATLAB Toolbox was used. For design and economic analysis
MS Excel was used. The detailed method carried out during research work was as below:

3.2 Problem Statement:

Normal distribution systems are designed to operate unidirectional power flow

that is power flowing from source to the end users. When photovoltaic is connected to
the system the power flow occurs in bidirectional causing change in voltage profile of
the system. Inappropriate location and size of PV may rise in system losses, decline in
power quality and voltage rise in at the end of feeders. In that reason, installation of PV
with optimal site and size is very important.
A multi-objective problem is formulated to reduce the system loss and the cost
associated to the installation cost, and operation and maintenance cost of the SPV. To
select the optimal solution from the multi-objective optimization, a fuzzy-based set
theory is employed such that the best compromise solution is obtained. The maximum
value among the fuzzy membership function is selected for this purpose.

22
3.3 Analysis of distribution system for load flow

The first step to this study is to analyze load flow for the distribution network
with base case and with PV connected. This analysis is done through the MATLAB
software with multiple photovoltaic unit that can be modeled as negative PQ buses.
When the power flow program is run with this software the results obtained are the
voltages, angles, currents, power loss, total annual energy loss, total load of the system
and power supplied by the photovoltaic system. By varying the size of the PV and
location of installation the output results are obtained. Then these results obtained will
be compared with the base case.

3.4 Mathematical modeling of distribution line

Vmm Vnn
ij
S Z=Ri+jXi

Pi+jQi
Bus m Bus n

Load(Pj+jQj)

Fig. 3.1: Single line diagram of a distribution line

The three-phase distribution line is assumed to be balanced and represented by

an equivalent single line diagram. Single line to ground conductance and capacitance at
the distribution voltage level is very small and thus is can be neglected. A simple model
of a radial distribution feed is shown in the Fig. 3.1.
Current flowing through the line is given by:
|Vm |m |Vn |n
Iij = (3.1)
R i + jXi
here, Iij= branch current of the line i to j
Vmm=voltage and angle of bus m

Vnn=voltage and angle of bus n

23
 Ri= resistance of branch m to n

Xi= reactance of branch m to n

Again,
Pi + jQi
= (3.2)
Vm

= ( ) ( + )

+
= ( ) ( ) (3.3)

The voltage magnitude and angle at bus j can be written as,

2 2(P R + Q X ) + (P 2 + Q2 )(R2 + X 2 )/V 2 )

|V | = (Vm (3.4)
i i i i i i i i m

Angle = tan1 ( 2 ) (3.5)
( + )

The active and reactive power losses of the line can be expressed by equations
(3.6) and (3.7):
2 (Pj )2 +Qj 2
() =|Iij | Ri=
|vn |2

(3.6)

2 (Pj )2 +Qj 2
() =|Iij | Xi=
|v |2

(3.7)

The active power loss for every hour in a distribution line is the energy loss. Total

annual active energy loss is given by,

24
 4 24 ( )

= (),, . , (3.8)
=1 =1 =1

Where Ploss(i),t,s is the active power loss of branch i at time t of the season s,
is the total annual active energy loss, is the number of days in different season
and is the total number of branches.
When solar photovoltaic is added to the feeder at the load bus then it injects
active power to the bus at unity power factor which is given in Fig.3.2. This SPV
generator is treated as negative load (PQ) bus because it will not generate reactive power
and hence no role in voltage control of the bus.

PPV
Vmn Vn PV
Inij
S Z=Ri+jXi

Load (Pj,Qj)

Fig. 3.2: Distribution grid with solar PV generator

Inverter is operating to inject unity power factor by adjusting the fire angle of the
power electronic devices, the active power generated by the PV generator is Ppv and there
is no reactive power because of unity power factor. Then, the resultant active and
reactive power losses become as shown in equations (3.9) and (3.10):

2 (Pj PPV )2 + Qj 2 (3.9)

Ploss(i) = |Iij | R i = Ri
|Vn |2
2
2 (Pj PPV ) + Qj 2
Qloss(i) = |Iij | X = Xi (3.10)
|Vn |2

At this stage, the voltage at different buses will be changed due to the change in
active power injection and hence the power loss will be changed. Then the total annual
energy loss is different from the base case which was discussed in above case.

25
3.4.1 Load flow analysis

The power distribution system is generally operated in radial configuration. The

voltage drop in in the feeder mainly depends upon the loading where the maximum
voltage drop occurs during peak load. For radial distribution system, backward/forward
sweep method is suitable because it converses very fast and less time consuming. In
backward sweep, updated power flow or current in each branch is estimated starting
from the last layer and moving towards the source node. In forward propagation, voltage
drop is calculated with branch currents and these values are used to update bus voltages
in forward direction. During the forward sweep, the power in each branch is held
constant. The load flow algorithm is given as follows [19]:
1. Read the system data.
2. Form BIBC matrix as given as follows:
I. Line data arranged in matrix form as LD matrix.
II. Initialize BIBC matrix to null matrix.
III. Set Br=size(LD,1).
IV. For i=1 to Br.
V. If LD(i,2) ==1, go to next step, otherwise go to step IX.
VI. Find BIBC (LD(i,3)-1, LD(i,3)-1) =1
VII. Go to step XI.
VIII. Find BIBC (:, LD(i,3)-1) = BIBC (:, LD(i,2)-1).
IX. Find BIBC (LD(i,3)-1, LD(i,3)-1) =1.
X. Increment i by one.
XI. Is i<=Br, (Br = number of branches), then go to step VI. otherwise go
to next step.
3. Then calculate bus injection current vector:
I=conj((P-jQ)/V))
Where, I=bus injection current vector
P=real power injection vector
Q=reactive power injection vector
V=bus voltage vector

26
4. Calculate branch current matrix as:
Ibr= BIBC*I
5. Form diagonal impedance matrix, ZD
6. Compute bus voltage as:
TRX=BIBC*ZD*BIBC
T=TRX*I
VB=V1-T
Where VB is the bus voltage vector and V1 is substation voltage vector.
7. Find voltage mismatch dV=max (abs (Vnew - Vold)
8. Repeat steps(iii) to (vii) until the algorithm converges with accuracy tolerance.
9. Calculate real and reactive power loss.

3.5 Problem formulation

This problem is a mixed integer non-linear optimization problem with fitness

function, equality constraints and inequality constraints. The main objective of this study
is to minimize the total energy loss and installation cost of PV system while satisfying
operating constraints. The constraints are power flow, thermal limits of line, voltage
limits and PV power injections limits. In this formulation, PV is modeled as negative PQ
bus that injects power at unity power factor. Only some of the buses are selected to
connected the solar PV which has voltage below 0.95 p.u. levels.

