Types of Rotors

Rotors are classified into two groups. Whether or not a rotor is classified as rigid or flexible depends on the
relationship between the rotating speed (RPM) of the rotor and its natural frequency. When the natural frequency
of some part of a machine is also equal to the rotating speed or some other exciting frequency of vibration, there
is a condition of resonance. The rotating speed at which the rotor itself goes into bending resonance is called a
"critical speed."

As a general rule, rotors that operate below 70% of their critical speed are considered rigid and, when balanced
at one speed will be balanced at any other normal operating speed below 70% of its critical speed. Rotors that
operate above 70% of their critical speed will actually bend or flex due to the forces of unbalance and, thus are
called flexible rotors.

A flexible rotor balanced at one operating speed may not be balanced when operating at another speed. This is
because as the rotor bends or deflects, the weight of the rotor is moved out away from the rotating centerline
creating a new unbalanced condition, known as whip. This new unbalance can be corrected by re-balancing in
the two end planes; however, the rotor would then be out of balance at slower speeds where there is no
deflection. The only solution to insure smooth operation at all speeds is to make the balance corrections in the
actual planes of unbalance. Typical machines which contain flexible rotors are steam and gas turbines,
multistage centrifugal pumps, compressors, and paper rolls.

Balancing Limits
The International Standard ISO 1940/1 "Balance Quality Requirements of Rigid Rotors" is a widely-accepted
reference for selecting rigid rotor balance quality. This standard sets a level of unbalance to be acceptable based
on the type of rotor and its operating speed. To determine the balance quality requirement of your rotor, please
reference our Technical Literature, Balance Quality Requirements of Rigid Rotors.

While the ISO determines a standardized qualification for balancing, the unbalance tolerance, or amount of
unbalance allowed in a product can easily be determined by the manufacturer. The best way to determine an
acceptable balance tolerance is to experiment with a batch of rotors. Balance the rotors to reduce unbalance to a
minimum. Then slowly add unbalance until the performance becomes unacceptable. Keep in mind that more
unbalance can lead to premature bearing failure or excessive vibration. Pick a balance tolerance within this
range that is cost effective and achievable with little lost time.

Static Unbalance

Static unbalance is a condition of unbalance where the central principal axis is

displaced parallel to the rotating centerline. It can be detected by placing the rotor at its point of rotation on each
end. The heavy side of the rotor will swing to the bottom. A part is considered statically balanced when it does
not rotate regardless of the position in which it is placed.

When testing a rotor that is symmetrically supported between identical bearings, identical vibration amplitude and
phase readings will be measured at the bearings / end of shaft if the unbalance is truly static. This does not
apply for rotors which are mounted in an overhung configuration.
 Static unbalance can be corrected by adding
or removing weight in only one correction plane. In the figure to the right, the balance correction weight in
scenario A is added as one singular weight addition in the same plane as the unbalance. This will result in a well
balanced rotor. In scenario B, the static unbalance is corrected by placing the correction weights in-line at
opposite ends of the rotor. This method is typically used when it is not possible to add a single correction weight
at the center portion of the rotor. This results in a statically balanced rotor; however, during faster rotations, there
is an increased chance of bending moments.

Scenario C shows an unacceptable attempt of balancing a rotor. The correction weight was added in a different
plane than the one containing the rotor center of gravity. The rotor may be considered statically balanced, due to
the fact that no heavy spot would swing to the bottom if the rotor were suspended and allowed to spin freely;
however, when the rotor is rotated, the original heavy spot and correction weight, being located in different
planes, produce moments of inertia which cause the central principal axis to intersect the rotating centerline, thus
creating another type of unbalance

Couple Unbalance

Couple unbalance exists when two unbalances exist 180 degrees apart,
but in different planes. This condition of unbalance has a central principal mass axis intersecting the rotating
centerline. Unlike static unbalance, couple unbalance cannot be detected by allowing the rotor to spin freely. In
fact, during the process of static balancing, one can add the weight in the wrong plane, as seen in the Methods of
Fixing Static Unbalance, C Figure. When the weight is added disproportionately, a coupled unbalance is
created. Couple unbalance can only be detected when the part is rotating and can be identified by comparing
the bearing or shaft vibration amplitude and phase readings at each end of the rotor.

Readings from a rotor experiencing couple unbalance will reveal equal amplitudes of vibration with phase
readings which differ by 180 degrees. Again, this method of detecting the type of unbalance does not apply to
overhung rotors.

Correction of couple unbalance requires that weight be added or subtracted within two correction planes. In only
very few cases will a rotor have true static or true couple unbalance. Normally, an unbalanced rotor will have
some of each type. Combinations of static and couple unbalance are further classified as quasi-static or dynamic
unbalance.

