Building a GIS Career

First step Courses or Books

The starting point in building a successful career in GIS is a solid
education. This involves taking classes in cartography, GIS, spatial
analysis, database management, web technologies, and programming.
It is important to understand the general concepts in GIS before actually
attempting some of the functionality.
A comprehension of cartographic techniques is especially important for
understanding mapmaking and for learning how to create maps that are
effective in communicating geographic data.
Second step Learning GIS Software Applications
Take coursework that applies the concepts of GIS and cartography.
Currently, ESRI products dominate about 70% of the GIS software market
with MapInfo the nearest competitor.

The Next Level

The current trend in GIS is customization and application.
There are two different areas of customization: desktop applications and
browser based applications. For the browser based mapping
applications, understanding the various web-based languages such as
HTML, Java script, ASP and so forth is critical.

Since GIS analysis is involves the integration of spatial and tabular data,
some
 Understanding GIS In non-technical language
GIS is like a Calculator you enter data and get a systematic geo-
information "Related to Geography".
The applications of GIS depend on
1. What data you have "Type of the data"
2. The software of using.
An urban planner might want to assess the extent of urban fringe
growth in her/his city, and quantify the population growth that some
suburbs are witnessing. S/he might also like to understand why these
particular suburbs are growing and others are not.
A biologist might be interested in the impact of slash-and-burn practices
on the populations of amphibian species in the forests of a mountain
range to obtain a better understanding of long-term threats to those
populations.
A natural hazard analyst might like to identify the high-risk areas of
annual monsoon-related flooding by investigating rainfall patterns and
terrain characteristics.
A geological engineer might want to identify the best localities for
constructing buildings in an earthquake-prone area by looking at rock
formation characteristics.
A cartographer Map maker and designing digital maps.
A mining engineer could be interested in determining which prospective
Ore Deposits should be selected for future exploration, taking into
account parameters such as extent, depth and quality of the ore body,
amongst others.
A geoinformatics engineer hired by a telecommunications company
may want to determine the best sites for the companys relay stations,
taking into account various cost factors such as land prices, undulation
of the terrain et cetera.
A forest manager might want to optimize timber production using data
on soil and current tree stand distributions, in the presence of a number
of operational constraints, such as the need to preserve species diversity
in the area.
A hydrological engineer might want to study a number of water quality
parameters of different sites in a freshwater lake to improve
understanding of the current distribution of Typha reed beds, and why
it differs from that of a decade ago.

The accuracy of the information "the output" depends on

1. The Quality and Quantity of data "The input"
2. The way of treatment the data by using the adequate programs and
your skills Manipulation, Processing"
3. Your interpretation of the information. Reporting"
Your output "the information you get always in shape of maps, figure,
diagrams, charts, etc." You have to interpret them to text, as e.g. If your
information in shape of a map "any kind of maps" you have to explain it
"make it readable" describe the used cartographic elements.
knowledge of relational database management (RDBMS) is a must.
Taking a class in SQL (structured query language) is important to
mastering RDBMS and understanding structured query language (SQL).

Getting GIS Experience

The only way to truly become proficient in GIS is to simply use it.

