INQUIRY and RESEARCH
1. It is systematic
*Notes: Research is important to every student.
It teaches one to solve a problem using a logical
method that can lead to valid results. Research
is a brand of intellectual achievement, for
research is not an easy process nor an ordinary
activity to be undertaken.
Inquiry
a term that is synonymous with the word
investigation
Research
is a scientific, experimental, or inductive
manner of thinking.
is a systematic inquiry that uses
disciplined methods to answer
questions or solve problems. The
ultimate goal of research is to develop,
refine and expand a base of knowledge.
is a process of gathering data or
information by a scientific or logical
procedure in order to solve a particular
problem.
*Notes:
o When you inquire or investigate you tend
to ask questions to probe or examine
something. You use your higher-order
thinking strategies (HOTS) of inferential,
analytical, critical, creative and
appreciative thinking to discover more
understandable or meaningful things
beyond such object of your inquiry.
o According to (Small 2012), thinking in this
manner makes you ask open-ended
questions to elicit views, opinions and
beliefs of others in relation to your
research.
o Why systematic? because we follow a
process when we do research, we may
make use of lower-order to higher-order
thinking strategies and is reflected by
research activities: identifying the topic or
problem, gathering data, making
theories, formulating hypotheses,
analyzing data and drawing conclusions.
o It is not only a search of an important
problem, but also the formation of the
proof of a theory or basis of a theory that
is worthwhile to society.
Characteristics of Research
it proceeds through a series of steps
*Notes:
o Rules define the objectives
o Identify the population
o Limit and select the variables
o Formulate the design of the research
2. It is accurate
the method of research emphasizes
the importance of correspondence
between what you have observed
and what have actually occurred
*Notes:
o Accurate true, correct
3. It is precise
it aims at estimating the exact count
of event that has occurred or may yet
occur
*Notes:
o Precise exact, specific
4. Observations are recorded
it is necessary to document
observations with the aid of
instruments.
*Notes:
o Questionnaires, tape recorders for
interviews, computer-base, record books,
etc.
5. Observations follow the rule of objectivity
ones observations must not be
influenced by personal preferences,
prejudices, attitudes, and feelings. It
is undertaken through an
assessment of what is rather than
what ought to be.
*Notes:
o Prejudices biases, prejudgments
o Research reduces our personal view
6. Observations are undertaken under
controlled condition
as researchers, we aspire to
eliminate other factors or variables
that might intrude into the
observation of the major factors or
variables that we wish to investigate.
Descriptive words to Characterize Research
Empirical
*Notes:
o Observed, realistic, first-hand
o Signifies that the evidence collected to
generate new knowledge must be rooted
in objective reality
o Evidence is on hand, there is confidence
in the results
Logical
*Notes:
o Collected data should be reasonable,
rational and consistent. These ensure
research to be scientific, credible and
acceptable.
Cyclical
*Notes:
o Research is repeated and recurring
Analytical
*Notes:
o Logical, investigative
Critical
*Notes:
o Serious
o Using or involving careful judgement
about the good and bad parts of
something
Methodical
*Notes:
o Systematic, precise, and orderly
Replicable
*Notes:
o Something that can be copied or
recreated
o A theory cannot be conclusive of what it
is if only one research is made.
o Example: There was once a consensus
that mental ability was entirely and
absolutely dependent on heredity.
Recent researches have changed this
view and have come up with other
predictors of intelligence like:
socioeconomic status, opportunities to
facilities and environment.
Methods of Research
Quantitative Research
This is the research that leads to precise
measurement and quantification. It often
involves a rigorous and controlled design
*Notes:
o The researcher moves from the
beginning point of a study (posing a
question) to its end point (getting an
answer)
o It involves a fairly linear progression of
tasks it is well planned
Qualitative Research
This involves the investigation of
phenomena, typically in an in-depth and
holistic fashion, through the collection of
rich narrative materials using a flexible
design.
