INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH

Int. J. Energy Res. 2015; 39:14371450

Published online 17 June 2015 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/er.3350

REVIEW PAPER

An overview of load management techniques

in smart grid
Anzar Mahmood1, Nadeem Javaid1,*,, Muhammad Asghar Khan2 and Sohail Razzaq2
1
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
2
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan

SUMMARY
Load management (LM) is supposed to have a vital role in future energy management systems. This article presents an over-
view and comparison of LM techniques along with related technologies and implementation challenges in smart grid. The
article also covers consumer and utility concerns in context of LM to enhance readers intuition about the topic. Two major
categories of LM techniques, incentive-based and dynamic pricing-based schemes, have been discussed and compared. Most
commonly used incentive-based direct load control is elaborated in detail. Dynamic pricing-based energy consumption
scheduling schemes, featuring peak load reduction and consumers energy cost minimization at residential level, are also em-
phasized. Furthermore, the article includes a description of dynamic pricing-based home energy management and associated
optimization techniques as well as comparison of the latest schemes. Copyright 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Correspondence
*Nadeem Javaid, Department of Computer Science, CIIT, Islamabad, Pakistan.

E-mail: nadeemjavaid@comsats.edu.pk, www.njavaid.cpm

Received 20 April 2014; Revised 9 April 2015; Accepted 19 April 2015

1. INTRODUCTION estimated that the US energy prole will constitute 33%

Energy is one of the most important components of human
life that is present ubiquitously and can be rendered as soul
of modern machine age. Energy management is an impor-
tant and interesting focus of researchers since decades.
According to the International Energy Agency, the total
primary energy supply of the world has been increased to
13 113 million tons of oil equivalent in 2011 as compared
with 6109 million tons of oil equivalent in 1973 [1]. The
largest amount of energy is consumed in buildings, which
is estimated almost 40% of the world total consumption
and has been doubled in 2010 as compared with 1971
[2]. It is the use of energy by the occupants of the buildings
that is usually expressed as per capita energy consumption
and taken as an index for development and prosperity of a
country [3].
Electricity is distributed through existing electro-
mechanical grid, which has been serving since the 19th
century. Generation of more power to meet ever-increasing
demand, which is expected to be doubled by 2020 [4], has
many concerns regarding the limited fossil fuels and high
carbon emissions. Carbon emissions deteriorate our envi-
ronment and put a question mark over global sustainability.
Renewable energy resources are a cleaner form of
energy; however, the energy density and technological
maturity of the fossil fuels still dominate their use. It is
of renewable resources by 2020 with high penetration of
wind and solar power plants [5]. Integration of the huge
amount of distributed generation, usually consisting of
renewable resources, to the power grid has raised many
issues [6]. The concept of virtual utility to integrate
different kinds of distributed generation to a central energy
(heat and electricity) network has been proposed in [7].
Unpredictable behavior of these intermittent energy resources
has adverse effects on power system stability.
In the beginning, LM procedures were based on unidi-
rectional communication between users and utilities [8].
These procedures were mainly implemented by the utili-
ties, and the role of users in LM programs was negligible.
However, integration of advanced communication infra-
structure enables bi-directional ow of data and power
among different stakeholders of power system and hence
allows more efcient LM involving both utility and con-
sumers [9].
The need to control the demand in order to shape the
load prole was rst realized in the 1970s [10]. Now, it
has evolved to the concept of demand side management
(DSM) and is characterized by utility operations and incen-
tives for the consumers in order to bring power usage at de-
sired level at all times. Major objectives of DSM include
peak clipping, valley lling, peak shifting, and deploying
new efcient uses [11]. DSM can help the consumers to