3.5.1 Formulation of optimization problem

In this formation of optimization problem, first single objective problem is
formed to optimize size and location at the same time. There are two variables PV
location and capacity which has to be determined from optimization. Candidate locations
are identified by calculating the normalized voltage. First calculate the normalized
voltage | |/0.95 for all the buses. Then, those buses having normal voltage value <1.0
are selected as candidate bus for PV placement.
The total active energy loss for a distribution network is given by,

4 24 ( )

= (),, . , (3.11)
=1 =1 =1

27
Where, i branch number
Nbr total number of branches
Ploss(i),t,s real power loss of branch i at time t of season s.
Eloss Total annual energy loss of distribution network.

A multi-objective problem formulation is to determine the best location and size

of PV such that the overall cost of PV will be minimized. The PV cost is formulated as:
The investment cost (CINSTAL) depends on installed capacity of the SPV and
operation and maintenance cost (CO&M) depends on the number of units generated from
the system. The annual installation cost per kW capacity can be calculated by

/ (1 + )
= (3.12)
(1 + ) 1
r is discount rate and n is the number of years for the project life.

The annual operation and maintenance cost per kW can be calculated by

CO&M= annual energy generation unit running price (3.13)

The total annual cost (CTOTAL) for solar photovoltaic is given as,
(3.14)
= ( + & )

Where NPV is the number of PV modules in one-kilowatt capacity.

Hence, first objective is to minimize annual energy loss.

Minimize, f1(x) =system energy loss (3.15)

Second objective is to minimize total cost of PV system

Minimize, f2(x) = total cost (3.16)

Multi-objective optimization problem is,

f(x) = [min f1(x), min f2(x)] (3.17)

28
3.5.2 Constraints
solar PV integration optimization problem are subjected to the following constraints:

3.5.2.1 Equality constraints

The equality constraints are the power flow equation:

cos( + ) = 0 (3.18)
=1

+ cos( + ) = 0 (3.19)
=1

Where, = 1,2,3, , , , is, the active/reactive power generated at

the ith bus; , is the active (reactive) power demand at the same bus and
are the admittance and angle of branch connecting bus i and j.

3.5.2.2 Inequality constraints

1. Bus voltage constraint:

0.95 pu 1.05 pu, i=2, 3, ..., Nbus (3.20)

2. Generation constraint:

0 (3.21)

3. Maximum PV penetration constraint:

Maximum injected PV capacity should be less than 50% of the total

active power load in the distribution system.

0.5 (3.22)
=1 =2

4. Line thermal rating:

29
 | | (3.23)

Where is, the upper active power generating unit limits of PV, is the
apparent power line capacity and is the maximum permissible loading capacity
of the line connected between bus i and bus j.

3.5.2.3 Constraints Handling

The equality constraints are the power balance equations. These constraints are
handled by the load flow method. Backward/forward sweep method is suitable to solve
the load flow method for radial distribution system because it is very efficient method
for distribution networks.
The inequality constraints like voltage limit, line loading limits are handled by
introducing the penalty function in the fitness function.
() = () + () (3.24)

Where, F(x) is the new function from the objective function, f(x) and the penalty
function, P(x).

2 2
() = ( ) + ( ) (3.25)
=1 =1

Where, and are the penalty factors and values for these factors have been
considered 10000 in this report. and are taken as follows:

max if
V i V i V imax
min (3.26)
i V i
V lim if V i V imin

V i if V imin V i V imax

S max if S ij S ij
max
ij

min
lim S ij S ij
min (3.27)
S ij S ij if

min S S max
S ij if S ij ij ij

30
31
3.6 Genetic Algorithm

3.6.1 Introduction:
Genetic algorithm is a method for solving optimization problems that is inspired
by the natural selection of evolution GA starts from a set of random generated initial
population of individual/string [39]. Once the initial population is generated, each
individual is evaluated by objective function. In each step three main operators
(reproduction, crossover, and mutation) are performed to create the better new
population from the current population. The genetic algorithm applies selection and
reproduction criteria at random from current population to be parents and uses them to
form new generation containing the genes of parents. The solution having good fitness
will undergo reproduction.
GA does not need to select good initial populations and the fitness value come
after the corrected value of each generation [27]. The solution is achieved from the best
individual of the last populations.
GA uses multiple search points instead of single search point, thereby finding
more hills and valleys, reducing the chance of getting struck in local minima [29]. GA
based solution techniques are getting more popularity due to their ability to find global
optima rapidly, robustness in convergence rate and regardless of nature of complexity.
There are major two advantages of using GA for optimization: It does not involve many
mathematical assumptions about problems and Due to evolutionary nature, it will search
for solutions rather than the specific inner structure of the problems.

3.6.2 Outline of Genetic Algorithm

The steps involved in GA based methodology for optimization are given below
and the flow chart for GA based optimization problem is shown in Fig. 3.3.
1. Generate random population of chromosomes, that is, suitable solutions for the
problem.
2. Evaluate the value of objective function (OF) for each chromosome in the
populations.
3. Create a new population by repeating the selection, crossover and mutation
operation.

32
 START

Randomly generate initial population

Evaluate objective function f(x)

Operate crossover

NO
Check for
constraint
?s

YES Update parameters

Offspring

Mutation

Generate new population

NO
Check
stopping
criteria?

YES

Results

END

Fig. 3.3:Genetic Algorithm Scheme.

33
 Selection/reproduction: select two best parents from a population
according to their fitness. This process is based on probabilistic approach
and parents having greater value have higher probability to reproduce.
Crossover: with a crossover probability, crossover operator recombines
the relevant information carried out by the parents to form a new
offspring.
Mutation: with a mutation probability, it alters one or more genes values
in chromosome from its initial population. First, one string is selected
with less probability and random changes a bit of the string to form new
offspring.
4. Use new generated population to evaluate the fitness function and further run the
algorithm.
5. If the end condition is satisfied, or permissible generation is achieved, return the
best chromosome as the solution; otherwise go to step (3).

3.6.3 GA based Solution Methodology

The global optimization toolbox provides genetic algorithm function that search
for the global solutions to optimization problems. The input arguments to the
optimization function are:
Number of variables for the fitness function.
Fitness function.
Options structure.

