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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 733740

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Potential of geothermal energy for electricity generation in Indonesia:


A review
Nasruddin a, M. Idrus Alhamid a, Yunus Daud b, Arief Surachman a,n, Agus Sugiyono c,
H.B. Aditya d, T.M.I. Mahlia d
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Indonesia, 16424 Depok, Indonesia
b
The Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Indonesia, 16424 Depok, Jawa Barat, Indonesia
c
Energy Conversion and Conservation Center-Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology, Serpong, Indonesia
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Geothermal energy is counted as a type of renewable energy, which means the availability is not affected
Received 8 October 2014 by the lack of source and the increasing price of fossil oil. Environmental friendly is also one of the
Received in revised form advantages of geothermal energy. In general, not all countries have the potential of geothermal energy,
26 May 2015
only countries traversed by the ring of re have the geothermal energy resource. As one of the countries
Accepted 17 September 2015
that traversed by the world's ring of re, Indonesia hence holds the geothermal potential, which is
indicated by the existing 117 active volcanoes spread across the country. Indonesia's geothermal energy
Keywords: potential is estimated about 40% of the world's geothermal energy potential or about 28,617 MW.
Renewable energy However, only about 4.5% is being utilized as electrical energy in the country. The government of
Geothermal energy
Indonesia is continuously putting the effort to increase the capacity of geothermal power plant. It is
Power plant
planned to install more geothermal power plant in Indonesia that amounted up to 9500 MW by 2025.
Indonesia
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
1.1. The primary energy for power plant utilization in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
1.2. The potential of fossil energy in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
1.3. The potential of renewable energy in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
2. Geothermal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
2.1. Direct and indirect utilization of geothermal energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
2.2. The development of geothermal power plant around the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
3. The potential of geothermal energy in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
4. Geothermal power plant in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739

1. Introduction accessibility of electricity can directly inuence to a higher quality


of life, economic and social growth in the country [1,2]. Therefore,
One of the most crucial factors in determining the quality of life the availability and accessibility of electricity in every county is
that works as the booster to the economic and social growth in a being continuously improved. According to the International
country is the availability of electricity. The more availability and Energy Agency (IEA), it is estimated that electricity demand in the
world is increasing at the rate of 1.6% per year in 2030 [3]. In
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: 62 856 9156 7606. addition, the increasing demand of energy in developing country
E-mail address: arief_sur@yahoo.com (A. Surachman). is increased by 65% in 2020 [4]. Meanwhile in Indonesia, the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.032
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
734 Nasruddin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 733740

average of electricity demand from 2011 to 2020 is increasing 8.5% Table 1


per year [57]. Fosil energy potential (oil and gas) [24,25].