Copyright 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1437

A. Mahmood et al.
lower their payments and utility to minimize the need of
peaking plants. Obviously, the utility desires the shape of
the load curve to be balanced with a reduced peak-
to-average ratio (PAR) for all the hours while consumers
want reliable energy supplies at minimum cost. In litera-
ture, LM, demand response (DR), and DSM are found as
overlapping concepts and are used interchangeably [12].
There are two major types of LM schemes: dynamic
pricing-based and incentive-based. Pricing-based programs
include real-time pricing (RTP), time of use pricing, criti-
cal peak pricing, and so on, and incentive-based programs
include direct load control (DLC), curtailable services, de-
mand bidding, and so on [13]. DLC acts only when peak
demand crosses the certain limit whereas dynamic pricing
is an ongoing phenomenon. Because it is difcult to re-
spond dynamic pricing schemes manually, the customers
need home energy management systems (HEMS) in order
to automatically respond the price variations through
scheduling of their appliances for optimal total cost. Dy-
namic energy management can be better implemented in
smart grid.
The smart grid is an integration of the advanced infor-
mation and communication technologies (ICTs) to existing
electro-mechanical power systems [11]. Bi-directional
ow of data and power between utility and end users is
one of the main characteristics of smart grid aimed at de-
mand management in an efcient and dynamic way [5].
This article presents an overview of LM techniques in
smart grid, the comparison of these techniques, related
technologies, and implementation challenges. Most com-
monly used incentive-based DLC program along with dy-
namic pricing-based energy consumption scheduling
(ECS) at residential level and associated optimization tech-
niques are elaborated in detail. Th rest of the paper is orga-
nized as follows. Smart grid, LM, and development of the
related technologies are discussed in Section 2. DLC and
pricing-based ECS are elaborated in Sections 3 and 4, re-
spectively. Comparative discussion of LM techniques is
presented in Section 5 followed by LM challenges in
Section 6. Conclusions are briefed in Section 7.
2. LOAD MANAGEMENT IN SMART
GRID
Before going to the core discussion of this article, it seems
necessary to discuss some basic dynamics of power system
and smart grid, which play an important role in LM. This
section describes the smart grid basic dynamics in context
of energy management along with consumers and utili-
ties concerns and development of some related technolo-
gies. These topics are elaborated in following subsections.
2.1. Power system dynamics and peak load
management
Power system has two basic parameters, voltage level and
frequency, which should be monitored continuously to
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Load management techniques in smart grid
ensure system stability and reliability. Increasing gap be-
tween demand and supply due to insufcient generation
or transmission capability causes overloading of the sys-
tem. Consequently, underfrequency and undervoltage con-
ditions affect the systems stability. In order to control
these parameters, two conventional mechanisms are used
in power systems.
First is the excitation system along with automatic volt-
age regulator to control the generator reactive power and
systems voltage. Second is the prime-mover control,
which is used for generator active power and frequency
control. In addition to overloading disturbances, faults
may also cause the transients and affect system dynamics.
Moreover, peak load severely affects the power systems
economics and dynamics if not managed efciently. Peak
load management is a major concern of the electric utilities
as peak demand puts stress on system stability, widens the
supplydemand mismatch, and causes adverse economic
effects [14].
Utilities and consumers are two major stakeholders of
power system, and their main concerns are highlighted in
Figures 1 and 2, respectively. Intuitively, power quality
and environmental effects should be top priorities in order
to ensure global sustainability. However, priority of the
elements depends heavily on an individual consumer or
set of consumers and may vary in different geographical
areas. Smart grid is envisioned to better address these
concerns. Energy management in smart grid is briefed in
the following subsection.
2.2. Energy management in smart grid
With the rapid growth in distributed generation and cus-
tomer demands such as plug-in hybrid electric vehicles,
several issues concerning electric utilities and consumers
have been aroused including but not limited to power qual-
ity, reliability, security, efciency, and power outages [15].
Smart grid intends to address these issues through putting
forward the existing power system infrastructure by
exploiting todays state-of-the-art ICTs, digital networks,
and advanced control mechanisms.
There are many stakeholders of smart grid including
utilities, regulatory authorities, consumers, market man-
agers, and independent system operators. All the stake-
holders should be interconnected through smart grid
advanced communication infrastructure as depicted in
Figure 3.
In a smart grid environment, modern dynamic energy
management systems consist of four major parts: smart
end-use devices, smart distributed energy resources, mod-
ern building control systems, and integration of the ad-
vanced communication infrastructure for bi-directional
ow of data and power between users and utility [11].
A home having smart and efcient appliances with re-
spect to energy consumption, which operate on digital in-
structions, is called a smart home, and the associated
energy management system is called HEMS [16]. HEMS
automatically respond to the price variations by appliance
Int. J. Energy Res. 2015; 39:14371450 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Load management techniques in smart grid
Figure 1. Major concerns of electric utilities.
scheduling in order to minimize the peak load and opti-
mize the users total energy cost [8]. HEMS provide an
environment in which smart household appliances such
as air conditioners, dishwashers, cloth dryers, and washing
machines could talk to the grid and decide how to oper-
ate in the best possible way and automatically schedule
their activities at strategic timings based on available ca-
pacity [16,17].
Basic components of HEMS and their interaction with
various modules used for smart grid have been depicted
in Figure 4. Awareness about real-time energy usage with
respect to utility point of concern and awareness about
real-time pricing from consumers perspective are the fun-
damental blocks to construct and implement effective LM
through HEMS.
Sensors embedded in the appliances provide the basic
information required for dynamic energy management.
Appliances having embedded sensors for information
Figure 2. Major concerns of electricity consumers.