The following steps are employed for genetic algorithm based optimization process:

3.6.3.1 Coding of the solution

When applying genetic algorithm to determine the location and size of SPV unit
problem, the first step is the coding of the potential solution. In a general way, the
potential solution is a configuration of the network with PV units connected in some
locations. Therefore, the coded variables are the candidate locations and the respective
size of the PV units. Hence, each chromosome is coded by a solution vector whose
dimension is the number of candidate locations and content is the size of installed units.

34
 To reduce the search space, first identify the candidate buses for PV placement

by determining the normalized voltage magnitude for all buses as:

| |
[] = (3.28)
0.95

Buses that have normalized values less than 1.00 are taken as candidate buses for

PV placement and reset the size of PV to zero in other buses.

= [ ] i=1,2, 3..., Nbus (3.29)

Where, and are the placement and size of PV unit.

3.6.3.2 Objective Functions

In global optimization toolbox function, first write a file that computes the

objective functions. The function should accept the length of a solution vector and return

a scalar. For multi-objective optimization function, the function should return a row

vector of objective function values. The objective functions that are discussed in section

3.5.1 are as follows:

Minimize, F1(x) =system energy loss (3.30)

Minimize, F2(x) = total cost (3.31)

Multi-objective optimization function is,

f(x) =[minimize F1(x), minimize F2(x)] (3.32)

3.6.3.3 Selecting the best result

For the multi-objective optimization solution, a fuzzy-based technique is

employed in this report. From the obtained Pareto-optimal solution the best compromise
solution is selected by calculating the fuzzy membership function as follows [46]:

= (3.33)

35
 Where , are the maximum and minimum values of the ith objective
functions of all Pareto-optimal solutions. For each Pareto set k, the normalized
membership function is calculated as:
m

f
k

k
D
i 1
m
i
(3.34)
f
k

k 1 i 1 i

Where D is the total number of Pareto solutions and m is the total number of
objective functions. The best solution is that having maximum value of .

3.6.3.4 Setting of parameters

The results obtained by genetic algorithm (GA) function are influenced by

several parameters like population size, selection function, crossover function, mutation
function, constraint parameters, stopping criteria, etc. GA accepts bounds, linear
constraints, or nonlinear constraints.
The lower and upper bounds variables are fixed by creating lower bound (lb) and
upper bound (ub) constraint vectors. The lower bound and upper bound element are
selected based on the allowable capacity of PV unit. The non-linear constraint function
is developed by considering the maximum allowable limit on PV penetration. The
options for size of population, maximum generation limit, function tolerance, plot
functions, etc. are selected to visualize the process.

36
 Chapter - 4

SOLAR ENERGY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

4.1 General

This chapter explains about the solar energy potential of Kathmandu valley for
the study period of one year. The study period is further divided into four seasons: spring,
summer, autumn and winter. March, April and May are considered under spring season.
June, July and August under summer season. September, October and November falls
on autumn season and remaining three months December, January and February are
under winter season. The average hourly equivalent data of each season are estimated to
evaluate the irradiance. The day of the year is selected in accordance with the seasonal
days. Based on aforementioned data solar potential is estimated and suitable size of PV
is determined to connect at the load buses.

4.2 Estimation of solar radiation on tilted surface

Table 4.1: seasonal average global solar radiation (Wm-2) on horizontal surface

Time/
Spring Summer Autumn Winter
Season
6:00 0.0 10.0 0.0 0.0
7:00 40.0 70.0 15.0 0.0
8:00 130.0 160.0 85.0 25.0
9:00 270.0 290.0 200.0 100.0
10:00 415.0 380.0 320.0 200.0
11:00 560.0 440.0 425.0 300.0
12:00 620.0 480.0 490.0 370.0
13:00 650.0 500.0 450.0 395.0
14:00 550.0 460.0 375.0 340.0
15:00 450.0 370.0 290.0 275.0
16:00 300.0 255.0 180.0 180.0
17:00 180.0 150.0 70.0 65.0
18:00 70.0 50.0 0.0 0.0

37
 Solar radiation is the most important parameter for the design and development
of various solar energy systems. Generally, global solar radiation is measured on
horizontal surface and rarely on inclined surface. The solar radiation depends on the
latitude of the place, day of the year, hour of day and metrological conditions. The initial
solar radiation data are recorded on continuous basis and the data obtained from the
metrology department is daily averaged data.
The average seasonal global solar radiation on horizontal surface which were
obtained from the Department of Hydrology and Metrology (DHM), Nepal are given in
Table 4.1 and the pictorial representation is shown in Fig. 4.1.

Spring Summer Autumn Winter

700
600
Solar radiation (Wm-2)

500
400
300
200
100
0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Local time (hours)

Fig. 4.1: Seasonal variation of solar radiation in horizontal surface

Maximum global solar radiation can be received by tilting the receiving surface
perpendicular to the incident radiation. In that reason, receiving surface should be tilted
to match with the latitude of the earth. Following assumptions are made to translate the
given solar radiation in tilted surface.
Reflectivity of ground surface = g =0.2
Latitude () =27o
Tilt angle (s) = 30o
Number of days for:
Spring: 105; Summer: 196;
Autumn: 288; Winter: 15.

38
 From these values, tilt factor for beam radiation (Rb), diffused radiation (Rd) and
reflected radiation (Rr)are determined [12].
(i) Declination angle of Sun:
The declination angle of the sun can be approximated using Coopers equation (4.1) as:
360( + 284)
= 23.45 sin [ ] (4.1)
365
where, =declination angle of the sun in degree
n= day number of the year (from 1 to 365)
(ii) Time of day:
The solar time, t, is expressed as an hour of day,
=15o (t-12) (4.2)
(iii) Sunset hour angle is given by

= cos1 ( tan tan ) (4.3)

(iv) Ho is the monthly average daily extraterrestrial radiation on the horizontal

surface given as follows:

24
= ( ) s [ sin sin + cos cos sin ]
180
Where, Isc =1353 Wh/m2 is the solar consta

(4.5)
360
= 1 + 0.033 cos ( )
365
is the eccentricity constant.

(v) The clearness index, KT, which is the ratio of the horizontal insolation at the site
Hm to the extraterrestrial insolation on a horizontal surface above the site and
just outside the atmosphere Ho.

=
(4.6)
(vi) Diffuse sunlight
The diffuse insolation is given by
Hd= H [1-1.13KT] (4.7)
H=total solar radiation on horizontal surface Wh/m2
(vii) Beam radiation is given by

39
 Hb= H-Hd (4.8)

(viii) Total solar radiation on tilted surface.

