Differential Calculus Full PDF

Differential Calculus Review
July 22, 2017

Functions
Function is best represented as an equation.
y = x if y = f(x)
f(x) = x
In this case x is your independent variable
and domain, and y is your dependent variable
and range.
Ex. Express Volume V of a cube in terms of its
side x.
V(x) = x3
Ex. Express Volume V of a cube in terms of its
surface Area S.
V = x3 S = 6x2
Ex. Express the surface area S of a sphere in
terms of its volume V.

Evaluating Functions
Ex.
Given this function: f (x) = 3x3 - 2x + 1
Evaluate f (4)
Plug in four for all x's in the function:
f (4) = 3(4)3 - 2(4) + 1
f (4) = 185 .
What's a function and what's not?
Graphically you can tell with the vertical line
test.
What you do is to graph an equation, draw
a straight line vertically along your graph. If
the vertical line intersects your graph at only
one point for any position along your entire
graph (for all x's in other words) then the
equation is a function. If not, then the
equation is not a function.
Failed in Vertical line test not
considered as Functions
A Horizontal Line test and a One-to-
one Function
Horizontal line test
Graph an equation, draw a straight line
horizontally along your graph. If the horizontal
line intersects your graph at only one point for
any position along your entire graph (for all y's in
other words) then the equation pass the
horizontal line test.
If the equation pass both the vertical and
horizontal line tests then the equation is a one-
to-one function and its inverse is also a function.
One-to-one Function
Odd and Even Functions
Is determined by the following:
f(-x) = f(x) <-- Even function
f(-x) = -f(x) <-- Odd function
Even function is symmetrical with the y-axis
Ex. y = x2
Odd function is symmetrical with the origin
Ex. y = x
Ex.
Determine whether each function is even, odd,
or neither. Find the zeros of the functions
1) f(x)= x3 x
2) f(x)= x4 - 4x2
3) f(x)= x2+2x+1
4) f(x)= 1 + cos x
Graphs of Eight Basic Types of
Functions
Linear functions. These are functions of the form:
y = m x + b,
where m and b are constants. A typical use for
linear functions is converting from one quantity
or set of units to another. Graphs of these
functions are straight lines. m is the slope
and b is the y intercept. If m is positive then the
line rises to the right and if m is negative then the
line falls to the right.
Graph of Linear Function
Quadratic functions.
These are functions of the form:
y = a x 2+ b x + c, where a, b and c are
constants. Their graphs are called parabolas.
This is the next simplest type of function after
the linear function. Falling objects move along
parabolic paths. If a is a positive number then
the parabola opens upward and if a is a
negative number then the parabola opens
downward.
Graph of Quadratic Function
Power functions.
y = a x b, where a and b are constants.
They get their name from the fact that the
variable x is raised to some power. Many
physical laws (e.g. the gravitational force as a
function of distance between two objects, or
the bending of a beam as a function of the
load on it) are in the form of power functions.
Graph of Power Function
Polynomial functions.
y = an x n + an 1 x n 1 + + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0,
where an, an 1, , a2, a1, a0 are constants.
Only whole number powers of x are allowed.
The highest power of x that occurs is called
the degree of the polynomial. The degree
gives the maximum number of ups and
downs that the polynomial can have and also
the maximum number of crossings of the x
axis that it can have.
Ex. Y = x4 8x2
Graph of Polynomial Function
Rational functions. These functions are the ratio of
two polynomials. One field of study where they are
important is in stability analysis of mechanical and
electrical systems (which uses Laplace transforms).
When the polynomial in the denominator is zero
then the rational function becomes infinite as
indicated by a vertical dotted line (called an
asymptote) in its graph. For the example to the right
this happens when x = 2 and when x = 7.
When x becomes very large the curve may level off.
The curve to the right levels off at y = 5.
Exponential functions.
y = a b x,
where x is in an exponent (not in the base as was the
case for power functions) and a and b are constants.
(Note that only b is raised to the power x; not a.) If the
base b is greater than 1 then the result is exponential
growth. Many physical quantities grow exponentially
(e.g. animal populations and cash in an interest-
bearing account).
If the base b is smaller than 1 then the result
is exponential decay. Many quantities decay
exponentially (e.g. the sunlight reaching a
given depth of the ocean and the speed of an
object slowing down due to friction).
Graph of Exponential Function
Logarithmic functions.
Can be defined in the form:
y = a ln (x) + b,
where x is in the natural logarithm and a and
b are constants. They are only defined for
positive x. For small x they are negative and
for large x they are positive but stay small.
Logarithmic functions accurately describe the
response of the human ear to sounds of
varying loudness and the response of the
human eye to light of varying brightness.
Graph of Logarithmic Function
Sinusoidal functions.
y = a sin (b x + c),
where a, b and c are constants. Sinusoidal
functions are useful for describing anything that
has a wave shape with respect to position or
time. Examples are waves on the water, the
height of the tide during the course of the day.
Parameter a (called the amplitude) affects the
height of the wave, b (the angular velocity)
affects the width of the wave and c (the phase
angle) shifts the wave left or right.
Graph of Sinusoidal Function
Composite Functions
- a function that took an input of another
function. If you had one function, f, and you
wanted it to take an input of another function, g,
you would write it in form:
f (g(x)) or (f g) (x)
Ex.
Given : f(x) = x2 - x + 2 , g(x) = 3x 4
Evaluate (f g)(x)
(f g)(x) = (3x - 4)2 - (3x - 4) + 2
(f g)(x) = (9x2 - 24x + 16) - (3x - 4) + 2
(f g)(x) = 9x2 - 27x + 22
Piecewise Function
-a function that is defined on a sequence
of intervals.
-a function which is defined by multiple
subfunctions, each subfunction
applying to a certain interval of
the main function's domain (a
subdomain).
Ex.
1 x, x 1
f ( x) = 2
x ,x 1
Piecewise-defined function
1 x, x 1
f ( x) = 2
x ,x 1
Interval Notation
open interval, (a, b)
all the numbers between two numbers, but
not including the two endpoints
a < x < b , x is between a and b but never
equal to.
closed interval, [a, b]
all the numbers between two number
including the two endpoints. ... and can be
translated as for all values of x so that a x b
Interval Notation
half- open intervals
(a, b] defining all numbers between a and b
not including a, but including b or a < x b
[a, b) defining all numbers between a and b
not including b, but including a or a x < b
unbounded interval
[a, )
-contains end point a to positive infinity
(a, ) contains points greater than a to
positive infinity
Domain and Range of a Function
The set D of all numbers for which f(x) is
defined is called the domain ( or domain of
definition) of the function f.
Domain of the function f is the set of all
real numbers x for which the expression f(x)
makes sense and produces a real number y. A
domain can be expressed in interval notation.
Ex.
Find the domain of
1
g ( x) = Domain:
2x + 4 (- , -2) ( -2, )
1
h( x ) = Domain: (-2, )
2x + 4
u +1
f (u ) = Domain: (- , -2) (-2,-1) (-1, )
1
1+
1+ u
The number f(x), read f of x, is called the
value of the function f at the number ( or
point ) x. The set of all values y=f(x) is called
the range of f. That is, the range of f is the set
{y:y= f(x) for some x in D}
Domain:
1 (- , -2) ( -2, )
g ( x) =
2x + 4
Range:
(- , 0) ( 0, )
Find the range of
1) x if x 0