Dynamic Unbalance

Dynamic unbalance is the most common type of unbalance and is

defined simply as unbalance where the central principal axis and the rotating centerline do no coincide or
touch. This type of unbalance exists whenever static and couple unbalance are present, but where the static
unbalance is not in direct line with either couple component. As a result, the central principal axis is both tilted
and displaced from the rotating centerline.

Generally, a condition of dynamic unbalance will reveal comparative phase readings which are neither the same
nor directly opposite one another. This type of unbalance can only be solved by making weight corrections in a
minimum of two planes.

Methods of Correcting Unbalance

Once the heavy spot is located, it can be corrected by either adding mass to the rotor on the opposite side as the
heavy weight or removing weight from the heavy location.

Methods of adding weight include bolting or welding weights onto the rotor, etc. Removing weight from the rotor
can be done by drilling, grinding, milling, etc.

If the location of weight addition / removal is unaccessible, the unbalance vector can be split such that the
correction can be made via two accessible additions / removals instead.

The Importance of Dynamic Balancing

Cross-Sectional View of Rotor
One important reason for balancing is that the forces created by unbalance are detrimental to the life of the
machine - the rotor, the bearings, and the supporting structure. The amount of force created by unbalance
depends on the speed of rotation and the amount of unbalance.

In the figure to the right, an unbalance is represented by a heavy spot, W, located at some radius, R, from the
rotating centerline. If the unbalance weight, radius and machine RPM are known, the centrifugal force, F, can be
generated:
Example: If an unbalance of 1 ounce exists 3 inches from the rotating centerline on a rotor that operates at 2,000
RPM, the centrifugal force can be calculated as follows.

While 1 ounce is a small amount of weight, simply revolving the rotor at 2,000 RPM can produce 69.4 pounds-
force. As speeds increase, the force increases. Thus, for a very high speed machine, a relatively small
unbalance weight can produce a tremendous amount of force.
Balancing Machines - Types, Classification, and Methods
The goal of rotor balancing is to reduce unbalance enough such that it can operate properly once installed on
site. Reducing unbalance reduces vibration and increases efficiency and life of the rotor and
bearings. Additionally, during production and repair, it is necessary to balance rotors before full assembly
because there may be limited access to the rotor.

A balancing machine is used to determine the location and amount of unbalanced masses on a rotor. The rotor
is mounted on the machine bearings and the machine spins the rotor. Soft bearing machines measure the
displacement of the ends of the rotor and bearings. The machine measures this displacement and the phase
angle, then computes the unbalance present. IRD Balancing machines then provide the operator with
corrections to be made to the rotor via addition or subtraction of weight.

Why the Need for a Balancing Machine?

When assessing a rotor, unbalance cannot be visually identified. A hole or added weight on a rotor may be there
from an initial balancing of the rotor, not the cause of unbalance. The only way to assess unbalance is via the
vibration or the force it generates.

In maintenance and overhaul of rotating equipment, there are many cases when it is impractical to attempt in-
place balancing because weight corrections cannot be made. This is true for many pumps and totally enclosed
motors as well as turbines and some centrifuges. Also, the process of repairing a rotor causes gross unbalance
which requires balancing prior to reassembling, thereby eliminating possible damage when starting up the
machine. A balancing machine is used to balance parts before re-installation, ensuring smooth operation of the
machine. A balancing machine can be an extremely valuable asset to any maintenance department that repairs
pumps, motors and other rotating equipment. It can save costs due to delays by eliminating the need to send
parts to outside specialists to be balanced. Often the savings on one job alone can justify the expense for a
balancing machine.

Manufacturers of rotating mechanical equipment must have assurance that their product will operate smoothly
when installed at the final site. One of the prime concerns is the balancing quality of the rotating
components. Through experience, the manufacturer can established a tolerable limit of unbalance which can be
accepted in a particular machine. The manufacturer knows that by exceeding this limit, customer complaints and
machinery downtime will reflect in the quality of his product. To meet this situation, parts will be balanced at the
time of manufacturer, in most instances, prior to assembly and sometimes trim balanced as an assembly.

Classification of Balancing Machines

Balancing Machines are usually classified according to the principle employed, how the unbalance is indicated,
type of machine, method of operation, etc.

Centrifugal balancing machines may be categorized by the type of unbalance a machine is capable of indicating
(static or dynamic), the attitude of the journal axis of the workpiece (vertical or horizontal), and the type of rotor-
bearing-support system employed (soft-bearing or hard-bearing). In each category, one or more classes of
machines are commercially built.