Int. J. Energy Res. 2015; 39:14371450 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A. Mahmood et al.
communication and auto control mechanism are networked
with main energy management system and collectively
called home area network (HAN) [18]. Fundamental role
is given to smart meter, which can perform different
energy management functions for long time. The hardware
and software of the smart meters may not require
upgradation for a long time. HEMS with a certain level
of intelligence can be upgraded and modied independent
of smart meters [19]. Smart meters along with data collec-
tion points constitute the neighborhood area network
(NAN). Integration of HAN and NAN on a single platform
is given the name of advanced metering infrastructure
(AMI). Certain security features can also be added to
HEMS [20]. This dynamic energy management system is
useful for customers regarding real-time energy consump-
tion monitoring and cost reduction.
In smart grid, ECS on demand side has promising ef-
fects on peak load reduction and cost minimization. Total
energy generation cost is reduced because of the minimal
use of peaking plants. Users are beneted by reduced
energy bills due to scheduling of their peak loads to
off-peak hours. ECS is performed either in smart meters
or dedicated HEMS. Using smart meters, connected to
home appliances and to utility through AMI, for ECS
is economical as it avoids necessity of a dedicated energy
management device. Using dedicated HEMS on the other
hand is relatively costly but offers greater processing
power, internet protocol (IP)-based solutions, and ease of
operation, upgrading, and maintenance.
Smart grid realization needs development of various
technologies; a few important ones are briefed in the next
section.
2.3. Development of smart grid
technologies
Various technologies have been developed and are being
improved in order to achieve smart grid objectives. These
technologies encompass different parts of grid. For in-
stance, better asset management and distributed generation
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A. Mahmood et al.
Figure 3. Smart grid network connecting various stakeholders. R & D, research and development.
within the stability and reliability limits are possible using
smart grid networks [11].
On transmission side, exible alternating current trans-
mission system enhances controllability and acts mainly
as a controllable voltage source [21]. High-voltage direct
current uses direct current for high-voltage transmission
and transfers power among various sections of grid operat-
ing at different frequencies. Supervisory control and data
acquisition system controls various grid operations in a
computerized manner. Wide area monitoring systems,
based on modern data acquisition techniques, monitor the
grid at large area as well as counteract dynamically when
faults/irregularities are detected [22].
As long as power distribution is concerned, there are
substation and feeder automation technologies. The former
processes operational and non-operational data being re-
ceived from and sent to other entities of the grid, while
the later deals with voltage and reactive power control as
well as improves reliability of the system by detecting
faults and isolating faulty parts from the grid [23]. Smart
grid technologies directly related to end users include
smart meters, HEMS, EV chargers, and so on [24]. Smart
meters and HEMS are among the key equipment required
for LM implementation.
Load management-related smart grid technologies are
being rapidly developed with the efforts to modernize
power grids in order to cope with the increasing energy de-
mand in future. High-speed bi-directional communication
networks provide the framework for real-time monitoring
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Load management techniques in smart grid
and control of transmission, distribution, and end-user as-
sets for effective coordination and utilization of available
energy resources. Furthermore, integration of computer-
ized automation at all levels of power system, especially
at the distribution and consumer level, enables smart grids
to rapidly self-regulate and heal. This in turn improves the
entire systems power quality, reliability, and stability [22].
Load management essentially depends on effective
communication between utility and consumers as well as
on proper use of smart meters and HEMS. Various long-
and short-range communication protocols and technologies
have been proposed for HANs and NANs, respectively.
These include both wire-line and wireless candidates; how-
ever, use of wireless communications along with wireless
sensor networks in smart grid has promised easily
implementable solutions for classical problems of optimal
control and real-time scheduling. wireless sensor networks
also play a key role in appliances coordination and demand
response management [2527].
Bluetooth, ZigBee, Wi-Fi, 6LoWPAN, and Z-Wave are
the potential wireless technologies to be used in HANs. The
IEEE has set different standards for the rst three of these
wireless technologies in which only the physical and medium
access control layers are dened: Bluetooth (802.15.1a),
ZigBee (802.15.4b), and Wi-Fi (802.11g). internet engineer-
ing task force (IETF) has introduced the 6LoWPAN standard
in order to achieve IP-enabled low-power communications
while Z-Wave is a proprietary standard [28,29]. Wireless
technologies available for NAN implementation include
Int. J. Energy Res. 2015; 39:14371450 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Load management techniques in smart grid
Figure 4. Interaction of home energy management systems (EMS) with different smart grid modules. HAN, home area network; AMI,
advanced metering infrastructure; NAN, neighborhood area network.
WiMAX and cellular networks. WiMAX aims at achieving
worldwide interoperability for microwave access (2 to
66 GHz) and is based on IEEE 802.16 series standards for
wireless metropolitan area networks (WMAN).
Technologies discussed in Section 2 are required to be
embedded in the system for better asset management,
self-healing, and optimized operation. With the back-
ground information about LM in smart grid presented so
for, incentive-based DLC and dynamic pricing-based
schemes are discussed in subsequent sections.
3. INCENTIVE-BASED DLC
Load management programs are divided into two major
categories: incentive-based and dynamic pricing-based
schemes. The most prominent incentive-based pricing
scheme is DLC, which is discussed in this section.
In DLC, the utility takes over the control and has an au-
thority to shut down or cycle consumers electrical appli-
ances (depending on the contractual terms). Incentive-
based LM programs like DLC pay the incentive money
to the consumer for the time that they are asked to reduce
or shutdown the load on short notice during peak period
[30,31]. The amount of electricity consumed by residential
users is huge worldwide. For instance, in USA, one-third
electricity is used by residential consumers, and the impor-
tant loads that contribute to the higher peaks are thermo-