In order to estimate the solar radiation on tilted surface we need to determine the
tilt factor for all the components of the solar radiation. Tilt factor, R, is defined as the
ratio of solar radiation on tilted surface to the solar radiation of horizontal surface.
Tilt factor for beam radiation
sin( ) sin + cos( ) cos cos (4.9)
=
sin sin + cos cos cos
Where, s= angle of tilt
Tilt factor for diffuse radiation
1 + cos
= ( ) (4.10)
2
Tilt factor for reflected beam radiation

1 cos (4.11)
= ( )
2
Where, is the reflectivity of surrounding surface and is taken as 0.2.
(ix) Total global solar radiation on tilted surface is given as:
= + + (4.12)

Spring Summer Autumn Winter

700

600
Solar radiation(W/m2)

500

400

300

200

100

0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Time (hour)

Fig. 4.2: Seasonal global solar radiation in tilted surface.

40
 Fig. 4.2 shows the average seasonal solar radiation in 30o tilted surface. These values
are used to determine the size of solar PV unit.

4.3 Selection of solar PV unit

The power rating of solar module is expressed in watt-peak(Wp), is the

maximum power produced by the module at standard test condition that is solar radiation
1 kW/m2, cell temperature 25 oC and spectrum distribution 1.5 AM. The manufacturer
provides the characteristics of PV module under STC which are shown in Table 4.2
below for selected modules.

Table 4.2: Specification of different modules

Parameters A B C D E F G
Peak Power Output
100 150 240 250 310 300 320
(Pmax) W
Module
14 14.5 14.4 15 16 15.5 16.5
Efficienty() %
Voltage at
maximum rating 17.6 18.1 30 30.7 36.3 35.8 37
(Vm) V
Current at
maximum rating 5.68 8.27 8.03 8.16 8.53 8.37 8.64
(Im) A
Open circuit
21.8 22.5 37.3 38.1 45.6 45.2 46
voltage (Voc) V
Short circuit
6.15 8.68 8.52 8.58 8.99 8.86 9.18
current (Isc) A
NOCT (oC) 47 47 47 47 47 47 47
Module 1202 x 1504 x 1667 x 1667 x 1960 x 1960 x 1960 x
Dimensions ( L x B 661 x 661 x 1000 x 1000 x 990 x 990 x 990 x
x T) in mm 38.5 38.5 33 33 40 40 40
Number of cell in
36 36 60 60 72 72 72
series (Ns)
Temperature
coefficient of Voc -2.931 -2.931 -3.305 -3.305 -3.2 -3.2 -3.2
(mV/oC)
Temperature
coefficient of Isc 0.442 0.442 0.638 0.638 0.5 0.5 0.5
(mA/oC)
Fill Factor (FF) 0.7456 0.7664 0.7580 0.7663 0.7553 0.7482 0.7570

41
The current-voltage characteristic of a PV module can be determined for a given
radiation level H and ambient temperature Ts using the following relations:

20
Tc = + (4.13)
800

I=[Isc+I(Tc-25)]Ht (4.14)

V=Voc vTc (4.15)

Where, Tc represents cell temperature in oC, I represents for PV module short-

circuit current in A, I represents short-circuit current temperature coefficient in A/oC, V

indicates open-circuit voltage in V and v is open-circuit voltage temperature coefficient

in V/oC. The actual power output from a PV array can be directly calculated as:

= . . (4.16)

Where, Fill Factor, FF, depends on the material of PV module and is given by
the following relation:
Vmax Imax (4.17)
=

The selected modules with their characteristics are given in the Table above. The
actual output capacity of the module is different from the standard test condition which
depends upon the available solar radiation and ambient temperature. The actual power
output can be determined by the equation (4.16).

Based on the actual power produced by the module in a year the capacity factor
(CF) of each module is calculated.

4.3.1 Capacity Factor (CF):

The capacity factor of a PV power plant is the ratio of the actual output over a
period of one year and its output if it has operated at nominal power in the entire year:

( ())
= (4.18)
(8670 ( ))

42
 The determined CF for selected modules are given below in Table 4.3. The
highest CF module is selected as optimal size of the solar PV system. From the Table
D module has the highest CF and hence it is selected for the integration in the grid.

Table 4.3: CF of the PV modules available

S. N. Module CF (%)
1 A 13.704
2 B 13.688
3 C 13.727
4 D 13.750
5 E 13.711
6 F 13.710
7 G 13.081

The actual power output is calculated using solar radiation and temperature
during the study period. The seasonal output variation of module D with 1.0 kWp solar
PV array is shown in Fig.4.3 below. It is found that the maximum power output is 0.65
kW at 13 PM in spring season and there is less power output at other seasons. In winter
season the output power is lowest among all season.

Spring Summer Autumn Winter

0.7

0.6
Power outpur (MW)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
time(hour)

Fig. 4.3:Daily solar PV power output of a 1 MW PV array

43
 Chapter - 5

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

5.1 General:

This chapter presents the results and discussions related to the load flow analysis
comparing the energy losses obtained from the different size of PV units for 21 nodes
distribution feeder. The investment cost is calculated considering the different size of PV units.
Multi-objective optimization is formulated combining both the objectives. The formulations
are determined with the help of MATLAB Optimization Toolbox and the results obtained will
be discussed.

5.2 Case Study:

For locating and sizing of solar PV unit, a radial distribution network having 11 kV
voltage level is selected which is located in Kathmandu. The general layout of the feeder is
shown in the Fig. 5.1 below. The details of the line data and maximum connected load of each
bus which were obtained by Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) are given in the Table 5.1.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Sub-station
12
13 14 15
16
20

17
21
18
19

Fig. 5.1: Distribution system with 21 bus

44
The main features of the distribution system are as follows:
The average load of the system is determined as 1.4 MW whereas the peak system
demand is 2.12 MW. In winter and autumn, the system peak load occurs at 6 PM, while
in spring and summer the system peak is shifted around at 8 PM.
It is short feeder highly unbalanced load.
It has overhead lines that are three phase with different spacing between them.
Autumn and winter peak is greater than the spring and summer peak load.
During night time the system load is below average load and in day time the demand is
average load.