Class I - Displacement Indicating Balancing Machines

Machines in this class are usually of the soft-bearing type. They do not usually indicate unbalance directly in
weight units (such as ounces or grams in the actual correction planes) but indicated displacement and / or
velocity of vibration at the bearings. The instrumentation does not directly indicate the amount of weight which
must be added or removed in each of the correction planes. Balancing with this type of machines involves the
use of portable instrumentation. Amount and angular location of correction weights are determined by performing
simple vector calculations or by using a calculator to perform two-plane balancing operations.

Class II - Calibratable Balancing Machines Requiring a Balanced Prototype

Machines in this class are of the soft-bearing type using instrumentation which permits plane separation and
calibration for a given rotor type, if a balanced master or prototype rotor is available.
Class III - Calibratable Balancing Machines Not Requiring a Balanced Prototype

Machines in this class are of the soft-bearing type. Any (unbalanced) rotor may be used in plane of a balanced
master rotor. In turn, plane separation and calibration can be achieved for rotors without trial and error. This
class includes soft-bearing machines with electrically driven shakers fitted to the vibratory part of their rotor
supports. Microprocessor techniques allow this type to be calibrated without spinning the rotor and represents
the latest in balancing technology.

Class IV - Permanently Calibrated Balancing Machines

Machines in this class are of the hard-bearing type. They are calibrated by the manufacture for all rotors falling
within the weight and speed range of a given machine size. These machines indicate unbalance in the first run
without individual rotor calibration. This accomplished by the incorporation of an analog computer into the
instrumentation associated with the machine. This type of balancing requires a very substantial machine
foundation to eliminate vibration interference from other equipment.

Static, Non-Rotating Balancing

The first principle group is based on the fact that a body free to rotate will seek a position where its center of
gravity is lowest. Thus, the heavier side of the the rotor will seek the lowest position, automatically indicating the
angular position of the unbalance weight. The magnitude of unbalance is determined experimentally by adding
weight in the form of wax or putty to the light side of the disc until it is in balance, or when the disc no longer
rotates. The roller stand, pendulum and horizontal ways can be used to determine static unbalance via gravity.

The roller stand in Figure A is optimal because it allows for run-out measurements to be taken and does not
require precise alignment like the horizontal ways in Figure C. In Figure B, a disc is supported on a flexible cable
or alternately, a ball-and-socket device which coincides with the center of the disc and slightly above the normal
plane through the center of gravity. The heavy side will tend to seek a lower level than the light, thereby
indicating the angular position of the unbalance. The disc is balanced by adding weight to a point diametrically
opposed to the spot until the disc is level, as indicated by a circular "bubble" or level at the center of the
balancing machine. Variations of these methods are used.
Static (non-rotating) balancing is satisfactory for:

1. Rotors having low length/diameter ratios operating at low speeds

2. Narrow rotors operating at moderate speeds
3. High-speed rotors which are to be assembled to a shaft and later balanced as an assembly

Dynamic Balancing Machines, Soft-Bearing vs. Hard-Bearing

Two-plane balancing machines, or dynamic balancing machines, are used for correcting static and dynamic
unbalance. The two general types of dynamic balancing machines that have received the widest acceptance are
the "soft" or flexible bearing machine and the "hard" or rigid bearing machine. While there is really no difference
between the bearings used, the machines have different types of suspensions.

Soft-Bearing Balancing Machines

The soft-bearing machine derives its name from the fact that it supports the rotor to be balanced on bearings that
are free to move in at least one direction, usually horizontally or perpendicularly to the rotor axis. The theory
behind this style of balancing is that the rotor behaves as if suspended in mid-air while the movements of the
rotor are measured. The mechanical design of a soft-bearing machine is slightly more complex, but the
electronics involved are relatively simple compared to the hard-bearing machines. The design of the soft-bearing
balancing machine allows for it to be placed almost anywhere, as the flexible work supports provide a natural
isolation from nearby activity. This also allows for the machine to be moved without affecting the calibration of
the device, unlike the hard-bearing machines.

The resonance of the rotor and bearing system occurs at one-half or less of the lowest balancing
speed. Balancing is done at a frequency higher than the resonance frequency of the suspension.

Besides the fact that a soft-bearing balancing machine is a portable one, it provides the added advantages of
having a higher sensitivity than the hard-bearing machines at lower balancing speeds; the hard-bearing machines
measure force which typically requires a higher balancing speed. An additional benefit is that our soft-bearing
machines measure and display the actual movement or displacement of the rotor while it is spinning which
provides a built-in means of validating the fact that the machine is responding properly and the rotor is balanced
correctly.

The major advantage of soft-bearing machines is that they tend to be more versatile. They can handle a wide
range of rotor weights on one size of a machine. No special foundation is required for insulation and the machine
can be moved without having to obtain a re-calibration from a specialist.