statically driven, that is, air conditioners (ACs), space,
water heaters, and so on [31,32].
There are two types of loads: responsive and non-
responsive. The responsive loads respond to the signals
Int. J. Energy Res. 2015; 39:14371450 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A. Mahmood et al.
of the utility while non-responsive loads do not communi-
cate with utility [30]. Usually, the air conditioners load is
reduced by increasing the set point in a predened manner
or by limiting the cycle run time. It has been observed that
DLC of residential ACs reduce a signicant peak of the
load [31]. However, a major problem with the DLC is
the comfort level of the consumer. It is difcult to imple-
ment DLC without causing inconvenience to the con-
sumer. Although consumers are paid an inconvenience
cost, curtailment of a facility at the exact moment when it
is required the most (ACs in a sunny day) causes great dis-
comfort to the consumers [3133]. Furthermore, after the
peak time, another spike in the demand is observed during
such days as all the ACs that are turned off during the
event are turned on simultaneously to improve the temper-
ature of the rooms. This phenomenon is called rebound ef-
fect [31,19]. Direct control of electric water heaters also
has some difculties. Consumption pattern of water heaters
sometimes does not coincide with systems peak. Further-
more, diversied hot water demand among users, fre-
quency of the hot water use, different sizes of the heating
element, conduction, and convection heat losses, storage
tank size, and insulation are variable parameters that add
difculty in water heater modeling for DLC. Also, users
are not aware of the load shedding time or cycling under
DLC; hence, it causes more inconvenience to them
[34,35].
In [36], Yuan et al. presented an approach for coordina-
tion of DLC strategies with unit commitment in order to
minimize the production cost. Dynamic programming is
used for DLC calculation and fuel cost savings maximiza-
tion. The authors compared three different cases, without
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A. Mahmood et al.
DLC, xed DLC, and variable DLC, with the help of data
obtained from the Taiwan Power Company. The results
proved that variable DLC is the best option among the
three. Authors in [37] also present the relaxed dynamic pro-
gramming algorithm in context of the Taiwan electricity
market. The algorithm consists of different combinations
of conventional control approaches of demand control, cy-
cling control, and timer control. Results proved the effec-
tiveness of the algorithm over conventional methods.
Ripple control is a DLC technique and it has been ap-
plied in many countries such as New Zealand, Czech Re-
public, Germany, and the United Kingdom [38]. In this
method, a high-frequency (usually 0.1 to 1.5 KHz) signal
is imposed on the standard 50 or 60 Hz electricity signal.
Receiver devices attached to the target loads shut down
the loads upon receiving high-frequency signal. The load
is kept shut until the signal is disabled. Ripple control tech-
nique was rst implemented in France in 1928 [12]. It was
implemented as power line communication and then
evolved to radio ripple control.
In [39], a DLC-based scheme is presented for demand
side management that includes an algorithm aimed at min-
imizing users energy cost as well as maximizing their
comfort level. A controller is used to execute the proposed
algorithm in order to optimize customers energy price and
comfort level while taking into account current and near-
future tariffs and appliance constraints. Simulation results
in [39] prove that customers convenience is the most
prominent factor to decide their involvement in the DLC
scheme.
Authors in [40] have proposed an interesting network
for DLC-based load control that executes an algorithm to
maximize energy cost efciency while meeting critical
constraint on users thermal comfort. The algorithm em-
ploys least enthalpy estimation-based thermal comfort con-
trol of AC units in order to manage load efciently while
keeping thermal comfort level within acceptable range.
Furthermore, in [40], the concept of group DLC is intro-
duced in order to reduce the effects of DLC constraints
on air-conditioning loads and to generate an optimized
schedule simultaneously.
A stochastic optimization algorithm to control the load
at feeder level and to minimize the load being controlled
is presented in [41]. It ensures the minimum disruption in
the operation of electric appliances. A Monte Carlo simula-
tion framework offers insight into the benets of
employing the proposed algorithm. Results show the im-
pact of different constraints and parameters on effective-
ness of the control mechanism.
Selective DLC for effective LM is applied on a case
study of 33 kV system in UK as reported in [42]; the system
is modeled in power system computer aided design
(PSCAD), and magnitude of load to be shed is calculated
using swing equation. A laboratory prototype for selective
DLC is proposed in [43] that is based on intelligent circuit
breakers that implement selective load control. An innova-
tive load control is described in [44] with the prespecied
timing of different breakers for different categories of loads.
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Load management techniques in smart grid
Incentive-based DLC schemes improve LM and en-
hance the grid reliability. However, there are certain disad-
vantages of these schemes such as privacy and security
threats [9]. Also, DLC has less signicance regarding
small multiple residential loads because of large number
of devices to be controlled and low economic benet
achieved by heavy investment on controlling mechanisms.
Nevertheless, the technique could be relatively more effec-
tive for heavy industrial loads. In order to enhance the load
management efciency, the need of the hour is to adopt an
autonomous and self-healing system, which keeps check
on utility and consumer concerns simultaneously through
online monitoring and dynamic response. One such mech-
anism, dynamic pricing-based scheduling with HEMS, is
elaborated in the subsequent section.
4. DYNAMIC PRICING-BASED
SCHEDULING SCHEMES
In smart grid, LM at user premises is one of the most im-
portant issues related to enhancement of grid efciency,
as it results into peak load shaving and reduced probability
of grid failure. Various optimization techniques have been
used for peak load shaving and cost minimization based on
the basic objective function given by Equation (1). Major
constraints to this objective function are the available
capacity and fulllment of total demand as dened in
Equation (2) [45].
X
T  
minimize TEC ToU Pt Pgrid;t (1)
t1
subject to
X
T
Pi;t PtD (2)
t1
where TEC is total energy cost; ToU_Pt is time of use
price, and Pgrid,t is the power supply from grid at time t.
Pi,t is power demand at time t, and PtD is total power
demand.
Researchers have modied the aforementioned optimi-
zation problem by including different parameters such as
