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Article history: Geothermal energy is counted as a type of renewable energy, which means the availability is not affected
Received 8 October 2014 by the lack of source and the increasing price of fossil oil. Environmental friendly is also one of the
Received in revised form advantages of geothermal energy. In general, not all countries have the potential of geothermal energy,
26 May 2015
only countries traversed by the ring of re have the geothermal energy resource. As one of the countries
Accepted 17 September 2015
that traversed by the world's ring of re, Indonesia hence holds the geothermal potential, which is
indicated by the existing 117 active volcanoes spread across the country. Indonesia's geothermal energy
Keywords: potential is estimated about 40% of the world's geothermal energy potential or about 28,617 MW.
Renewable energy However, only about 4.5% is being utilized as electrical energy in the country. The government of
Geothermal energy
Indonesia is continuously putting the effort to increase the capacity of geothermal power plant. It is
Power plant
planned to install more geothermal power plant in Indonesia that amounted up to 9500 MW by 2025.
Indonesia
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
1.1. The primary energy for power plant utilization in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
1.2. The potential of fossil energy in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
1.3. The potential of renewable energy in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
2. Geothermal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
2.1. Direct and indirect utilization of geothermal energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
2.2. The development of geothermal power plant around the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
3. The potential of geothermal energy in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
4. Geothermal power plant in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.032
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
734 Nasruddin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 733740
from height of the wave. Potential of sea wave energy in Indonesia as presented in Fig. 1, which as same as those in the United States,
can be found in the west side of Sumatra, Southern Java, Bali, East Canada, Italy, Japan, the Philippines, New Zealand and some other
Nusa Tenggara, and West Nusa Tenggara. According to the data countries [38]. The energy (hot water) comes from the radioactive
provided by Indonesian Association of Sea Energy (ASELI) in 2011, decay energy from the center of the earth where the temperature
it was stated that sea wave energy had a potential about 510 GW. can reach 6650 C [39], and this energy moves to the earth's sur-
Tidal energy is a kinetic energy that driven by a difference in face by conduction and convection [40]. It is estimated that the
height of sea level when the tides occurs. Tides in the country are energy owed from this activities reaches up to 42 million MW.
not very high, and just several regions have tides about 35 m Geothermal energy occurs due to three important elements in a
high. The strongest tidal current noted in Indonesia is located in a specic location within the earth: source of heat, water and
strait between Taliabu Island and Mangaole Island in the Sula permeable layer [41]. The water comes from the rain or melting
archipelago, Northern Maluku Province. It is noted at the speed of snow into the earth and trapped in impermeable layer and
5 m/s the theoretical potential of tidal wave capacity could create forming geothermal source [42], as shown in Fig. 2 [43]. Geo-
is about 160,000 MW. thermal energy can supply the need of the world's energy con-
The form of renewable energy that has been already utilized for sumption for 100,000 years [27].
power generation in Indonesia and connected to the electrical
network grid is only hydro power and geothermal. The other
2.1. Direct and indirect utilization of geothermal energy
sources are still at R&D stage or only utilized in a very small scale.
Based on the uid temperature, the enthalpy of geothermal
energy can be classied into low, medium and high. Although
2. Geothermal energy sometimes classifying it can be confusing, it can be known by at
least two variables to determine its thermodynamic state of the
Geothermal is derived from the Greek word; geo means earth,
and thermal means heat, and it can be interpreted as a geothermal
heat or energy produced from the earth. The energy contained in
the geothermal uid is water of which can be in vapor phase,
liquid or both as a mixture. The uid is usually located at a more
than 1 km depth below the earth's surface [37]. Geothermal
energy is located at a location traversed by a re ring (Ring of Fire)
Table 3
The potential of renewable energy in Indonesia [23].
Table 4
Categories of geothermal systems [45].
Fig. 4. The use of geothermal energy for power generation world until 2030 [51].
1200
1020.12924
1000
800
600 514.82734
kg CO2/MWh
400
200
81.6466266
0
Coal Natural Gas Geothermal
Fig. 3. Direct use of geothermal energy in the world from 1995 to 2010 [49].