*Notes:
o The researcher is continually examining
and interpreting data, and making
decisions on how to proceed based on
what has already been discovered.
Mixed Method
is a methodology for conducting research
that involves collecting, analyzing, and
integrating quantitative (experiments,
survey) and qualitative (focus groups,
interviews) research.
Inquiry vis--vis Research
Inquiry starts from what you are ignorant
about, research makes you learn
something by means of problem-solving
technique.
Both inquiry and research encourage you
to formulate questions to direct you to the
exact information you want to discover
about the object of your curiosity.
*Notes:
o Research is an intellectual activity that
greatly involves inquiry.
o The core word for inquiry and research is
investigation or questioning, but they are
not exactly the same in all aspects.
o According to Goodwin 2014; Lapan 2012,
Research includes more complex acts of
investigation than inquiry because
research follows a scientific procedure of
discovering truths or meanings about
things in the world.
RESEARCH and SCIENCE
*Notes:
o Informal research
does not strictly follow procedures and
it relies more on casual observation and
opinions.
the results of this research process
become more prone to skepticism even if
the research created answers to
questions.
Example: When you become curious
and doubtful about existing phenomena,
you tackle toward the discovery of better
knowledge. you read books, search the
internet, or ask questions.
o For research to be more accurate and
beneficial, science is implanted in its
process.
Research
is a systematic investigation designed to
extend the knowledge of what is already
known of the physical, biological or social
world. (Univ. of San Diego)
it is a truth-seeking activity which
contributes to knowledge aimed at
describing or explaining the world,
conducted and governed by those with a
high level of proficiency or expertise.
(Coryn 2007 p.124)
*Notes:
o It follows a step-by-step process.
o In conducting research, scientific
procedures must be applied to obtain
reliable and accurate information.
Science
is conceptualized as procedural and
systematic approach in gaining new
knowledge by making thorough
observations and using controlled and
precise methods.
more accurate
reliable
valid
*Notes:
o Knowledge gained from science is not
based on subjective or personal views, it
comes from objective pieces of evidence
which come from a methodically design
research study.
o A research done scientifically is more
accurate, reliable and valid.
o The process of conducting research
scientifically involves a systematic
collection and investigation of data
through scientific method. Knowledge
that come from research employs
scientific method is characterized by the
following elements:
Scientific Method in Research
Empirical approach
knowledge is gained through direct
observation and experimentation.
*Notes:
o Only those data derived from scientific
procedures are considered factual.
Observation
your awareness of your environment
constitutes your ideas.
*Notes:
o Constitutes or establishes that if you rely
on your awareness alone, it may give a
bias information, decreasing the validity
of your findings.
o To increase the veracity of the
information from the observation you got,
you have to measure it carefully using an
appropriate instrument.
o You want to find out how far XH bldg. is
from Kostka bldg., you do not rely from
estimating the distance merely from your
vision. Instead, you should use
measuring instrument, like a meter stick,
to measure the distance between the two
bldg. to get precise data.
Question
knowledge comes from inquiries that
are answerable.
*Notes:
o question must be answerable through
scientific investigation and must generate
tangible proof.
Hypotheses
an educated guess, or hypothesis,
is an attempt to explain a
phenomenon.
*Notes:
o It should help you formulate a prediction
(guess, forecast).
o It must be testable for analysis and
interpretation.
 Experiments
the given hypothesis should
assure testability in a crafted
condition for the accuracy and
reliability of results.
*Notes:
o The process of experimentation is a proof
of scientific procedures.
o The findings are considered truthful.
Analyses
for findings to be reliable, the data
gathered are subjected for
analysis through statistical
methods.
*Notes:
o You have to use statistics because it
presents numerical evidence of the
degree in which the results are
considered valid and reliable. It
minimizes the chance of having a faulty
conclusion.
Conclusion
the process of making inferences
involves concrete data to rule out
opinions.