minimization of PAR and appliance waiting time. How-
ever, there exists potential for research to identify and in-
clude more practical constraints to this problem in order
to achieve the best possible solution(s). There is an ongo-
ing research in developing efcient HEMS architectures
based on various optimization techniques.
A system architecture for autonomous demand side LM is
presented in [8] and consists of three layers. First layer is ad-
mission controller layer (ACL), second is load balancer,
while the third layer consists of two sub layers: demand re-
sponse manager and load forecaster. Loads are divided into
three categories: regular loads, baseline loads, and burst loads.
Int. J. Energy Res. 2015; 39:14371450 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Load management techniques in smart grid
Modied spring algorithm is used for AC layer, mixed integer
programming is used for load scheduling, and energy cost
minimization at load balancer layer. The third layer is used
for interfacing of HEMS with smart grid. Game-theoretic en-
ergy consumption scheduling for future smart grids is de-
scribed in [46]. Simulation results conrm the effectiveness
of the technique in terms of reduction in peak to average ratio
and total energy charges.
Authors in [47] present a game-theoretic approach to
formulate an energy consumption scheduling. In this
scheme, the users are the players while daily schedules of
their home appliances are the strategies. Additionally, an
alternative pricing scheme is proposed. According to the
scheme, incentives are provided to all those users having
ECS installed smart meters. The model presented in the pa-
per satises the billing mechanism criteria; that is, the total
payments of registered users will be greater than the total
energy cost.
A home energy management system based on intelli-
gent cloud is developed in [48], which allocates a dynamic
priority to appliances. Priority allocation depends on type
and current status of a certain appliance. The technique is
successfully applied to a test bed, and a reduction of
7.3% in average power consumption has been achieved.
A neural fuzzy logic-based controller along with
MATLAB interface has been introduced in [49], which
senses the activities of the occupants inside the home and
facilitates them with the required level of services. An
IP-, XML-, and Java-based network is presented in [50]
that shows an experiment performed on 16 different
appliances in order to achieve effective scheduling.
Tabu search has been applied for the optimization of the
household energy consumption, which anticipates the de-
mand from previous prole and events [51]. The anticipa-
tion is used to optimize the user comfort and cost. An
information fusion-based technique has been implemented
in [52] in which Bluetooth provides the infrastructure for
appliances coordination. In [53], Kasttner et al. described
an energy-efcient smart yet comfortable home that is de-
signed in a user-friendly manner. It makes the energy
scheduling easy by adding learning capabilities to appli-
ances using articial intelligence. As a result, users are free
from difculty of changing their preferences. A real-time,
low-cost, low-power, and reliable system for monitoring
home appliances using wireless sensors is proposed in [54].
A multi-scale stochastic optimization for HEMS is pre-
sented in [55] for heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
unit, charging of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, and
scheduling of appliances whose operations can be
delayed up to a certain limit such as washing machine and
dryer. Integration of local renewable energy resources for ap-
pliance coordination is a cumbersome task and is explained
in [56]. The task is mainly challenging because of the
irregular weather pattern; however, authors have proved that
inclusion of local storage in the optimization model can
improve the situation. Zhu et al. used a layout of dynamic
games for LM modeling that consists of two layer optimiza-
tion frameworks [57]. In [58], a heuristic optimization-based
Int. J. Energy Res. 2015; 39:14371450 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A. Mahmood et al.
evolutionary method is used for handling a large number of
devices in dynamic LM. Baig et al. suggested smart HEMS
for smart grid using ZigBee sensors and an interface
designed in LABVIEW [59].
A comprehensive review of energy consumption in
buildings, DSM benets, and challenges has been carried
out in [60] in context of the UK electricity system. A
review of building energy consumption focusing heating,
ventilation, and air-conditioning system has been presented
in [61]. The authors analyzed the buildings of different
categories such as ofces and commercial residential.
Sun et al. present a detailed discussion about the smart
home energy management based on various optimization
techniques such as fuzzy logic, neural networks, heuristic
methods, and evolutionary approach in [62]. Various LM
techniques have been discussed and compared at residen-
tial level in [63].
It is difcult to optimize all the aspects of residential en-
ergy management in one scheme, so various schemes show
optimality with one aspect by trading off the other ones. A
detailed comparison of dynamic pricing-based residential
energy optimization schemes is presented in Table I. Com-
parative discussion of the compared schemes is presented
in Section 5.
5. COMPARISON AND EVALUATION
OF LM TECHNIQUES
Comparative discussion about dynamic pricing-based
scheduling schemes and DLC is presented in this section.
Authors in [31] reviewed different studies about pricing ef-
fects and load control strategies. They concluded that time-
varying prices are not much effective regarding reduction
in overall energy consumption, as the purpose of dynamic
pricing schemes is load shifting and not load shedding.
Comparison of various ECS schemes based on multiple pa-
rameters is presented in Table I. The schemes are summa-
rized as follows.
1. In some ECS schemes, users share their energy con-
sumption with other users in order to get optimal sched-
uling while maintaining their privacy. An important
aspect that should be considered for effective LM in
smart grid is the fairness among users. This issue arises
from the fact that a single user or a group of users can
possibly be untruthful and may get extra benets by de-
viating from the energy consumption schedule already
declared by him/them. Users can be enforced on truth-
fulness by installing an energy supervision and control
system to make sure that users do not violate the
allowed limits of energy consumption scheduling
mechanism.
To ensure the user truthfulness, algorithms for energy
scheduling controller must be designed so as to tackle
deviation from allowable limits of energy consumption.
The algorithms presented in [46,65,67,68] are based on
self-monitoring. In [46], it is worth noting that the
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 Table I. Comparison of different ECS schemes.