Table 5.1: Line Data and Load Data of the distribution system

Branch Sending Receiving

R() X() PL (kW) QL (kVAR)
No Bus Bus
1 1 2 0.272 0.149 90 60
2 2 3 0.407 0.223 90 40
3 3 4 0.244 0.134 100 80
4 4 5 0.272 0.149 60 30
5 5 6 0.472 0.258 60 20
6 6 7 0.984 0.288 40 30
7 7 8 1.114 0.326 10 5
8 8 9 0.820 0.240 75 30
9 9 10 0.738 0.216 90 70
10 10 11 0.191 0.056 100 40
11 11 12 0.492 0.144 190 45
12 2 13 0.191 0.056 200 50
13 3 14 0.104 0.030 100 45
14 6 15 0.301 0.088 190 50
15 12 16 0.258 0.141 100 80
16 16 17 0.020 0.011 100 50
17 17 18 0.566 0.310 200 50
18 18 19 0.245 0.134 100 70
19 16 20 0.191 0.056 120 60
20 17 21 0.984 0.288 100 75

45
 The seasonal load profile with hourly variation of demand for different nodes is given
in Fig. 5.2.

Fig. 5.2: Seasonal load profile for distribution network.

The system is assumed to be connected with the solar photovoltaic distributed

generation(DG) without storage system. Solar PV generated energy in day time only. During
the night time the demand is fulfilled by the grid itself. 1 kW capacity solar PV based DG unit
is formed by combining 4 number of modules having peak power 250 WP. The total installed
capacity of DG unit is restricted to 50% of the total peak demand of the feeder. The investment
cost per kW of DG is considered as Rs. 62,225 and unit running cost is assumed Rs. 0.5 per
unit. The project life cycle for PV is taken as 25 years for this study. The discount rate is
assumed 12% for this study.

5.3 Result and Discussion

This section presents the result obtained by considering the objective functions one by
one and then simultaneously forming the multi-objective function. After obtaining the results
a comparative study was carried out. Optimal location and size is obtained with the energy loss
value. From the multi-objective optimization function, different results are obtained and the
best results are selected from those values. Various parameters need to be specified for GA

46
before running the optimization program. Table 5.2 shows the GA parameters set in this
program.

Table 5.2: Parameters of Genetic Algorithm

Number of Population 100

Generation Number 50
Number of variables 20
Probability of Cross-over 0.5
Probability of Mutation 0.2
Selection Options Default (Roulette)

Plot Functions Plot Best Function, Plot Best Individual

5.3.1 Result of energy loss minimization

Proposed GA based program was run and the best result obtained to minimize the
energy loss is plotted in Fig. 5.3. When the maximum capacity of PV unit at selected bus is set
to 400 kW the best location/bus and the size for the system is given in Table 5.3.
Best: 397.926 Mean: 397.926
470

460
Annual Total Energy Loss (MWh)

450

440

430

420

410

400

390
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Ge ne ration

Fig. 5.3: Fitness function evaluation for 21 Bus

47
 Current Best Individual
0.4

0.35

0.3
Size of PV per unit

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Number of buses

Fig. 5.4: Optimal size and allocation of PV units for 21 Bus

It is observed from the Fig. 5.4 that the GA based approach gives the optimal locations
of PV as 10,11,12, 16,17,18, 19 & 21 with their corresponding size (rounded up to) as given
in Table 5.3. The maximum size of PV is 296 kW at bus number 18 and the minimum size is
3.5 at bus number 19. The total system losses for time-varying load conditions with PV and
without PV connection to the buses is given in Table 5.4. The base case load flow and after PV
integration load flow MATLAB programs are given in Appendix A, B & C. During base case
load flow analysis, the total annual energy loss is obtained as 478.25 MWh. After integration
of PV, the energy loss reduced to 394.64 MWh saving 18 % of energy loss. The percentage of
loss saving is less because at the peak load, there is no solar power available. If the energy
storage devices connected to the system the loss saving will be increased.

Table 5.3: Result for PV size and location

Category Candidate Bus Number Total

Bus Number 8 9 10 11 12 16 17 18 19 20 21 11
Size of PV (kW) 0 0 104 67 19 273 60 296 4 0 235 1058

48
 Table 5.4: Annual total energy loss reduction with PV

Base case energy loss(MWh) Energy loss with PV (MWh) % Reduction

478.25 397.92 17

The impact of PV connection to the voltage profile is also studied in this report. The
comparison of voltage profile has been done for maximum load condition which is shown in
Fig. 5.5 below. The voltage profile of the 21-bus system is improved significantly after
connecting the PV units which is depicted in Fig. 5.5. The voltage regulation is improved and
better quality of voltage profile is obtained after integration of DG. The voltage regulation
before DG addition is 9.25 and this value is reduced below 2% after addition of the DG units.
The voltage regulation within 5% is acceptable limit.

Plot of Bus number & voltage profile

1.02 WithoutSPV
WithSPV

1
Bus Voltage Profile (in per unit)

0.98

0.96

0.94

0.92

0.9
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Bus Number

Fig. 5.5: Comparison of voltage profile with PV during maximum load condition

49
5.3.2 Result of cost minimization
To minimize the cost the obtained optimal solution is when there is no DG connected
in the system. The result of cost minimization function is shown below:

Table 5.5: PV location and size for cost minimization

Category Candidate Bus Number Total

Bus Number 8 9 10 11 12 16 17 18 19 20 21 11
Size of PV (kW) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

5.3.3 Result of Multi-Objective Optimization

8
x 10 Pareto front
10

8
Annual PV cost (Rs.)

2
370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450
Annual Energy Loss (MWh)

Fig. 5.6: Multi-Objective Pareto front representation

Multi-objective optimization is employed to depict the annual energy loss and PV cost
of the system. Equal importance is given to both the objective functions. The result from the
multi-objective function is in the form of Pareto-optimal set which is shown in Fig. 5.6 above.
The number of optimal solutions from the multi-objective functions is given in Table 5.6

50
below. The table shows the objective functions and candidate bus locations with the PV
capacity in kW.
Table 5.6: PV size and location for multi-objective optimization

Objective Functions Optimal Bus Locations and Capacity (kW)

S.N. Loss PV Cost
9 10 11 12 13 17 18 19 20 21
(MWh) (Rs. In lacs)
1 448.07 212.33 59 14 15 11 45 1 38 93 49 24