Energy type Year Potential reserve Proven reserve Total


1.1. The primary energy for power plant utilization in Indonesia
Oil (billion barrel) 2011 3.69 4.04 7.73
Indonesia is developing more power plants to meet the 2012 3.67 3.74 7.41
increasing electricity demand at the moment. However, the Gas (TSCF)a 2011 48.18 104.71 152.89
2012 47.35 103.35 150.70
developed power plants are still dominated by fossil fuel driven
power generation, such as coal, oil, and gas. Up to 2030, it is a
TSCF: Trillion square cubic feet.
estimated that fossil fuel driven power plant will be as high as
78.32%, and the rest, which is about 21.68% will be utilizing Table 2
renewable energy [8]. Fosil energy potential (coal) [24,25].
By continuously using fossil fuel, it will create a lot of problem
Energy type Year Resource Reserve Total
to the world in general, including decreasing reserves of fossil fuel
and greenhouse gas emissions [914]. Additionally, the price of Coal (billion ton) 2011 120.33 28.01 148.34
fossil fuel will increase rapidly in the international market [15]. 2012 119.42 28.97 148.39
Furthermore, the rising usage of fossil fuel will increase the pol-
lution in the atmosphere and exhaust the ozone layer [16]. It is
possible since the CO2 emission from the fossil fuel combustion 8%. Gas reserves outside Jawa and Sumatra spread in Papua,
accumulates in the air, which triggers the global warming and Kalimantan, Maluku and Sulawesi, which hold 16%, 11%, 10%, and
climate change [1720]. It is estimated that more than 50% of CO2 2% respectively.
released to atmosphere is coming from the energy conversion Based on the production reserve ratio, the potential utilization
sector [21]. At this rate, these environmental consequences will be of coal is about 75 years, while the gas potential is up to nearly 33
worse, along with the increasing number of population in the years. Although both potentials are quite high, the reserves are
world [22], which makes the energy demand drastically increas- depleting yearly with the drastic rise of the energy demand. Oil is
ing. Therefore, this condition will force people to do more the lowest potential of fossil energy resource, which only 12 years
exploration and exploitation of fossil energy sources, which the remaining for utilization, if there is no new oil reserves are found.
condition that is unfavorable. Potential fossil energy resources in Indonesia from 2011 to 2012
are shown in Tables 1 and 2 [24,25].
1.2. The potential of fossil energy in Indonesia Indonesia's fossil energy sources are going to run out at this
rate, therefore new solution is essential to encounter this problem.
Fossil energy sources, namely of coal, oil and gas, are the pri- One of the best solution is to use geothermal energy [26] because
mary energy resources for power generation in Indonesia. The geothermal energy is a form of renewable energy [27], which is
mining area of fossil energy is spread across several regions in environmentally friendly [28], can reduce greenhouse gas emis-
Indonesia. Coal mining areas are concentrated in Sumatra and sions [28] and potentially to be future energy of the world [29].
Kalimantan, the biggest one is in South Sumatra and East Kali- Geothermal energy is derived from a geological activity that is
mantan to be exact. widely available at local re ring or a ring of re where Indonesia
Coal From 2011 to 2012, declining resource was from 120 is included in this area [20].
billion to 119 billion tons. While, the coal reserves and production
has been increased from 28 billion to 29 billion tons, and 353 1.3. The potential of renewable energy in Indonesia
million to 386 million tons respectively. Therefore, the ratio of
reserves to production (R/P) of coal is dropped from 79 years in Indonesia has several types of renewable energy potential such
2011 to 75 years in 2012 [23]. as hydro energy, geothermal energy, wind energy, solar energy,
Oil Indonesia's oil reserves in 2011 amounted up to 7.73 bil- wave energy and biomass potential. Besides, as a tropical country
lion barrels, consisting of approximately 4.04 billion barrels of Indonesia has a big potential of renewable energy such as biofuel,
proven reserves and 3.69 billion barrels of potential reserves. The biomass and bioenergy from tropical biodiversity that is spread
total oil reserves in 2012 were declined to 7.41 billion barrels, throughout the country [3036]. Biomass has a potential up to
consisting of 3.74 billion barrels of proven reserves and 3.67 billion 49,800 MW while geothermal energy has a potential about
barrels of potential reserves. Oil production level in 2011 and 2012 28,617 MW. Solar energy has intensity about 4.8 kW h/m2/day,
amounted 329 million barrels and 315 million barrels respectively. while wind energy has a potential energy about 9290 MW.
Reserve production ratio (R/P) of oil is around 12 years in 2011 or Based on the study by Hydro Power Potential Study (HPPS) and
2012. Sources of Indonesia's oil reserves are located mainly in Hydro Power Inventory Study, big scale hydro energy potential in
Sumatra, which holds more than 60%, while oil reserves in Jawa is Indonesia is about 75,000 MW. Meanwhile, Nippon Koei estimated
about 21% and the rest are in Kalimantan, Papua, Sulawesi, and the Indonesia's hydro energy potential in 2011, which was about
Maluku. 26,000 MW, consisting the existing project ( 4000 MW), the
Gas In 2011, Indonesia has natural gas reserves of approxi- planned and on-going construction project ( 6000 MW) and the
mately 153 TSCF, consisting of proven reserves of 105 TSCF and new potential (16,000 MW). Also, the mini/micro hydro potential
potential reserves for more than 48 TSCF. The gas reserves in 2012 was estimated about 500 MW. The renewable energy potential in
was decreased to 151 TSCF, which consisted of 103 TSCF and 47 Indonesia are presented in Table 3 [23].
TSCF proven reserves and potential reserves respectively. The rate Indonesia has also another potential of renewable energy from
of gas production is either follow-up (associated) gas or not the sea and ocean. The sea energy for power generation can be
follow-up (non-associated) gas, which reached 3.26 TSCF in 2011 captured through, such as, tidal energy, Ocean Thermal Energy
and 3.17 TSCF in 2012. The reserve ratio of gas production was Conversion (OTEC), and also utilization of the difference in salt
sequentially increased in 2011 and 2012 from 32 years to 33 years. concentration or namely osmosis. Sea wave energy forms kinetic
The largest reserves of gas in Indonesia is located in Sumatra, energy that is produced by the movement of the sea wave towards
including Natuna, which holds almost 56%, while Jawa holds about the land and vice versa. Besides, it also forms potential energy
Nasruddin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 733740 735