*Notes:
o Inferences interpretations
o Usually, a conclusion must be objective
and supported by careful analysis of
data.
o You should avoid adding more to what is
literally available.
Replication
means doing the same study once
again to a different set of
participants to test the soundness
of the obtained result.
* Conducting the study for the several times will
pave the way for additional and essential
purposes
establishment of reliability of
findings
the previous data that were
proven will have a stronger belief
factor
discovery of new knowledge
generates additional information
or brand new data that will improve
your knowledge acquisition and
enlighten your confusion
ascertainment of the
generalizability of results
this means that the results of the
study can be applied to other groups of
participants and therefore do not limit
only to the original samples.
Goals of Research
* When you follow the scientific method in
conducting research, you give an explanation or
clarification to the phenomena in question with
greater reliability and validity.
Description
this refers to the way in which the
phenomena being studied is
defined.
o the goal of describing is to provide
essential information.
Prediction
it entails stating the possible
consequences of present events
based on existing knowledge of
something else.
o the purpose of prediction is to
control ones action and behavior
through careful planning derived
from a given set of information.
Understanding/Explanation
this is the process of analyzing
information to find out the causes
behind phenomena.
o to understand and explain data, a
relationship between events must
already be established.
Constructs and Variables in Research
Constructs
are mental abstractions derived
from the combination of concepts,
or your mental representation of
the world around you.
concepts
are more general
free from descriptions

constructs
are more particular
has one or more descriptions
more comprehensible and
meaningful because they help you
to clearly express the events,
experiences, things, phenomena
and people you are interested on.
*Notes:
o Research is based on investigations of
constructs that stem from an interest or
problem.
o In research, concept and constructs are
used interchangeably, because they are
basically ideas based on your
observation and experience.
o Both are just ideas that subjected to vary.
o In the process of research, concepts or
constructs are called variables.
Variables
are constructs that can be understood
differently because of their differences in
values.
variables can be observed directly or
indirectly.
direct observations
those that can be easily gauged
by the senses.
examples of these include size,
brightness, odor and taste.
indirect observations
can be determined only by using
tools or instruments.
more often, they are abstract
constructs.
Think about attitude as an
example. To be able to concretize
it, an attitude survey instrument
must be used.
variables as objects of study must be
measured to be able to generate data for
analysis and to be used as additional
knowledge.
Kinds of variables
Independent variables
are manipulated variables that
cause a change in another
variable.
usually, these are treatments or
conditions that produce a varied
response or effect.
Ex: Peace-loving Learning
Environment Reduces Test
Anxiety Level of Grade School
Students
peace-loving learning
environment
It is the condition that cause
changes in the subject.
Dependent variable
those that are affected by
independent variables.
they are the responses or effects
that result from the treatment or
conditions employed.
Ex: Peace-loving Learning
Environment Reduces Test
Anxiety Level of Grade School
Students.
Test anxiety
It is the effect of the
independent variable, which is
peace-loving learning
environment.
Confounding or extraneous variables
those variables usually indicated
in an experimental research.
they are not included in the study
but in one way or another causes
effect on the dependent variable.
extraneous variables exist as
nuisance variables
Ex: Peace-loving Learning
Environment Reduces Test
Anxiety Level of Grade School
Students.
Family background of the
grade school student
It is not included in the
variables under study, but
each grade school student
who will take part in the study
has a family background that
may likely affect the impact of
the peace-loving learning
environment variable.
Categorical variables
are those characterize and
describe the quality of data.
they are often classified into:
 exclusive categories
comprises those that take on
specific values
It does not follow a sequence
It just wants to describe the data
into the given options
Ex: Civil status this can be
classified only as single, married,
widowed or annulled
extensive categories
characterizes data using a definite
range.
It considers logical order or rank
- the description of data follows a
sequence
- Ex: Size is classified into small,
medium, or large because when
you give description of size you
have to say it in order.