2 434.97 287.23 55 21 21 46 17 75 41 109 62 26

3 380.24 922.14 170 167 167 156 75 169 119 186 133 173

4 439.91 255.63 47 18 15 13 27 46 39 99 91 25

5 388.00 757.79 71 114 146 144 29 153 120 166 130 171

6 389.64 739.37 108 162 88 112 29 150 108 168 117 172

7 433.38 296.79 46 25 19 28 17 58 82 102 78 32

8 421.54 389.23 29 38 64 62 17 93 86 123 68 58

9 396.20 648.45 91 97 78 138 23 127 83 152 123 153

10 381.90 884.01 157 163 164 156 63 154 118 182 127 170

11 381.91 867.52 157 156 158 152 34 160 118 185 132 173

12 384.42 823.16 126 163 141 140 35 162 111 180 131 164

13 409.54 506.79 60 50 117 102 26 64 64 109 147 94

14 403.52 560.54 51 57 97 109 21 76 91 161 115 144

15 392.98 686.49 91 97 78 138 23 127 146 152 123 153

16 379.84 939.74 171 169 171 158 94 169 117 188 133 176

51
 Objective Functions Optimal Bus Locations and Capacity (kW)
S.N. PV Cost
Loss
(Rs. In 9 10 11 12 13 17 18 19 20 21
(MWh)
lacs)
17 421.01 400.75 54 41 56 24 26 79 77 137 105 60

18 445.33 229.87 54 43 16 13 41 18 39 75 54 25

19 432.27 310.96 46 23 36 26 26 79 60 113 71 30

20 427.50 340.78 29 32 27 60 18 98 84 85 79 48

21 443.61 244.68 68 15 18 13 47 32 48 84 51 25

22 410.15 493.41 59 52 62 75 18 123 95 115 119 92

23 379.84 939.74 171 169 171 158 94 169 117 188 133 176

24 378.43 968.27 171 185 171 158 94 169 117 188 164 176

25 386.71 776.81 71 114 146 175 29 153 120 166 130 171

26 379.72 958.76 171 169 171 158 125 169 117 188 133 176

27 396.96 646.00 126 77 57 140 32 139 103 160 115 112

28 401.72 579.42 46 124 47 98 18 122 103 118 127 149

29 395.65 663.56 77 106 162 32 37 146 102 174 124 131

30 415.40 443.82 48 36 62 63 19 92 88 158 83 79

31 387.90 762.04 112 162 101 118 25 147 127 169 126 164

32 385.52 803.34 154 109 157 155 28 162 117 176 108 154

33 427.45 356.46 76 36 39 47 33 92 56 100 77 31

34 385.87 789.30 94 132 145 150 23 164 119 168 129 173

35 447.43 214.76 56 24 15 13 41 2 38 88 51 25

52
 The maximum and minimum ranges of objective function values along with the PV
capacity is summarized in Table 5.7 below:

Table 5.6: Summary of multi-objective optimization results

S.N. Energy Loss (MWh) PV Cost in Total PV capacity(kW)

lacs(Rs.)
1 378.43 968.27 1591
2 448.07 212.33 349

The optimal range of PV capacity vary from 349 kW to 1591 kW. Similarly, the
corresponding optimal range of total annual energy loss varies from 448.07 MWh to 378.43
MWh. This shows that the higher the values of PV smaller is the energy loss and vice versa. It
is observed from the Fig. 5.7 below that the relationship between PV capacity and energy loss
is non-linear.

460

450

440
Energy Loss (MWh)

430

420

410

400

390

380

370
300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700
PV Installed Capacity (kW)

Fig. 5.7: Effect of PV capacity of the energy losses

53
 1000
900
800

PV cost in lacs(Rs.)
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700
PV Installed capacity (kW)

Fig. 5.8: Effect of PV capacity on PV cost

The cost of PV in multi-objective optimization varies from Rs. 212.33 lacs to Rs.
968.27 lacs. It is observed from the Fig. 5.8 that the cost of PV is directly proportional to the
installed capacity of the PV units. At lowest cost, only 349 kW SPV can be installed and for
highest PV capacity as 1591 kW maximum cost is required.
The selection of the best solution depends upon the purpose of the study and importance
given to the objective function. From the fuzzy set theory, the best compromise solution is
obtained at the total penetration capacity of 952 kW which is the intermediate range of PV
capacity. The energy loss at the best capacity is 401.72 MWh and the corresponding PV cost
is Rs. 579.42 lacs. The best result is shown in Table 5.8 below:

Table 5.7: The best result based on fuzzy theory

Objective Functions Optimal Bus Locations and Capacity (kW)

Total
PV Cost Capacity
Loss
(Rs. In 9 10 11 12 13 17 18 19 20 21 (kW)
(MWh)
lacs)

401.72 579.42 46 124 47 98 18 122 103 118 127 149 952

54
5.3.4 Result Analysis

The solar energy potential for 30o inclined solar panel has been determined in Fig. 4.2
and the corresponding per unit capacity for 1 kWp solar module is given in Fig. 4.3 for different
seasons. For each season a lot of solar power generation has determined to the selected site.
The production of solar power is higher in the seasons spring and autumn has identified than
the other seasons. The outputs from solar has obtained from 6 am to 6 pm in all the seasons
and there are no outputs from the solar during night times.
The integration of above mentioned PV units in the radial distribution system reduces
power loss in the day time only. Therefore, at the peak time period there is no share of the solar
power to the grid. Hence, relatively smaller percentage of savings in the system loss as assumed
to the whole day availability of the solar power/ storage system.
Integration of PV units in the buses reduce the current flowing through the branch of
the network and loss is minimized. Similarly, voltage drop in the line is reduced and hence the
profile of the voltage level increases. System loss is proportional to the size of PV unit. But
greater the size increases the cost of the installation and maintenance. The system loadability
has improved due to the integration of PV at the best location and of optimal size. In addition,
that, voltage stability is improved and hence the quality of the power increases significantly.

55
 Chapter - 6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

6.1 General

Solar photovoltaic (SPV) is a type of distributed generation (DG) mostly connected in

a distribution network. Proper sizing and location of DG are important aspects for distribution
network which are to be examined. The benefits that DG brings to the network can be best
utilized if these resources have been properly allocated in the system. DG has significant
impact on power loss minimization and voltage profile improvement in the system. However,
inappropriate location and capacity of DG may impact adversely. Therefore, location and size
of DG unit plays important role in a power system.