Fig. 5. Comparison of CO2 emissions from coal, gas and geothermal [43].
water [44]. Geothermal classication is still not standardized,
some classications separate geothermal in ve categories based
on its characteristics of reservoir. In order to provide the geo-
thermal categories, Table 4 can be used as the reference to obtain
the 5 categories of geothermal such as: hot-water systems, two-
phase, liquid-dominated systems, low-enthalpy systems, two-
phase, liquid-dominated, medium-enthalpy system, two-phase,
liquid-dominated-high-enthalpy system and two-phase, vapor-
dominated systems [45].
The utilization of geothermal energy is expected since 2000
years ago [46], where geothermal energy at the time was initially
utilized directly from the source. The direct use of geothermal
energy is the oldest technology employed by human being [41]. As
it is noted, Turks, Chinese, Japanese, Romans, European and Aus-
tralian had been using the geothermal energy for bath, heater and
cooking needs, since the area where they live had abundant
resources of geothermal energy. Likewise, Japan has about 1500
area of hot water springs for bathing [47]. Based on the recent data
obtained from year 19952010, the direct use of geothermal Fig. 6. Dry or direct steam power plant [42].
energy was continuously increasing [48], and the growth rate is
given in Fig. 3 [49]. Geothermal has been used directly and tra- characteristics of the energy source [52]. CO2 emissions from coal
ditionally for a longtime by human being for heating, bathing, red power plants is 12 times greater than the geothermal power
cooking and agriculture [47]. However, geothermal power plant plant, while the CO2 emission from gas power plants produce
was rst established in 1904 in Larderello, Italy [50]. Geothermal is 6 times larger than geothermal power plant, as presented in Fig. 5
now widely used by various countries for power generation such [43]. In addition, the area required for geothermal power plant is
as in the United States, Japan, Iceland, New Zealand, Mexico, smaller than the area required by conventional power plant [53].
Kenya, Indonesia and the Philippines. The utilization of geothermal Another advantage of geothermal power plant is the ability to
energy for power generation has also been increasing, as shown in sustain base load electricity [54], since the energy produced does
Fig. 4 [51]. not uctuate against the weather or season, hence continuous
Geothermal energy used as power generation is usually refer- electricity production is possible [55,56].
red as geothermal power plant and the power plants are envir- There are three types of geothermal power plants in use today,
onmental friendly [38], renewable and sustainable due to the namely dry steam, ash steam and binary cycle [53]. The dry type
Nasruddin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 733740 737
Fig. 9. The installed capacity of geothermal power plant in the world 10.7 GW in 2010 [60].
The rst geothermal power plant built after Indonesia's inde- Based on the study, it is can be concluded that geothermal
pendence was the power plant built in Kamojang in 1978 [72]. This energy is counted as one of the very potential renewable energy in
geothermal power plant was built as a pilot project with an Indonesia to be explored, and its availability is hardly affected by
installed capacity of only 0.25 MW. In 1983 the geothermal power lack of sources and uctuation of fossil fuel price. More conclu-
plant Unit I Kamojang was commercially operated with an sions are listed as below:
installed power of 30 MW. Then in 1987, geothermal power plants
Kamojang coupled with Unit II and III with a total capacity of i. Primary energy used for power plants in Indonesia until 2030
110 MW. Lastly, in 2008 the addition of 60 MW capacity in Unit IV will be still dominated by fossil energy that is expected to
was developed. From those 4 units, the total power that can be about 78.32%.
Nasruddin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 733740 739
Existing 1226 MW
condition
6151 MW
Fig. 11. Planning of geothermal power plant development in Indonesia in 20062025 [74].
ii. According to the ratio of production reserves, coal, gas and oil the Ministry of Education of Malaysia with reference number
are going to run out in 75 years, 33 years, and 12 years 20120237FRGS.
respectively.
iii. Besides the diminishing reserves and more expensive price of
fossil energy, these fossil-based energy resources also can
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