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Gain Application

Algorithm Waiting
A. Mahmood et al.

Scheme Scheme Algorithm Billing PAR Energy cost execution time of Coverage Simulation
no name adopted mechanism Fairness reduction minimization time appliances Utility End user area setup

1 Incentive-based ECS [47] Distributed algorithm- Based on convex NA 38.1% 37.8% Less More Yes Yes Local MATLAB
based optimization and increasing
cost functions
2 Game-theoretic-Based Distributed algorithm- Based on convex Applicable 17% 19.6% Less More Yes Yes Global MATLAB
ECS [46] based optimization and increasing
cost functions
3 Heuristic optimization- Heuristic-based Day-ahead load NA 18.3% 5.0% Relatively Inversely Yes Yes Global Real-time
based ECS [58] evolutionary algorithm shifting more related simulation
to delay
4 Backtracking-based Backtracking-based RTP NA 23.1% DNA Less More Yes Yes Local Visual C++ 6.0,
ECS [64] ECS GetTrick Count
5 VickreyClarkeGroove- VCG Based on convex, Applicable 19.3% 37.8% More More Yes Yes Global MATLAB
based ECS [65] differentiable,
and increasing
function
6 ORLC with price Weighted avg. lter- RTP + IBR NA 38% 25% NA Inversely Yes Yes Local MATLAB
prediction [66] based price prediction related to
ACP and
payments
7 Layered architecture for Spring algorithm RTP, CPP, and NA Applicable 7.53% NA More Yes Yes Local Simulink/
DSM [8] TOU Stateow
8 Tackling the load uncertainty Optimization-based RTP + IBR Applicable 25.628.9% 15.817.6% NA More Yes Yes Global MOSEK
challenge for ECS [67] scheduling
9 Optimality and fairness- Game theory-based RTP with hour-by- 73% more DNA DNA NA DNA Yes Yes Global MATLAB
based ECS model [68] optimization hour billing efcient and
mechanism inv. related
to optimality
10 Game-theoretic centralized GTES algorithm Dynamic pricing NA 18.6% and 7.5% and More DNA Yes Yes Local MATLAB
optimization scheme [69] based on directly directly
logarithmic prop. to no. prop. to no.
function of users of users
ECS, energy consumption scheduling; PAR, peak-to-average ratio; NA, not applicable; DNA, data not available; VGC, VickreyClarkeGroove; RTP, real-time pricing; DSM, demand side management;
CPP, critical peak pricing; TOU, time of use; ORLC, optimal residential load control; IBR, inclining block rate; GTES, game theory energy scheme.
Load management techniques in smart grid