6.2 Conclusion

In this study, optimal location and sizing of PV units has been implemented. A multi-
objective function was formed for optimum PV placement, considering minimization of annual
energy loss and SPV system cost. The solar energy resource assessment has been done
considering hourly seasonal values of solar radiation and the load profile of the system was
also considered hourly basis for different seasons. The backward/forward sweep method was
implemented in MATLAB to perform the load flow analysis. The multi-objective GA program
has formed using Optimization toolbox in MATLAB to find the Pareto-optimal solution.
Finally, a fuzzy-based technique has been utilized to select the best solution. The proposed
method was tested on 21 bus radial distribution system which is situated in Kathmandu.
From the single objective optimization, energy loss minimization is achieved up to 18%
by installing 1058 kW of PV units with SPV system cost Rs. 643.91 lacs. While from the multi-
objective optimization energy loss minimization is around 16.3% with annual PV cost Rs.
579.42 lacs. The annual loss saving is proportional to the size of the PV unit which is

56
proportional to the PV cost. By minimizing the loss of the system, voltage level of the system
is also significantly improved.
In multi-objective optimization case, the results obtained for each objective function is
higher than the corresponding single objective function. Because GA takes care about the other
function while computing one single objective function.

6.3 Future Work

This work deals with the finding of optimal location and size of PV units and it is tested
for 11 kV, 21 nodes radial distribution system which is located in Kathmandu. Future work
would be to find the location and size of the renewable resource as well as dispatchability based
DG for mesh type of network using real and larger realistic system data and consider space
constraint for particular site. Future work would also be to consider different models of DG
and compare the results. Optimization function can be extended to include other objective
functions such as switching/reconfiguration of the distribution network and this can be tested
with different optimization techniques like Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and other
intelligent techniques.

57
 REFERENCES

[1] S. Regmi and S. Adhikari, "Solar Energy Potential in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal,"
Journal of Hydrology and Metrology, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 77-82, 2012.
[2] T. Ackermann, G. Anderson and L. Soder, "Distributed generation: a definition,"
Electric Power System Research, vol. 57, pp. 195-204, 2001.
[3] C. Jha, "Placement of distributed generation units in a distribution network,"
AHEC, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, 2014.
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62
 APPENDIX: A

BASE CASE LOAD FLOW PROGRAM IN MATLAB

% MATLAB source code for base case load flow using

%backward/forward sweep method forming BIBC matrix
clear all; format compact; format short; close all;
LD=xlsread ('distdata.xlsx', 1, 'A2:E21');
BD=xlsread ('distdata.xlsx', 1,'F2:G21');
br=length(LD);
no=length(BD);
xlp=xlsread ('CF calculation.xls',1,'A14:X17')/1000;
lp=xlsread ('loadprofile.xlsx', 3,'A3:E26'); %load profile
MVAb=1;
KVb=11;
Zb=(KVb^2)/MVAb;
% Per unit Values
for i=1:br
R(i)=(LD(i,4))/Zb;
X(i)=(LD(i,5))/Zb;
end
for i=1:no
BD(i,1) =((BD(i,1))/(1000*MVAb));
BD(i,2) =((BD(i,2))/(1000*MVAb));
end
tic;
%code for bus-injection to branch-current matrix
bibc=zeros(size(LD,1), size(LD,1));
for i=1: size(LD,1)
if LD(i,2) ==1
bibc(LD(i,3)-1, LD(i,3)-1) =1;
else

63
 bibc(: LD(i,3)-1) =bibc (: LD(i,2)-1);
bibc(LD(i,3)-1, LD(i,3)-1) =1;
end
end
Pload=BD (: ,1);
Qload=BD (: ,2);
Ns= [92 92 90 91];
vbr=ones (20,1);
for k=1:4
for j=1: size(lp,1)
Pld(:,j)=lp(j,k+1)*Pload;
Qld( :,j)=lp(j,k+1)*Qload;
s(:,j)=complex(Pld(:,j),Qld(:,j));
Vo=ones(20,1);% initial bus votage value
itr=0;
v(:,j)=Vo;
diff=1;
% loop starts
while (diff>1e-4)
Vt=v(:,j);
%backward sweep
I=conj(s(:,j)./v(:,j));% injected current
Z=complex(R,X);%branch impedance
ZD=diag(Z);%making it diagonal
IB=bibc*I; %branch current
itr=itr+1;
%forward sweep
TRX=bibc'*ZD*bibc;
v(:,j)=Vo-TRX*I;
dVB=(Vt-v(:,j));
diff=abs(max(dVB));
end

64
 if abs(min(v(:,j)))<=abs(min(vbr))
vbr=v(:,j);
end
Ibr(:,j)=abs(IB);
temp=Ibr(:,j).^2.*R';
tempq=Ibr(:,j).^2.*X';
Pl(j)=sum(temp);
Ql(j)=sum(tempq);
end
smp(k)=sum(Pl);
smq(k)=sum(Ql);
end
AEL=smp*Ns';
REL=smq*Ns';
VB=vbr;
VB=[1+0*i;VB];
Vbus=abs(VB);
theta=angle(VB)*180/pi;
toc;
fprintf('\nNumber of iteration=%d\n',itr);
% voltage profile plot
x=1:length(Vbus);
plot(x,Vbus,'mo--');
title('Minimum bus voltage at different nodes');
xlabel('Bus Number')
ylabel('Bus Voltage Profile (in per unit)')
axis([1 no 0.91 1.005]);
grid on
% daily average energy loss plot
fprintf('\nTotal Annual Active Energy Loss(MWh)=%.4f\n',AEL);
fprintf('\nTotal Annual Reactive Energy
Loss(MVARh)=%.4f\n',REL);

65
n=length(Pl);
y=1:n;
Fig.=Fig.ure;
plot(y, Pl'*1000, 'rx--', y, Ql'*1000,'c.-');
title('Plot of Daily Power Loss and time in hour');
xlabel('Time in hour');
ylabel('Daily Active Loss(MW)');
legend({'Active Loss(MW)','Reactive Loss(MVAR)'});
axis([1 24 0 140]);
grid on
save('test.mat');

66
 APPENDIX: B

SINGLE OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION USING MATLAB GA TOOLBOX