Continuous variables
those variables in which values
are based on a given interval or
continuum.
these variables rely on numbers
for descriptions.
Ex: Normal temperature ranges
from 36C to 37C. So, description
of normal temperature is only
within the given interval.
Quantitative variables
are those variables that give
details regarding the number or
level of something.
these variables count the
frequency of responses or effect.
Ex: A singing contest or popularity
contest
The contestant who will get the
highest number of votes as the
most well-liked will be declared
the winner.
Qualitative variables
those variables that represent
kinds or types of objects.
they are often categorized into
names, labels, or groups.
Ex: Responses such as yes or no;
few, many and too much; agree or
disagree.
Other types of variables
(Russell 2013; Babbie 2013)
Constant
do not undergo any changes
during an experiment
Attribute
characteristics of people:
intelligence, creativity, anxiety,
learning styles, etc.
Covariate
included in the research study to
create interactions with the
independent and dependent
variables
Continuous
quantitative in nature and is used
in interval or ratio scale of
measurement
Dichotomous
has only two possible results; one
or zero
Latent
cannot be directly observed like
personality traits
Manifest
can be directly observed to give
proofs to latent variables
Exogenous
found outside an identified model
Endogenous
found inside; as a part of identified
model
Ethics in Research
refers to the standards on what is morally
right or wrong.
Basic Human Rights
1. Right to self-determination (autonomy)
means that the prospective
subjects have the right to
voluntarily decide whether or not
to participate in a study, without
the risk of imposing any penalties
or prejudicial treatment.
o Individuals have a right to limit
access to information about
themselves.
2. Right to privacy and dignity
privacy means that researchers need
to ensure that their research is not
more intrusive than it needs to be and
that the subjects privacy is maintained
throughout the study.
o there is a boundary to the right of
use of information of individuals
o information given by participants
may be highly sensitive, thus, the
researcher must handle
information discretely so as to
keep the privacy of the subject
intact.
3. Right to anonymity and confidentiality
anonymity refers to keeping individuals
nameless and limiting access to
information collected about a subject.
confidentiality refers to protecting
data by not divulging without
permission any information
obtained while caring for an
individual.
o closely related to the notion of
privacy, the right to control the use
of information about themselves
o Ex: when information obtained
may carry humiliation ( diagnosis
of tuberculosis, of mental illness,
evidence of domestic violence or
prison record).
4. Right to fair treatment (principle of
justice)
means that the subjects receive
equitable treatment before, during, and
after their participation in the study.
o subjects should receive rightful,
unbiased treatment from the
researchers
o the participants need to be
informed about the purpose of the
study, the procedure in the study
5. Right to freedom from injury (principles of
beneficence and nonmaleficence)
beneficence is the duty not to do harm
o beneficence or the avoidance of
harm researchers ought to seek
to do good rather than harm
Nonmaleficence is the act that
does not cause needless harm or
injury to others.
o Nonmaleficence implies that the
subject should not be exposed to
unnecessary risks
o the researcher should protect
subjects from physical injuries that
may result from participating in the
research study.
6. Right to full disclosure
means that the researcher has fully
described the nature of the study, the
subjects right to refuse participation,
the researchers responsibilities, and
the likely risks and benefits that would
be incurred.
o the nature of the research should
be presented truthfully to the
individual/s or the research
subject
7. Informed Consent
requires that the subject of the
research give consent or
permission for treatment and more
temporarily, he/she is given the
proper knowledge of the activity.