from height of the wave. Potential of sea wave energy in Indonesia as presented in Fig. 1, which as same as those in the United States,
can be found in the west side of Sumatra, Southern Java, Bali, East Canada, Italy, Japan, the Philippines, New Zealand and some other
Nusa Tenggara, and West Nusa Tenggara. According to the data countries [38]. The energy (hot water) comes from the radioactive
provided by Indonesian Association of Sea Energy (ASELI) in 2011, decay energy from the center of the earth where the temperature
it was stated that sea wave energy had a potential about 510 GW. can reach 6650 C [39], and this energy moves to the earth's sur-
Tidal energy is a kinetic energy that driven by a difference in face by conduction and convection [40]. It is estimated that the
height of sea level when the tides occurs. Tides in the country are energy owed from this activities reaches up to 42 million MW.
not very high, and just several regions have tides about 35 m Geothermal energy occurs due to three important elements in a
high. The strongest tidal current noted in Indonesia is located in a specic location within the earth: source of heat, water and
strait between Taliabu Island and Mangaole Island in the Sula permeable layer [41]. The water comes from the rain or melting
archipelago, Northern Maluku Province. It is noted at the speed of snow into the earth and trapped in impermeable layer and
5 m/s the theoretical potential of tidal wave capacity could create forming geothermal source [42], as shown in Fig. 2 [43]. Geo-
is about 160,000 MW. thermal energy can supply the need of the world's energy con-
The form of renewable energy that has been already utilized for sumption for 100,000 years [27].
power generation in Indonesia and connected to the electrical
network grid is only hydro power and geothermal. The other
2.1. Direct and indirect utilization of geothermal energy
sources are still at R&D stage or only utilized in a very small scale.
Based on the uid temperature, the enthalpy of geothermal
energy can be classied into low, medium and high. Although
2. Geothermal energy sometimes classifying it can be confusing, it can be known by at
least two variables to determine its thermodynamic state of the
Geothermal is derived from the Greek word; geo means earth,
and thermal means heat, and it can be interpreted as a geothermal
heat or energy produced from the earth. The energy contained in
the geothermal uid is water of which can be in vapor phase,
liquid or both as a mixture. The uid is usually located at a more
than 1 km depth below the earth's surface [37]. Geothermal
energy is located at a location traversed by a re ring (Ring of Fire)

Table 3
The potential of renewable energy in Indonesia [23].

Energy resources Potential Installed capacity

Geothermal 28,617 MW 1343.5


Hydro 75,000 MW 7.059 MW
Minimicro hydro 769.7 MW 512 MW
Biomass 13,662 MW 75.5 on grid
Solar energy 480 kW h/m2/day 42.78 MW
Wind energy 36 m/s 1.33 MW
Fig. 2. The schematic of geothermal [43].

Fig. 1. The ring of re [38].


736 Nasruddin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 733740

Table 4
Categories of geothermal systems [45].

Category Temperature (T) Production


enthalpy (h)

Hot-water T o 220 C h o 943 kJ/kg


Two-phase, liquid- Low-enthalpy 220 Co T o 250 C 943 kJ/
dominated 220 C kgo 1100 kJ/kg
Medium- 250 Co T o 300 C 1100 kJ/
enthalpy kgo 1500 kJ/kg
High-enthalpy 250 Co T o 330 C 1500 kJ/
kgo 2600 kJ/kg
Two-phase, vapor- 250 Co T o 330 C 2600 kJ/
dominated kgo 2800 kJ/kg

Fig. 4. The use of geothermal energy for power generation world until 2030 [51].