% main function for single objective GA Toolbox

function [val]=obj_func(dg)
load('test.mat');
Ns=[92 92 90 91];
% annual energy loss calculation
for j=1:size(lp,1)
for k=1:4
Pld(:,j)=lp(j,k+1)*Pload;
Qld(:,j)=lp(j,k+1)*Qload;
xpv=xlp(k,j)*dg;
P_new(:,j)=Pld(:,j)-xpv';
s(:,j)=complex(P_new(:,j),Qld(:,j));
Vo=ones(20,1);% initial bus votage
v(:,j)=Vo;
diff=1;
while (diff>1e-4)
Vt=v(:,j);
%backward sweep
I=conj(s(:,j)./v(:,j));% injected current
Z=complex(R,X);%branch impedance
ZD=diag(Z);%making it diagonal
IB=bibc*I; %branch current
%forward sweep
TRX=bibc'*ZD*bibc;
v(:,j)=Vo-TRX*I;
dVB=(Vt-v(:,j));
diff=abs(max(dVB));
end

67
 %power loss calculation
Ibr(:,j)=abs(IB);
temp=Ibr(:,j).^2.*R';
smp(k)=sum(temp)
end
Pl(j)=smp*Ns';
% handling of voltage constraint
kp=10000;
t=0;
for i=1:size(R)
if abs(vbr(i))<0.95
vlim(i)=0.95;
elseif abs(vbr(i))>1.0
vlim(i)=1.0;
else
vlim(i)=abs(vbr(i));
end
t=t+(abs(vbr(i))-vlim(i))^2;
end
val=sum(Pl)+t*kp;
end
%Non-linear constrain function
function [c, ceq]=myconst(x)
load('test.mat','Pload');
ceq=[];
c=sum(x)-0.5*sum(Pload);
%main program for PV location and size
load('test.mat');
%objective function
FitnessFunction=@obj_func;
rng default;
Nvars=20;

68
 Vbus(1)=[];
x0=zeros(1,20);
ubx=0.4*ones(1,20);
%find candidate bus location
Norm=abs(Vbus)./0.95
k=find(Norm<=1.00);
for i=1:20
i~=k;
ubx(k)=0;
end
lb=zeros(1,20);
UB=ubx;
%A*x <=b (linear inequalities)
A=[];
b=[];
%Aeq*x=b (linear equalities)
Aeq=[];
beq=[];
%Non-linear constrain function
nonlcon=@myconst;
%GA options
v_old=Vbus;
%setting options
options=gaoptimset('InitialPopulation',x0,'PopulationSize',...
100,'Generations',50,'FitnessLimit',0','TolFun',0.00000, ...
'PlotFcns',{@gaplotbestf, @gaplotbestindiv});
%calling genetic algorithm function for optimization
[xpv, ploss]=ga(FitnessFunction, Nvars,A,b,Aeq,beq,lb,UB,...
nonlcon, options);
P_new=Pload-xpv';
S=complex(P_new,Qload);% complex power
Vo=ones(Nvar,1); % initial bus votage

69
v=Vo;
diff=1;
%main loop
while (diff>1e-4)
Vt=v;
%backward sweep
I=conj(S./v);% injected current
Z=complex(R,X);%branch impedance
ZD=diag(Z);%making it diagonal
IB=bibc*I; %branch current
%forward sweep
TRX=bibc'*ZD*bibc;
v=Vo-TRX*I;
dVB=(Vt-v);
diff=abs(max(dVB));
end
Ibr=abs(IB);
for i=1:size(LD,1)
Pl(i)=power(Ibr(i),2)*R(i);
Ql(i)=power(Ibr(i),2)*X(i);
End
PL=sum(Pl);
QL=sum(Ql);
v_old=[1+0*i;v_old];
th_old=angle(v_old)*180/pi;
v=[1+0*i;v];
vnew=abs(v);
theta=angle(v)*180/pi;
x=1:length(v_old);
Fig.ure
hold on
plot(x,v_old,'mx-', x, vnew, 'b*-');

70
title('Plot of Bus number & voltage profile');
xlabel('Bus Number');
ylabel('Bus Voltage Profile (in per unit)');
axis([1 no 0.90 1.025]);
legend('WithoutDG','WithDG');
grid on
disp(xpv');
fprintf('The minimum loss of the energy is=%f
MWhr\n',ploss);

71
 APPENDIX: C

MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION USING MATLAB GA TOOLBOX

%multiobjective optimization function

function [val]=multiobj(dg)
%%
load('test.mat');
Ns=[92 92 90 91];
for j=1:size(lp,1)
for k=1:4
Pld(:,j)=lp(j,k+1)*Pload;
Qld(:,j)=lp(j,k+1)*Qload;
xpv=xlp(k,j)*dg;
P_new(:,j)=Pld(:,j)-xpv';
sr(:,j)=complex(P_new(:,j),Qld(:,j));
Vo=ones(20,1);% initial bus votage
v(:,j)=Vo;
diff=1;
%iteration
while (diff>1e-4)
Vt=v(:,j);
%backward sweep
I=conj(sr(:,j)./v(:,j));% injected current
Z=complex(R,X);%branch impedance
ZD=diag(Z);%making it diagonal
IB=bibc*I; %branch current
%forward sweep
TRX=bibc'*ZD*bibc;
v(:,j)=Vo-TRX*I;
dVB=(Vt-v(:,j));
diff=abs(max(dVB));

72
 end
Ibr(:,j)=abs(IB);
temp=Ibr(:,j).^2.*R';
smp(k)=sum(temp);
end
Pl(j)=smp*Ns';
% handling of voltage constraint
kp=10000;
t=0;
for i=1:size(R)
if abs(vbr(i))<0.95
vlim(i)=0.95;
elseif abs(vbr(i))>1.0
vlim(i)=1.0;
else
vlim(i)=abs(vbr(i));
end
t=t+(abs(vbr(i))-vlim(i))^2;
end
val(1)=sum(Pl)+t*kp;%eof first objective function
%% second objective function
r=0.12; %discount rate is 12%
n=25;
sr=(r*(1+r)^n/((1+r)^n-1));
pv=sum(dg)*1000;
val(2)=pv*(sr*12445*4+301130.4881*4*0.5);
end
%multi-objective genetic algorithm main program
load('test.mat');
%objective function
FitnessFunction=@multiobj;
Nvars=20;

73
 ubx=0.2*ones(1,20);
k=find(abs(Vbus)>=0.95);
for i=1:20
i~=k;
ubx(k)=0;
end
UB=ubx;
%A*x <=b (linear inequalities)
A=[];
b=[];
%Aeq*x=b (linear equalities)
Aeq=[];
beq=[];
%GA options
options =gaoptimset('PopulationSize',100,...
'Generations',50,'PlotFcns',@gaplotpareto);
[xpv,Fval] = gamultiobj(FitnessFunction,Nvars,...
A,b,Aeq,beq,lbz,UB,options);

74