Silverman (2001) identified certain
considerations about informed
consent:
i. giving information about
the research which is
relevant to the subjects
decision whether to
participate or not
ii. making sure that subjects
understand that information
iii. ensuring that participation
is voluntary
iv. where subjects are not
competent to agree, obtain
consent by proxy
o the idea of informed consent is
often recommended as an
operational principle for the
conduct of research
Basic for Ethical Standards
1. The Nuremberg Code
this ethical code of conduct contains
rules that were developed to guide
investigators in conducting research
ethically which are:
i. voluntary consent
ii. withdrawal of subjects from
studies
iii. protection of subjects from
physical and mental
suffering, injury, disability,
death
iv. balance of benefits and risk
2. Declaration of Helsinki
differentiated therapeutic and non-
therapeutic research
o Therapeutic gives the patient
the opportunity to receive an
experimental treatment that might
have beneficial results.
o Nontherapeutic is conducted to
generate knowledge for a
discipline or correction
3. CIOMS(Council for International
Organizations of Medical Research)
is a set of ethical principles regarding
human experimentation.
o addreses issues including
informed consent, standards for
external review, recruitment of
participants and more.
4. The Belmott Report
research (involving humans in any
manipulation, observation, or other
study of human being)are done with
the intent of developing new knowledge
or innovation and which differs in a way
from customary medical (for their
professional practice)
Ethical Use of Source Materials
1. Avoiding Plagiarism
plagiarism includes quoting directly
without acknowledging the sources,
paraphrasing without acknowledging the
source and constructing a paraphrase
that closely resembles the original in
language and syntax.
Other than informed consent, Silverman (2001)
identified ethical use of source material which
are:
1. Quote Accurately
quote directly from a source when the
original language is distinctive enough
to enhance your agreement and
rewording would lessen its impact.
o Quotations excerpts, citations,
passages, references
2. Acknowledge Quotations Carefully
failing to signal the presence of a
quotation skillfully can lead to
confusion.
Qualities of a Good Researcher
1. Honesty
o reports all the information gathered on
the topic being investigated. No
modifying of data, please!
2. Skepticism
o always adopt a questioning mind with
regard to the truthfulness of the
method, results and interpretation of
the data gathered
3. Openness to criticism
o open to the suggestions of others to
improve methodology, findings and
analysis
4. Creative imagination
o should be able to package the most
appropriate combination of
approaches and methodologies for
gathering data
5. Resourcefulness
o is one who explores many sources of
information
6. Logical mind
o is to apply sound reasoning to
arguments raised in the conduct of
research, able to provide adequate
justification for the research questions,
methods and techniques of
investigation
7. Patience
o it takes patience to go through these
processes
o answers to research questions are not
obtained immediately since you go
through several processes to arrive at
conclusion
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH vs.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Classification of Research according to
purpose:
Basic research
primarily concerned with establishing
new knowledge, and refinement of
theories
this is really knowledge for knowledges
sake
o knowledge for knowledges sake
o Ex: we would like to get facts or
information regarding the attitude of
nurses to ages with this type of disease.
Applied research
concerned with establishing new
knowledge as well as knowledge that
can be applied in practical settings
without undue delay
this is referred to as practical
application of the theoretical
o we apply what we have learned based
on theory.
Qualitative Approach
aims to provide description of
characteristics, kind, and quality of a
subject, while interpreting and
attempting to understand an event.
is mostly done in social sciences
studies.
Ex:
The lived experiences of male
convicts
The emotions of people who
suffered from the loss of a loved
one
The perspective of a politician
regarding morality
Types of Quantitative Research
Phenomenological
describes an experience as they are
lived by people
o based on the intuitive analysis of
another persons experience
Grounded theory
discovers what problems exist in a
social scene and the process persons
use to handle them
o means basing a theory on the data
collected
o carryout the research by observing
how people solve problems in a
social setting
Ethnographic
it is associated with anthropology and
focuses on the culture of a group of
people, with an effort to understand the
world view of those understudy.
o Ethnography focuses on the culture of
a group of people and relies on
extensive fieldwork.
Historical
a narrative description or an analysis of
events that occurred in the remote or
recent past.
o Historical a systematic attempt to
establish facts and relationships about
past events.