1200
1020.12924
1000

800

600 514.82734
kg CO2/MWh
400

200
81.6466266
0
Coal Natural Gas Geothermal
Fig. 3. Direct use of geothermal energy in the world from 1995 to 2010 [49].
Fig. 5. Comparison of CO2 emissions from coal, gas and geothermal [43].
water [44]. Geothermal classication is still not standardized,
some classications separate geothermal in ve categories based
on its characteristics of reservoir. In order to provide the geo-
thermal categories, Table 4 can be used as the reference to obtain
the 5 categories of geothermal such as: hot-water systems, two-
phase, liquid-dominated systems, low-enthalpy systems, two-
phase, liquid-dominated, medium-enthalpy system, two-phase,
liquid-dominated-high-enthalpy system and two-phase, vapor-
dominated systems [45].
The utilization of geothermal energy is expected since 2000
years ago [46], where geothermal energy at the time was initially
utilized directly from the source. The direct use of geothermal
energy is the oldest technology employed by human being [41]. As
it is noted, Turks, Chinese, Japanese, Romans, European and Aus-
tralian had been using the geothermal energy for bath, heater and
cooking needs, since the area where they live had abundant
resources of geothermal energy. Likewise, Japan has about 1500
area of hot water springs for bathing [47]. Based on the recent data
obtained from year 19952010, the direct use of geothermal Fig. 6. Dry or direct steam power plant [42].
energy was continuously increasing [48], and the growth rate is
given in Fig. 3 [49]. Geothermal has been used directly and tra- characteristics of the energy source [52]. CO2 emissions from coal
ditionally for a longtime by human being for heating, bathing, red power plants is 12 times greater than the geothermal power
cooking and agriculture [47]. However, geothermal power plant plant, while the CO2 emission from gas power plants produce
was rst established in 1904 in Larderello, Italy [50]. Geothermal is 6 times larger than geothermal power plant, as presented in Fig. 5
now widely used by various countries for power generation such [43]. In addition, the area required for geothermal power plant is
as in the United States, Japan, Iceland, New Zealand, Mexico, smaller than the area required by conventional power plant [53].
Kenya, Indonesia and the Philippines. The utilization of geothermal Another advantage of geothermal power plant is the ability to
energy for power generation has also been increasing, as shown in sustain base load electricity [54], since the energy produced does
Fig. 4 [51]. not uctuate against the weather or season, hence continuous
Geothermal energy used as power generation is usually refer- electricity production is possible [55,56].
red as geothermal power plant and the power plants are envir- There are three types of geothermal power plants in use today,
onmental friendly [38], renewable and sustainable due to the namely dry steam, ash steam and binary cycle [53]. The dry type
Nasruddin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 733740 737

Fig. 7. Flash steam power plant [42].


Fig. 8. Binary cycle power plant [42].