Int. J. Energy Res. 2015; 39:14371450 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Load management techniques in smart grid
given algorithm ensures the self-monitoring as the bill-
ing mechanism directly relates each users payoff to the
energy cost. In this model, the individual and global
cost minimizations are closely related to each other.
Whenever a user tries to get an extra benet by deviat-
ing from their actual consumption schedule, the
adopted algorithm will penalize the cheating user in
terms of individual payments. To tackle this problem
more comprehensively, an alternative fairness billing
mechanism is presented in [68]. The billing mechanism
mainly consists of the three factors: users, their actions,
and payoffs. Users are taken as players, actions repre-
sent load scheduling vectors, and payoffs are their bills.
These factors are related in the billing mechanism in
such a way that cost of each user depends not only on
his or her own load prole but on other users proles
as well. A fairness index has been introduced corre-
sponding to the proposed billing mechanism. The fair-
ness index can be dened as the vibrational distance
between normalized billing vector for billing mecha-
nism and normalized billing vector. This shows that
a lower fairness index points out a fairer billing. The
simulation results of the proposed algorithm show sig-
nicant improvement in terms of fairness. It is inferred
from Table III that scheme discussed in [68] is the best
in assuring the fairness.
2. Billing system is an important aspect for implementa-
tion of LM measures. In the recent development of
LM realization, different billing mechanisms have
been introduced for effective results in terms of
various performance parameters. For example, RTP
shows signicant impacts on PAR reduction and
energy cost minimization [8,64], and RTP with
alternative hour-by-hour billing mechanism shows
good results in terms of improving fairness (73%) as
well as operates near to optimality in terms of cost
minimization [67]. Among all billing mechanisms
summarized in Table III, the less efcient systems in
terms of improving the total energy cost minimization
as well as reduction in PAR are those employing RTP
along with IBR and are based on convex and increas-
ing cost functions [46,47,65,67,66].
3. Generally, load curves and historic data help utilities to
design pricing schemes. In certain peak hours, utilities
run peaking plants to ll the gap between the maximum
demand and the total generation, and hence, the cost of
energy rises. Therefore, PAR is taken as an important
parameter for comparison of load optimization tech-
niques in Table III. Various attempts to reduce the total
energy cost by minimizing the PAR have been made in
[46,47,65,66], and [67]; results show signicant PAR
reduction and total energy cost minimization.
4. Execution time of the algorithm is one of the important
and desired parameters needed to be optimized for real-
ization of modern ECS. This problem is mainly
highlighted in [64] in which the execution time is based
on both the preemptive and non-preemptive tasks as
well as the number of time slots. The execution time is
Int. J. Energy Res. 2015; 39:14371450 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A. Mahmood et al.
reduced up to 2%, while getting the benets of
constrained processing mechanism, a mechanism hav-
ing search branches shortened when the partial peak
value exceeds the current best. The comparison between
constrained and unconstrained behavior reveals that the
constrained search has less execution time and is more
stable. The search space size of the preemptive tasks
has an adverse effect on the execution time. By remov-
ing the useless search space traversal, the constrained
search can be performed in reduced computation time.
Table III gives relative comparison of execution time
for various schemes.
5. The waiting time of appliances imposed by scheduler
and the users cost minimization are two opposite func-
tions. For example, considering RTP, if someone needs
to wash their dishes during peak hours, then there will
be two possible solutions, that is, to wash their dishes
during peak hours at increased rates or to postpone their
device operation till off-peak hours. To tackle these
conicts, a trade-off can be made between these two
objectives during mathematical modeling [47,65].
A comparison of incentive-based DLC and dynamic
pricing-based ECS with respect to different aspects is pre-
sented in Table II. It shows the suitability of DLC for
heavy loads (industrial) with greater potential of peak load
reduction. On the other hand, DLC causes discomfort at
residential level. In this case, dynamic pricing-based ECS
is used to maximize user comfort and to provide a sophis-
ticated approach to address users privacy concerns.
Most of the aforementioned solutions of dynamic
energy management are based on the assumption of
availability of advanced information, communication, and
control infrastructure. However, realization of smart grid
in general and effective dynamic LM in particular still
faces many challenges, which are elaborated in Section 6.
6. LM CHALLENGES IN SMART GRID
Traditional electric power grid has been facing several
challenges regarding power generation, transmission, dis-
tribution, and efcient utilization. In conventional power
grid, different types of techniques such as economic dis-
patch, unit commitment, reactive power management, and
load forecasting are used to maintain reliable grid opera-
tion. Smart grid realization will prove benecial for con-
sumers and utilities in context of total energy cost.
However, there are many challenges needed to be ad-
dressed in order to fully appreciate the smart grid potential
[11]. This section presents these challenges briey.
Interdependence of the different domains (power, com-
munication, control, information management, and so on)
and the distributed nature of the control problems make
the power system more complex [5]. The systems
efciency is dependent upon the optimization of different
protocols used for communication and control infra-
structure. Development of the advanced communication
1445
A. Mahmood et al. Load management techniques in smart grid

Table II. Comparison of dynamic pricing-based ECS and incentive-based DLC.

Scheme no. Dynamic pricing-based ECS Incentive-based DLC

1 Switch is in users hands Switch is in utilitys hands

2 Everyday phenomenon Mostly used in system emergencies
3 Lesser level of discomfort for users Higher level of discomfort for consumers
4 Mitigation of discomfort by reducing cost of energy during Mitigation of discomfort by reducing cost of energy,
off-peak hours incentive payments for load shedding, and inconvenience
cost payments
5 Load control by load shifting, that is, more exible for users Load control by load shedding, that is, more exible for
utilities
6 Requires active participation and awareness of consumers Does not require active participation and much awareness
of consumers
7 Considered to be more effective for system stability during Considered to be effective during event days
everyday life
8 Higher customer satisfaction Lesser customer satisfaction
9 Utilitys marginal prot varies for different pricing schemes, Utility marginal prot could be larger because of greater
for example, RTP and CPP peak load reduction potential
10 Users privacy is less affected More concerns with respect to users privacy
11 More security concerns during real-time energy Less vulnerable with respect to data theft
consumption monitoring
12 Relatively less potential of peak load reduction because of It has more potential of peak load reduction as it is usually
lighter loads applied on heavy loads
13 Involves more complexity because of different priorities of Relatively simple as utility priorities are common for a large
different users group of users.
14 Needs large no. of devices at residential level Needs relatively less no. of devices to control heavy loads
ECS, energy consumption scheduling; DLC, direct load control; RTP, real-time pricing; CPP, critical peak pricing.