DATA QUALITY IN GIS

How good is your data?
When using a GIS to analyse spatial data, there is sometimes a
tendency to assume that all data, both locational and attribute, are
completely accurate. This of course is never the case in reality. Whilst
some steps can be taken to reduce the impact of certain types of
error, they can never be completely eliminated. Generally speaking,
the greater the degree of error in the data, the less reliable are the
results of analyses based upon that data. This is sometimes referred
to as GIGO (Garbage in Garbage Out). There is obviously a need to be
aware of the limitations of the data and the implications this may
have for subsequent analyses.
Data quality refers to how good the data are. An error is a departure
from the correct data value. Data containing a lot of errors are
obviously poor in quality.
Data quality parameters Key components of spatial data quality
include positional accuracy (both horizontal and vertical), temporal
accuracy (that the data is up to date), attribute accuracy (e.g. in
labelling of features or of classifications), lineage (history of the data
including sources), completeness (if the data set represents all
related features of reality), and logical consistency (that the data is
logically structured).
Data Completeness: Completeness refers to the degree to which
data are missing - i.e. a complete set of data covers the study area
and time period in its entirety. Sample data are by definition
incomplete, so the main issue is the extent to which they provide a
reliable indication of the complete set of data.
Data Consistency: Data consistency can be termed as the absence of
conflicts in a particular database.
Data compatibility: The term compatibility indicates that it is
reasonable to use two data sets together. Maps digitised from
sources at different scales may be incompatible. For example,
although GIS provides the technology for overlaying coverages
digitised from maps at 1:10,000 and 1:250,000 scales, this would not
be a very useful exercise due to differences in accuracy, precision and
generalisation.
To ensure compatibility, data sets should be developed using the
same methods of data capture, storage, manipulation and editing
(collectively referred to as consistency). Inconsistencies may occur
within a data set if the data were digitised by different people or from
different sources (e.g. different map sheets, possibly surveyed at
different times).
Data Applicability: The term applicability refers to the suitability of a
particular data set for a particular purpose. For example, attribute
data may become outdated and therefore unsuitable for modelling
that particular attribute a few years later, especially if the attribute
is likely to have changed in the interim.
Data Precision: Precision refers to the recorded level of detail. A
distance recorded as 173.345 metres is more precise than if it is
recorded as 173 metres. However, it is quite possible for data to be
accurate (within a certain tolerance) without being precise. It is also
possible to be precise without being accurate. Indeed, data recorded
with a high degree of precision may give a misleading impression of
accuracy.
Data Accuracy: Accuracy is the extent to which a measured data
value approaches its true value. No dataset is 100 per cent accurate.
Accuracy could be quantified using tolerance bands - i.e. the distance
between two points might be given as 173 metres plus or minus 2
metres. These bands are generally expressed in probabilistic terms
(i.e. 173 metres plus or minus 2 metres with 95 per cent confidence).
Currency: Is my data up-to-date? introduces a time dimension and
refers to the extent to which the data have gone past their 'sell by'
date. Administrative boundaries tend to exhibit a high degree of
geographical inertia, but they are sometimes revised from time to
time. Other features may change location on a more frequent basis:
rivers may follow a different channel after flooding; roads may be
straightened; the boundaries between different types of vegetation
cover may change as a result of deforestation or natural ecological
processes; and so forth. The attribute data associated with spatial
features will also change with time.
These components play an important role in assessment of data
quality for several reasons:
1. Even when source data, such as official topographic maps, have
been subject to stringent quality control, errors are introduced when
these data are input to GIS.
2. Unlike a conventional map, which is essentially a single product, a
GIS database normally contains data from different sources of
varying quality.
3. Unlike topographic or cadastral databases, natural resource
databases contain data that are inherently uncertain and therefore
not suited to conventional quality control procedures.
4. Most GIS analysis operations will themselves introduce errors.
Data Errors
It is possible to make a further distinction between errors in the
source data and processing errors resulting from spatial analysis and
modelling operations carried out by the system on the base data. The
nature of positional errors that can arise during data collection and
compilation, including those occurring during digital data capture,
are generally well understood, and a variety of tried and tested
techniques is available to describe and evaluate them.

Determine your imagery to use!!!