or direct steam power plant (Fig. 6) is the typical geothermal plant


28,617 MW. The geothermal energy system in this country is
with steam vapor dominated (dry-steam). Dry steam generated
generally by hydrothermal system that having a high temperature
from several production wells are circulated by pipes to the tur-
that over 225 C, and only few of hydrothermal systems have
bine [57].
lower temperature about 150225 C. The country's geothermal
Flash steam plant (Fig. 7) uses the uid from geothermal
potential and installed capacity status are presented in Table 5
reservoir in the form of vapor-liquid mixture, the uid cannot be
[64]. Although the large geothermal potential in Indonesia, up to
directly channeled to the turbine because it can damage the tur-
today, the utilization is still not optimal, especially for power
bine. Therefore, the liquid must be separated from the steam, and
generation purposes [65].
then steam the will be owing to the turbine and the liquid form
In general, the utilization of geothermal energy in Indonesia is
of water will be going back to the reservoir and utilized for direct
divided into two types: direct and indirect use. Direct utilization
used [58].
directly utilizes the heat contained in the geothermal uid for
In binary cycle plants the geothermal uid is not directly used
various purposes as room heater, agriculture/agro-industry, sh-
to drive the turbines but the geothermal uid is used as the heat
source to vaporize the working uid (e.g. n-pentane) through the eries, tourism; while indirect utilization is purposeful for power
heat exchanger. This is because geothermal uid does not have generation [66,67].
enough energy to drive the turbine directly sometimes due to its The utilization of indirect geothermal energy in Indonesia
low temperature [40]. This type of power plant can be seen in began with the rst geothermal exploitation before the indepen-
Fig. 8. dence in 1926 [68]. The rst exploitation site was located in the
Kamojang crater on the island of Jawa, and one of the well is still
generating steam until today. At that time, the exploration was
2.2. The development of geothermal power plant around the world
conducted by Volcanological Section of the Dutch, as the nation
The rst geothermal power plant was built in 1904 near Lar- occupied Indonesia in the past [69]. After Indonesia's indepen-
derello, Italy. The source of steam was from a fairly shallow wells dence, UNESCO and France in 1964 and 1968 provided assistance
and vapor produced was from the type of dry steam. The Power and recommendation to the new government to utilize more of
plant design then was in a very simple form [59]. geothermal energy. Only in 1969, the Indonesian government
Currently, the design of geothermal power plants varies in supported the exploration program conducted by the Geothermal
several types and designs. The designs are adjusted to cater the Power Research Institute and the Survey of Indonesia for
type of steam produced by the wells, such as single-ash geo- exploration period of 19701972. In 1971 the government received
thermal power plant, double-ash geothermal power plant, ash- technical assistance from USAID and UNESCO [62].
binary geothermal power plant, simple organic Rankine cycle, For three decades (19702000) the exploration of geothermal
organic Rankine cycle with Internal Heat Exchanger (IHE), and energy resources in Indonesia was continuously carried out. This
regenerative organic Rankine cycle with IHE [15,40]. At the exploration then was using the most updated technologies and
moment, the capacity being operated is amounted about 10.7 GW methodologies. Geothermal energy in the country has moderate
[60], where the countries who have utilized geothermal energy are temperatures between 120 C to high temperatures between
presented in Fig. 9. 220 C, and 220340 C, as presented in Fig. 10 [69].
The geothermal potential utilized in Indonesia until 2012 was
only 4.5% [64]. The utilization of geothermal in the country is still
3. The potential of geothermal energy in Indonesia very small compared to the Philippines that has already utilized
44.5%. The reason of the low utilization of geothermal energy is
Indonesia is one of the countries in the world traversed by the due to the high cost and limited investment nancing schemes for
ring of re, which hence many volcanoes are actively existing in geothermal power plant.
Indonesia. The volcanoes are spread on the island of Sumatra, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Jawa, Nusa Tenggara, Maluku and Sulawesi, where there are 117 (UNFCCC), which consists of developed and developing countries,
active volcanoes [61,62]. As the results, Indonesia consists of 256 has offered funding mechanism that is known as the clean
potential areas of geothermal energy [63]. This draws a fact that development mechanism (CDM). As outlined in the Kyoto Protocol,
Indonesia has the largest potential of geothermal energy in the each country that can reduce emissions will get funding support
world, which covers about 40% of world's potential or at from the donor. For developing countries this funding mechanism
738 Nasruddin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 733740

Fig. 9. The installed capacity of geothermal power plant in the world 10.7 GW in 2010 [60].