infrastructure is also a big challenge for implementing dif-
ferent smart grid applications. Accuracy in time measure-
ments, fast control messaging, and enhanced computing
capabilities are required in order to achieve the desired sys-
tem efciency [27]. Standardization and interoperability of
various smart grid entities are also among major challenges
in smart grid realization [70].
Handling of a system under contingency is more com-
plex than normal system operation. Immediate system re-
sponse is necessary to avoid breakdown. Smart grid is
supposed to initiate the self-healing process in contingency
situations. Implementation of self-healing processes, using
advanced monitoring, and fast control signaling are some
of the important challenges for smart grid [11].
Security is another major challenge of smart grid appli-
cations such as LM. Any cyber security breach can expose
the whole system. As different domains of the smart grid
are interconnected, security should be ensured within each
domain as well as at the level of whole system [71]. Much
effort is needed to provide the secure communication
among different domains of the smart grid. Organizations
such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
International Society of Automation, North American Elec-
trical Reliability Corporation, Critical Infrastructure Protec-
tion, and US National Institute of Standards and
Technology are operating to develop rigorous solutions
for smart grid security.
The requirement to accommodate more devices in order
to serve new users in smart grid has highlighted the chal-
lenge of scalability. The issue of scalability is more severe
in context of AMI where a large number of smart meters
communicate with utility. Authors in [72] have presented
an infrastructure comprising of one to many and many
to many communication schemes and evaluated these
schemes in terms of latency and bandwidth. A data-centric
application platform is used in [73] that proposes a com-
munication strategy in order to address the challenge of
scalability. Frequency of data communication between
user and utility will increase with time. Keeping in view
this increased frequency, authors in [74] proposed a com-
munication infrastructure with optimized bandwidth and
distance scalability.
Particular challenges regarding LM include the lack of
users awareness about the associated advantages. Benets
and values offered by LM are exible, and hence, a better
understanding among users is required [27]. LM-based
dynamic solutions are less competitive compared with
the traditional solutions because of the greater complexity
and lack of standard business models. Existing market
structure is not suitable for dynamic LM solutions. LM
is supposed to reduce the operational diversity of con-
trolled appliances, which causes a peak during load recov-
ery periods [60]. Development of appropriate techniques
to reduce this peak is also an important challenge for
researchers.
Electricity utilities and consumers may have conicting
interests. For example, a utility wants to maximize its rev-
enue while at the same time its consumers want to mini-
mize their bills. This is a particular challenge for LM
architectures and programs to satisfy all the stakeholders

1446 Int. J. Energy Res. 2015; 39:14371450 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Load management techniques in smart grid
[60]. Traditional game theory-based approaches try to meet
this sort of challenges but are time-consuming and even in
some cases unsuccessful.
Incentive-based DLC has its own set of challenges [60].
As utility controls the residential power usage in a DLC
scheme, the users may feel uncomfortable. Traditional
DLC schemes may be modied such that only selected ap-
pliances are controlled in such a way that users comfort is
maximized. The appliances controlled by DLC can also be
divided into certain categories; a certain load category may
be activated in a certain scenario. This needs a comprehen-
sive policymaking that would take into account interests of
both utilities and users. The real benet of LM, however,
comes from dynamic pricing-based HEMS, which are ded-
icated devices for controlling, scheduling, and balancing
the power consumed in certain premises. There are certain
challenges regarding implementation of HEMS and their
usefulness for LM. One of these issues is to introduce more
efcient and comprehensive energy cost functions in order
to minimize energy consumption during peak hours as well
as to minimize consumers bills and maximize their com-
fort level [53]. Users can potentially fail LM plans by using
unfair means such as energy storage. This would result into
unfair distribution of energy. Prevention of such unfair dis-
tribution of energy among users during peak hours is also
an important challenge for smart grid researchers and
policymakers [68]. Challenges presented in this section
are tabulated in Table III.
Table III. Load management and smart grid challenges.
Challenge Aspects
Increased Smart grid modeling, design, and analysis
complexity Dependency of various domains on one
another
Distributed control and monitoring applications
High Network optimization and suitable topologies
efciency Accuracy in time measurements
Rapid control messaging
Enhanced processing with integrated
communications devices
Security Increased hacking threats due to enhanced
hazard information ow among various stakeholders
Insecure devices in user premises
Standardization Worldwide common standards: provision and
implementation
Harmony among various standard organizations
Local and global concerns
Required Accommodation of new users devices such
scalability as smart meters
Additional bandwidth requirement to
accommodate new communicating nodes
Self-healing Avoiding system failure
Immediate start of self-healing process after
contingency
Faster control
Int. J. Energy Res. 2015; 39:14371450 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A. Mahmood et al.
7. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, we have presented an overview of LM tech-
niques in smart grid including incentive-based DLC and
dynamic pricing-based ECS. LM-related technologies in
smart grid and challenges have also been analyzed. A com-
parison of different dynamic pricing-based ECS is pre-
sented incorporating various factors such as billing
mechanism, fairness among users, and algorithm process-
ing time. Ten recent and prominent schemes of ECS have
been analytically compared and evaluated. The highest
fairness (73%) is ensured in [68], and the highest PAR re-
duction among the compared schemes is 38.1%, presented
in [47]. Various DLC schemes have been employed to con-
trol energy consumption. These schemes are more useful
for heavy loads with greater peak load reduction potential.
ECS provides more effective ways of LM, especially for
residential load, by employing efcient optimization tech-
niques and ensuring the users privacy and comfort. Ef-
cient LM schemes are essential to control energy
consumption. Various technologies are required in order
to achieve the benets of LM in smart grid, including ICTs
and advanced control mechanism. Finding a suitable com-
munication and control infrastructure, making LM poli-
cies, and optimizing energy consumption are the ongoing
research areas related to efcient LM in smart grid.
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DOI: 10.1002/er