After you clearly understood the problem that needs to be solved,
you need to determine or choose the right imagery to be obtained
for extracting the information we need. There a large number of data
types are available to suit various needs.
As Examples
1. If we are studying thrust belts, we may wish to order 1:1,000,000
B/W single-band Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) images with
80 m resolution and large area coverage (185 185 km) to make a
mosaic of part of a continent.
2. If we are doing a basin analysis, then a color MSS image at
1:250,000 or 1:500,000 should be acceptable.
3. If we are mapping details of lithologic and facies changes, or
vegetation patterns and wildlife habitats, we can use color SPOT
multispectral (XS) imagery with 20 m resolution and 60 60 km
(vertical view) coverage at a scale of 1:100,000 or 1:50,000, or Color
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery, with 30 m resolution, and
covering 185 185 km at a scale of 1:100,000 would also work.
4. For mapping alteration associated with mineral deposits, the ideal
choice is high resolution (110 m) airborne hyperspectral imagery. If
that is not available or is too expensive and the area is large and
remote, we may wish to use Landsat TM for a reconnaissance look.
5. If we want to know where a well was drilled several years ago in a
poorly mapped part of the world, we chose a SPOTP high resolution
(10 m) panchromatic image or 5 m resolution.
6. For very fine detail, GeoEye or WorldView images have
approximately > 1 m resolution. These can be enlarged to > 1:25,000
and still appear clear and sharp.
The following factors should be taken into account when
ordering data (Dekker, 1993).
1. Cost
One factor to keep in mind is that the smaller the area covered, the
higher the cost per unit area. Airphotos or airborne imagery will
almost always cost more per unit area than satellite images.
2. Timing
If the imagery is needed immediately, one can screen grab free but
rather low-quality imagery from internet sources such as Google
Earth or purchase off-the-shelf data from a government agency or
vendor. Large image archives exist, and data can often be obtained
quickly. Purchasing custom images from vendors and consultants, or
processing digital data in your own shop can take up to several
weeks.
3. Coverage
A- Large area coverage can be obtained using weather satellites such
as GOES (covers a full hemisphere), the Advanced Very High
Resolution Radiometer, which covers a 2700 km swath on the Earths
surface, or the SeaWIFS instrument, with a 15022801 km swath
width.
B- Moderate size areas can be covered using some handheld Shuttle
(and other mission) photos (variable area coverage), as well as
Landsat images (MSS and TM), which cover 185 185 km. Systems
that cover 50 50 to 500 500 km include MK-4 photos (120270 km),
KATE-200 photos (180 180 km), KFA-1000 photos (6885 km), and
the SPOT systems (XS and P) that cover 60 60 km.
Satellite images generally cover larger areas than airborne photos or
images, and the synoptic view is one of their greatest advantages.
C- For field or local studies, airborne surveys or small area satellite
images will save cost and/or provide more detail. Recent satellites,
such as Worldview 2, 3 and GeoEye-1, have very high resolution (up
to 31 cm for the panchromatic sensor and 1.65 m for the multispectral
instrument) and cover correspondingly smaller areas (16.4 and 15.2
km swaths, respectively).
4. Resolution
The scale of the final image will to some extent be a function of the
sensor system resolution, in that one cannot enlarge, say, an image
with 80 m resolution to a scale of 1:100,000 without the image
becoming pixelated, that is, breaking up into the individual
resolution elements that appear as an array of colored squares.
5. Nighttime Surveys
Thermal and radar surveys can be flown effectively at night because
neither system relies on reflected sunlight: the radar instrument
illuminates the surface by providing its own energy source, and
thermal energy is radiated from the surface.
Predawn thermal imagery reveals, among other things, lithologic
contrasts related to differing rock and soil densities or color tones
(light versus dark). Nighttime thermal imagery can reveal shallow
groundwater and moist soil (generally warmer than background),
can detect oil spills on water, and can help map underground coal
mine fires. Because radar illuminates the ground with microwaves, it
can be flown at night to map oil spills, for example, or during polar
night to map the movement of ice floes that could threaten an
offshore oil rig or platform.
6. Seasonal/Repetitive Coverage
Certain seasons are better for specific surveys. For example, a
geologic mapping project in an area covered by temperate forest
would see more of the ground in spring before deciduous plant leaf-
out or in the fall, after leaves have dropped.
High sun elevation angle (summer) provides images with the best
color saturation, which can be useful when mapping lithologies in
low contrast areas. On the other hand, low sun angle images (flown
during the morning or in winter), especially with a light snow cover,
enhance geologic features in low-relief terrain.
If repetitive coverage is needed to monitor natural (e.g., flooding, ice
floes) or man-made (e.g., drilling, roads) changes, it is often most
cost effective to use satellites because of their regular repeat cycles.
Repeated aircraft surveys provide more detail but are much more
costly.
7. Relief
Low-relief terrain may require low sun angle or grazing radar imagery
to enhance subtle topographic and structural features.
On the other hand, high-relief terrain poses the potential problem of
large shadowed areas that can obscure important areas or details.
These areas should be flown during mid-day or using radar with a
steep depression angle to minimize shadows.

8. Vegetation Cover
Color infrared images are very sensitive to changes in vegetation
type or vigor, since the peak reflection for vegetation is in the near
infrared region. Combinations of infrared and visible wavelengths
have been used to map changes in vegetation related to underlying
rock types and even hydrocarbon seepage (Abrams et al., 1984).
Lidar which will also provide an image of the top of the vegetation
canopy that looks like topography. There are some image processing
methods, called vegetation suppression techniques, which appear
to remove vegetation and reveal subtle changes in the underlying
soil or bedrock. These algorithms tend to remove the reflectance
attributed to vegetation and enhance the remaining wavelengths.
9. Water-Covered Areas
Shorter wavelengths (blue and green light) penetrate water farther
than longer wavelengths. The euphotic or light-penetrating zone is
known to extend to 30 m in clear water (Purser, 1973).
Infrared light, which has longer wavelengths than visible light, is
absorbed by water and does not provide information on bottom
features.
Landsat TM, with its blue band, is excellent for mapping shallow
water features such as shoals, reefs, or geologic structures. Likewise,
true color and special water penetration films such as Kodak
Aerocolor SO-224 have excellent water penetration capabilities
(Reeves et al., 1975). Side-scan sonar is available for shallow and
deep water mapping, and produces images of the sea bottom
reflectance using acoustic energy, much like radar uses microwave
energy to produce an image.

References
Abrams, M.J., J.E. Conel, H.R. Lang. 1984. The Joint NASA/Geosat Test Case Project Sections 11
and 12. Tulsa: AAPG Bookstore.

Dekker, F. 1993. What is the right remote sensing tool for oil exploration? Earth Obs. Mag. 2: 28
35.

Junge, C.E. 1963. Air Chemistry and Radioactivity. New York: Academic Press: 382 p.

Purser, B.H. 1973. The Persian Gulf. New York: Springer-Verlag: 19.

Reeves, R.G., A. Anson, D. Landen. 1975. Manual of Remote Sensing, 1st ed, Chap. 6. Falls Church:
American Society of Photogrammetry.
U.S. Bureau of Land Management. 1983. Aerial Photography Specifications. Denver: U.S.
Government Printing Office: 15 p.