f ( x) = x Range= { -1, 0, 1 }
0 If x = 0
2) f(x) = (-1)[X] Range= { -1, 1 }
3) f ( x) = x 5
2
Range= [ 5, )
Combinations of Functions
Suppose that f and g are functions and c is a
fixed real number.
scalar multiple (cf)(x) = c * f(x)
sum (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
difference (f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
product ( f*g)(x) = f(x) * g(x)
quotient (f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) but g(x) 0
Combination of Functions
Ex. Let f(x)= x2 + 1 g(x)= x 1
(3f)(x) = 3(x2 + 1)
(f + g)(x) = (x2 + 1) + (x 1) = x2 + x
(f - g)(x) = (x2 + 1) - (x 1) = x2 - x + 2
( f*g)(x) = (x2 + 1) * (x 1) = x3 - x2 + x 1
(f/g)(x) = (x2 + 1) / (x 1)
but ( x 1)
1 Limits and Their Properties
Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically

Properties of Limits
The limit of f(x) as x approaches c does not depend on the value
of f at x = c. It may happen, however, that the limit is precisely f
(c).
In such cases, the limit can be evaluated by direct substitution.

That is,
Such well-behaved functions are continuous at c.

Example 1 Evaluating Basic Limits
Example 2 The Limit of a Polynomial
Example 3 The Limit of a Rational Function
Find the limit:

Example 5 Limits of Trigonometric Functions
A Strategy for Finding Limits
Dividing Out and Rationalizing
Techniques
Example 6 Finding the Limit of a Function
Find the limit:
Solution:
Let f(x) = (x3 1)/(x 1)
By factoring and dividing out like factors, you can rewrite f

as
Example 6 Solution contd
Because
conclude that f and g have the same limit at x = 1.

