I.

Entropy

In thermodynamics, entropy (usual symbol S) is a measure of the number of specific

ways in which a thermodynamic system may be arranged, commonly understood as a
measure of disorder. According to the second law of thermodynamics the entropy of
an isolated system never decreases; such systems spontaneously evolve towards
thermodynamic equilibrium, the configuration with maximum entropy. Systems which are
not isolated may decrease in entropy. Since entropy is a state function, the change in the
entropy of a system is the same for any process going from a given initial state to a given
final state, whether the process is reversible or irreversible. However irreversible processes
increase the combined entropy of the system and its environment.

The change in entropy (S) was originally defined for a thermodynamically reversible
process as

which is found from the uniform thermodynamic temperature (T) of a closed system
dividing an incremental reversible transfer of heat into that system (dQ). The above
definition is sometimes called the macroscopic definition of entropy because it can be used
without regard to any microscopic picture of the contents of a system. In thermodynamics,
entropy has been found to be more generally useful and it has several other formulations.
Entropy was discovered when it was noticed to be a quantity that behaves as afunction of
state, as a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics. Entropy is an extensive
property, but the entropy of a pure substance is usually given as an intensive property
either specific entropy (entropy per unit mass) or molar entropy (entropy per mole).

The absolute entropy (S rather than S) was defined later, using either statistical
mechanics or the third law of thermodynamics.

In the modern microscopic interpretation of entropy in statistical mechanics,

entropy is the amount of additional information needed to specify the exact physical state of
a system, given its thermodynamic specification. Understanding the role of thermodynamic
entropy in various processes requires understanding how and why that information
changes as the system evolves from its initial condition. It is often said that entropy is an
expression of the disorder, or randomness of a system, or of our lack of information about it.
The second law is now often seen as an expression of the fundamental postulate of
statistical mechanics via the modern definition of entropy. Entropy has
the dimension of energy divided by temperature, which has a unit ofjoules per kelvin (J/K)
in the International System of Units.
II. Property relations from energy equations

- dQ = Tds for any reversible process

- dW = pdv for the boundary work of a reversible nonflow system

T ds = du + p dv or =
+

(Equation containing any point functions)

- Therefore it is valid between any two equilibrium states for any kind of
process, nonflow or steady flow, reversible or irreversible, but if the process
joining the states is not internally reversible, then T ds and p dv do not
represent heat and work, respectively.

- Next, differentiate h = u + pv , the definition of enthalpy, and use du + p dv = T

ds; dh = du + p dv + v dp, which gives

Dh = T ds + v dp or T ds = dh v dp

Where: dQ = T ds reversible process

- Letting dQ = T ds in the steady flow equation, we get

T ds = du + p dv + v dp + dK + dP + dW
-v dp = dK + dP + dW
- Which is to say that in a reversible steady-flow process, - equals the
shaft work W plus the changes of kinetic and potential changes

2
= +
1

If both P and K are negligible, the shaft work of a steady flow process is
2
=
1
 = + ()

= ()

III. Frictional Energy

- Work transformed into heat by frictional effects, but it is not a form of

energy different from those already defined. To allow for energy losses due
to friction, engineers generally use efficiency values accumulated through
experience, a practice to be explained later as occasions arise.

- If the frictional loss is caused by the rubbing together of two solid parts, with
or without lubricant, what happens is that work is expended to excite the
molecules in the vicinity of the surfaces being rubbed, increasing their
energy, and raising the temperatures. This is to say that work is converted
into internal energy of the rubbing bodies (of a bearing, say). As soon as the
surfaces get hotter than the surroundings, heat is conducted through the
parts, and energy is radiated and conducted away as heat. That portion of
this energy carried off by oil in a bearing will also be given off as heat when
the oil is cooled. Thus, the frictional energy usually appears as heat - heat
dissipated into the atmosphere, which is such an immense reservoir that it
does not increase in temperature, except locally. (The earth exists in
virtually steady state with its surroundings).

- If the frictional loss is that caused by fluid friction, the substance has more
internal energy at the end of the process that it would have had in the
absence of fluid friction. If the substance also gets hotter than its
environment, at least a part of the frictional energy eventually leaves as
heat to the surroundings. As frictional energy becomes stored energy, it is
always at the expense of work.
 - If Q = 0 except as EF as heat, the energy balance is

H1 + K1 = h2 + K2 + W3 + EF

Where the fluid work is W = W3 + EF

IV. Energy Equations for Flow of Incompressible Fluids

In most situations of general interest, the flow of a conventional liquid, such as water,
is incompressible to a high degree of accuracy. Now, a fluid is said to be incompressible
when the mass density of a co-moving volume element does not change appreciably as the
element moves through regions of varying pressure. In other words, for an incompressible

fluid, the rate of change of following the motion is zero: i.e.,

In this case, the continuity equation (40) reduces to

We conclude that, as a consequence of mass conservation, an incompressible fluid must

have a divergence-free, or solenoidal, velocity field. This immediately implies, from
Equation (42), that the volume of a co-moving fluid element is a constant of the motion. In
most practical situations, the initial density distribution in an incompressible fluid
is uniform in space. Hence, it follows from (76) that the density distribution remains

uniform in space and constant in time. In other words, we can generally treat the density,
, as a uniform constant in incompressible fluid flow problems.

Suppose that the volume force acting on the fluid is conservative in nature (see
Section A.18): i.e.,
where is the potential energy per unit mass, and the potential energy per unit
volume. Assuming that the fluid viscosity is a spatially uniform quantity, which is generally
the case (unless there are strong temperature variations within the fluid), the Navier-Stokes
equation for an incompressible fluid reduces to

where

is termed the kinematic viscosity, and has units of meters squared per second. Roughly

speaking, momentum diffuses a distance of order meters in seconds as a

consequence of viscosity. The kinematic viscosity of water at is

about . It follows that viscous momentum diffusion in water is a relatively

slow process.

The complete set of equations governing incompressible flow is

- Here, and are regarded as known constants, and as a known

function. Thus, we have four equations--namely, Equation (81), plus the
three components of Equation (82)--for four unknowns--namely, the
pressure, , plus the three components of the velocity, . Note
that an energy conservation equation is redundant in the case of
incompressible fluid flow.