Table 5 generated by Kamojang geothermal power generation at this time


Indonesia's potential geothermal and installed capacity status in December 2012 is up to 200 MW [73].
(in MW) [53].
Currently the geothermal energy in Indonesia that has been
Island Potential energy (MW) Installed capacity utilized for electrical power generation is 1196 MW. This is coming
from seven plants in different locations namely: Darajat
Resources Reserve Total (260 MW), Dieng (60 MW), Kamojang (200 MW), Mount Salak
(377 MW), Sibayak (12 MW), Lahendong (60 MW), and the
Sumatera 5516 7244 12,760 122
Jawa 3536 6181 9717 1134
Wayang Windu (227 MW) [63]. In the near future, the government
Bali-Nusa Tenggara 777 1028 1805 7.5 of Indonesia will continue to increase more capacity of geothermal
Sulawesi 1442 1602 3044 80 power plants. It is supported by Indonesia's government through
Maluku 642 429 1071 theissued Presidential Decree no. 5/2006, which specied to
Kalimantan 145 145
Papua 75 75
increase the use of renewable energy including geothermal in the
Total 28,617 1343.5 country as one the agendas of the National Energy Policy [74]. It is
planned by 2025 that the total installed power from geothermal
power plants is 9500 MW, as presented in Fig. 11.
can also be used as an alternative form of funding to develop In order to fully support the government policy in the realiza-
projects such as environmentally friendly power generation. tion of the energy availability of 10,000 MW of electricity power,
For geothermal energy utilization, UNFCCC has two types of which in the second phase must be dominated by 60% from geo-
support, the rst type is funding scheme for geothermal energy thermal resources, at the moment local and international com-
utilization for power generation; and the second type is funding panies are still developing the geothermal energy power plant in
scheme for utilization of geothermal heating. Indonesia has several pretentious regions in Indonesia. The development is led
received funding from the CDM for the construction of geothermal by Pertamina Geothermal Energy (PGE), which is the government
power plants Unit III-Derajat with a capacity of 110 MW operated link company, through partnership with some other local and
by PT. Chevron Geothermal Indonesia [70]. international companies carrying exploration of geothermal
The Kyoto Protocol, which expired in 2012, up to now there is energy in several new regions. In order to improve the develop-
no continuation of the CDM mechanism. However, with end of the ment of geothermal power plant, government of Indonesia has
Kyoto Protocol, the government of Indonesia has still been plan- also issued a regulation no. 21 year 2014 to encourage the use of
ning to increase geothermal power production from geothermal geothermal in the country. The government is hoping to solve and
energy. The government plans to increase the geothermal elec- prevent any problems that can interrupt the development of
tricity production from 1196 MW to 9500 MW by 2025 [71]. geothermal power generation in the country.

4. Geothermal power plant in Indonesia 5. Conclusions

The rst geothermal power plant built after Indonesia's inde- Based on the study, it is can be concluded that geothermal
pendence was the power plant built in Kamojang in 1978 [72]. This energy is counted as one of the very potential renewable energy in
geothermal power plant was built as a pilot project with an Indonesia to be explored, and its availability is hardly affected by
installed capacity of only 0.25 MW. In 1983 the geothermal power lack of sources and uctuation of fossil fuel price. More conclu-
plant Unit I Kamojang was commercially operated with an sions are listed as below:
installed power of 30 MW. Then in 1987, geothermal power plants
Kamojang coupled with Unit II and III with a total capacity of i. Primary energy used for power plants in Indonesia until 2030
110 MW. Lastly, in 2008 the addition of 60 MW capacity in Unit IV will be still dominated by fossil energy that is expected to
was developed. From those 4 units, the total power that can be about 78.32%.
Nasruddin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 733740 739

Fig. 10. The temperature geothermal energy resources in Indonesia [69].

2006 2008 2012 2016 2020 2025

852 MW 2000 MW 4600 MW 6000 MW 9500 MW


3442 MW
(Production) (Planning)

1148 MW 1442 MW 1158 MW 1400 MW 3500 MW

(Geothermal (Geothermal (Geothermal (Geothermal (Geothermal

Existing 1226 MW
condition

6151 MW

Fig. 11. Planning of geothermal power plant development in Indonesia in 20062025 [74].

ii. According to the ratio of production reserves, coal, gas and oil the Ministry of Education of Malaysia with reference number
are going to run out in 75 years, 33 years, and 12 years 20120237FRGS.
respectively.
iii. Besides the diminishing reserves and more expensive price of
fossil energy, these fossil-based energy resources also can
pollute the environment badly. References
iv. The potential of geothermal energy in Indonesia is about 40% of
the geothermal potential of the world, or about 28,670 MW. [1] Sugiono A. Peran PLTN Dalam Mendukung Komitmen Pemerintah Untuk
However only 1343.5 MW is being utilized or about 4.5%. Mengurangi Emisi CO2 Prosiding Seminar Nasional Pengembangan Energi
Nuklir III; 2010.
v. In order to improve the development of geothermal energy,
[2] Mahlia TMI. Emissions from electricity generation in Malaysia. Renew Energy
Indonesian government has issued the regulation no. 21/2014 2002;27:293300.
about geothermal energy. [3] Arslan O. Exergoeconomic evaluation of electricity generation by the medium
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