Soft-bearing balancing machines, like hard bearing machines, can balance most horizontally oriented
rotors. However, balancing of an overhung rotor requires the use of a negative load hold-down attachment piece.
The image above shows IRD's soft bearing balancing machine. Notice that the orientation of the bearing system
allows for the pendulum to swing back and forth with the rotor. The displacement is recorded by the vibration
sensor and later used to calculate the unbalance present.

Hard-Bearing Balancing Machines

Hard-bearing balancing machines have stiff work supports and rely on sophisticated electronics to interpret the
vibrations. This requires a massive, stiff foundation where they must be permanently set and calibrated in place
by the manufacturer. The theory behind this balancing system is that the rotor is fully constrained and the forces
that the rotor puts on the supports are measured. Background vibration from adjacent machines or activity on the
work floor can affect balancing results. Commonly, hard-bearing machines are used in manufacturing production
operations where a fast cycle time is required.

The major advantage to hard-bearing machines is that they tend to provide a quick unbalance readout, which is
useful in high speed production balancing.

A limiting factor of hard-bearing machines is the required balancing speed of the rotor during testing. Because
the machine measures unbalance force of the rotating rotor, the rotor must be spun at a high speed to generate
enough force to be detected by the stiff suspensions.

Whip

Regardless of which horizontal balancing machine used, analysis of whip may be necessary when balancing
long, thin rolls, or other flexible rotors. Whip is a measurement of the deformation or bending of a flexible rotor. If
you suspect that you may need to measure whip, check with our technical support and we will determine whether
or not a whip indicator is necessary for your application.

Balancing Methods
A long time ago, it was essential for a balancing technician to be able to perform all of the balancing calculations,
and human error was a potential contributing factor in all balancing situations. Now, everything is
automated. When using IRD Balancing's soft bearing balancing machines, one simply follows the instructions
on the screen, step by step. This steps are as follows:

1. Chose the Rotor Setup.

Our Balancing Instruments are set up to handle the 9 different rotor configurations. Once you choose the rotor
configuration, you are instructed to spin the rotor and take a measurement reading, then stop the rotor.

2. Calibration of the Machine with the Rotor

The Balancing Instrument will then instruct the user to add a known weight to the first correcting location on the
left hand side, enter the illustrated required dimensions, spin up the rotor and take a measurement, stop the rotor,
then remove the left hand weight and place it in the right hand correction plane and repeat. Stop the rotor and
remove the known weight. The instrument then uses these measurements to calibrate itself.

3. Balancing the Rotor

The Balancing Instrument now displays both the left and right hand correction amounts and the angular location
of the correction weights for the addition or subtraction (user specified) of material.

That's it! Advancements in technology have turned balancing into a fairly easy task, making it applicable and
necessary in every machine shop!
The Alternative to Machine Balancing - Field Balancing
Many rotors can often be balanced in place, running at their own operating speed, with minimum
disassembly. To balance in place, of course, a basic requirement is that the rotor has to be accessible to make
corrections. Machines such as fans and blowers are good candidates. Totally enclosed motor armatures and
pump impellers are not.

The technique of balancing in place is referred to as Field Balancing and it offers some distinct advantages
including:

Balancing is performed on the complete assembled machine and compensates for the assembly
tolerances.
Costly and time-consuming disassembly to transport the rotor to a balancing machine is eliminated.
The effects of temperature, pressure, distortion and other environmental influences can be incorporated.
The resultant vibration can be the tolerance applied to the rotor, rather than the published balance
tolerances normally used in a balancing machine. This is particularly advantageous if the supporting
structure is close to a resonance. The unbalance in the rotor may have to be adjusted to abnormally
fine levels to minimize the resultant resonant structural vibration.
Since the rotors are balanced in place, a balancing machine does not have to be purchased.

Modern instruments such as vibration analyzers, data collectors and portable balancers provide accurate
information to assist in the balancing process. The vibration level measured at the rotating speed frequency is
used as an indicator of the amount of unbalance. The location is determined by measuring the phase. Phase,
(the relative motion of one part of a machine to another) is measured by means of a stroboscopic light or by an
indicator in the instrument, triggered by a photocell.

It is imperative that the vibration measured is a result of the unbalance and not some other exiting force. Only a
detailed, thorough, analysis can identify where the vibration measured is coming from. Many sources of vibration
can occur at the rotating speed frequency.

When field balancing, trial weights for balance computation and permanent weights for final correction are
normally added to the rotor. Care should be taken when attaching weights. They should be attached securely so
that they cannot 'fly off' when the machine is operating. They not only constitute a personnel safety hazard but
also can cause damage. Loose balance weights rattling around inside a turbine for example can wreck the
machine.