Philosophical inquiry
involves using intellectual analysis to
clarify meanings, makes values
manifest, identify ethics, and study the
nature of knowledge.
Case study
involves a thorough, in-depth analysis of
an individual, a group, or an institution
or other social units.
o Intensive study of a single person or a
small number of people, groups,
organizations, families or communities.
Advantages of Qualitative Research
it provides descriptions about the real
experience of the people in the situation
being studied.
method being used is less formal.
researcher can expound more on the
responses of the participants.
the participants can also elaborate their
answers.
researchers can have a rich explanation
about abstract factors such as customs and
traditions, family roles, and socioeconomic
status for greater understanding.
Disadvantages of Qualitative Research
does not use statistical procedures to
measure kinds and qualities
few and chosen samples are used to
participate in the study.
describing a situation leads to a certain level
of bias, lacking objectivity in description.
generalizability of the findings is lacking.
results are limited to selected people.
Quantitative Research
it centers on objective measurements
and numerical analysis of data collected
through questionnaires or surveys and
generalizing the results across groups
of people.
o It aims to classify features, count them,
and construct statistical models to
explain the observable phenomenon.
Main Characteristics of Quantitative
Approach
The data are usually gathered using more
structured research instruments.
The results are based on larger sample
sizes that are representative of the
population.
The research study can usually be
replicated or repeated, given its high
reliability.
The researcher has a clearly defined
research question to which objective
answers are sought.
All aspects of the study are carefully
designed before data are collected.
Data are in the form of numbers and
statistics.
The project can be used to generalize
concepts more widely, predict future
results, or investigate causal relationships.
The researcher uses questionnaires or
other forms of research tools to collect
numerical data.
Strengths of the Quantitative Approach
Quantitative approach involves a greater
number of subjects and enables a broader
study, as well as enhancing the
generalization of the results.
Study results are more objective and
accurate.
Quantitative research, when the right
procedure is used can be replicated, as
well as analyzed in comparison with other
similar works.
You can summarize vast sources of
information and make comparisons across
categories over time.
Personal bias can be avoided by keeping
a distance from participating subjects
and employing facilitators unknown to
them.
Limitations of the Quantitative Approach
Quantitative data, while they can test
hypothesis, may be limited in explaining
their context.
o This is because the explanation often
focuses on numerical results as basis.
The research is often conducted in an
artificial setting, where a certain level of
control is exercised. Because of this, the
results may not necessarily reflect the
real-life situation presented in the problem.
o Additionally, the use of research tools may
only reflect the researchers point of view
instead of the subjects.
Types of Quantitative Research
Descriptive research
provides an accurate portrayal or
account of characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or group.
o aims to systematically describe a
problem, situation, phenomenon, or
illustrate attitudes towards a problem
or an issue
correlational research
involves the systematic
investigation of
relationships/association between
two or more variables
o focused on establishing the
relationship or determining whether
a relationship exists between two or
more aspects of a phenomenon
survey
designed to obtain information
about the prevalence, distribution,
and interrelations of variables within
a population
when surveys use samples of
individuals, they may be referred to
as sample surveys, a census
covers the entire population.
Causal-comparative research
used to describe the differences
in variables in two or more groups
in a natural setting.
Experimental research
this is a classification of research
where the researchers actively
introduce an intervention or
treatment.
 true experimental
are the most powerful method
available for testing hypotheses of
cause and effect relationships
between variables
o subjects are randomly assigned to
groups; the experimenter
manipulates the experimental
variable (x); there are at least two
groups: experimental (x) and control
(c).
quasi-experimental
experimental manipulation of the
independent variable; no random
assignment to groups/no control
groups
o Manipulation
- involves doing something to study
participants
- experimenter manipulates the
independent variable by
administering a treatment
(intervention)
o RANDOMIZATION
- (also called random assignment or
random allocation)
- involves placing subjects into
treatment conditions at random
(means that every subject has an
equal chance of being assigned to
any group.