Example 7 Dividing Out Technique
Find the limit:
Solution:
This result is shown graphically in Figure 1.18.
Note that the graph of the function f coincides with the graph of
the function g(x) = x 2, except that the graph of f has a gap at
the point (3, 5).
Figure 1.18
Dividing Out and Rationalizing Techniques
An expression such as 0/0 is called an indeterminate form

because you cannot (from the form alone) determine the limit.
When you try to evaluate a limit and encounter this form,

remember that you must rewrite the fraction so that the new
denominator does not have 0 as its limit.
One way to do this is to divide out like factors, as shown in

Example 7. A second way is to rationalize the numerator, as
shown in Example 8.
Example 8 Rationalizing Technique
Find the limit:
Solution:
By direct substitution, you obtain the indeterminate form
0/0.
In this case, you can rewrite the fraction by rationalizing the
numerator.
Now, using Theorem 1.7, you can evaluate the limit
as shown.
A table or a graph can reinforce your conclusion that the

limit is . (See Figure 1.20.)
Figure 1.20
The Squeeze Theorem
The Squeeze Theorem
The next theorem concerns the limit of a function that is
squeezed between two other functions, each of which has the
same limit at a given x-value, as shown in Figure 1.21
Figure 1.21
The Squeeze Theorem
Squeeze Theorem is also called the Sandwich Theorem

or the Pinching Theorem.
Example 9 A Limit Involving a Trigonometric Function
Find the limit:
Solution:
Direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 0/0.
To solve this problem, you can write tan x as (sin x)/(cos x)

and obtain
Now, because
you can obtain

(See Figure 1.23.)
Figure 1.23
Evaluating Limits
1) x 1 2
lim =
x 3 x + 2 5
x 4 2
0
2) lim = Indeterminate form
x 2 x + x 6
2
0
x 4
2
( x + 2)( x 2) x+2 4
lim 2 = lim = lim =
x2 x + x 6 x 2 ( x + 3)( x 2) x2 x + 3 5
Evaluating Limits
3) x + 25 5 0 Indeterminate form
lim =
x 0 x 0
x + 25 5 x + 25 5 x + 25 + 5
lim = lim
x 0 x x 0 x x + 25 + 5
x + 25 25 1 1
= lim = lim =
x 0
x( x + 25 + 5) x 0 x + 25 + 5 10
Evaluating Limits
Investigate lim
x 0
f ( x), given
x 1 if x 0
lim f ( x) = =
x 0 x 1 if x 0
the limit does not exist.

Evaluating One-Sided Limits
x2 2 1
1) xlim 2

+ 9 x 4) lim+ = +
3
x +1 x 1 ( x + 1)
32 9
= 2 =
3 + 1 10
2) x 5) lim 1 =
lim = 1 x 0 x
x 0 x
3) lim 2 x + 1 = 6) lim 1 = +
x1 x 1 +
x 0 x
7) 3
3x
lim 3 = 3/ 4
x 4 x + x + 4
2
8) 2
lim x = +
x 3
9) lim 5 = 5
x 3
Basic Trigonometric Limit
Ex.
lim
sin x
=1 1) lim
x 0
sin 5 x 5
= lim
sin 5 x
x 0 x 5 x 0 x
x
sin 5 x
= 5 lim = 5(1)
x 0 5 x
lim cos x = 1
x 0 2) lim
tan 2 x 1
= lim
sin 2 x 2

x 0 3x 3 x 0 x cos 2 x 2
2 sin 2 x 1
= lim lim
3 x 0 2 x x 0 cos 2 x
2 1 2
= 1 =
3 1 3
The Concept of Continuity
A function f(x) is continuous if,
f (a) = M Ex.
f ( x) = 2 x 2 for x 2
lim f ( x) = M
xa
lim+ f ( x) = M f (2) = 2 22 = 2 4 = 2
xa
lim (2 x 2 ) = 2 22 = 2 4 = 2
x2
f (a ) = lim f ( x) = lim+ f ( x)
xa xa lim+ (2 x 2 ) = 2 22 = 2 4 = 2
x2
f (2) = lim (2 x 2 ) = lim+ (2 x 2 )

x2 x2
The function f(x) = 2 x2 is continuous

Discontinuity and Removable
Discontinuity
Every rational function
p( x)
f ( x) =
q( x)
is continuous whenever it is defined, that is the denominator
q(x) is nonzero.
At a point x = a where the denominator q(a) is zero, there are

two possibilities:
* if p(a) 0, then f(x) has an infinite discontinuity at x = a.
* or f(x) may have removable discontinuity at x = a

Suppose that,
x2
f ( x) = 2
x 3x + 2
x2 f(x) is discontinuous at
f ( x) =
( x 1)( x 2) x = 1 and x = 2
1
f ( x) = f(x) is discontinuous at x = 1
x 1
and removable discontinuity
at x = 2
2 Differentiation

The Derivative of a Function
The Derivatives
- limit of the change along the y over change
along the x as x approaches 0, lim
x 0
y / x
- slope of a line
- rates of change
The Derivatives
Basic Differentiation Rules
1.Derivative of a constant function is identically
zero, if f(x) = c ( a constant) for all x, f(x) = 0
dc
= Dx c = 0
dx
Ex. f(x) = 3
f(x) = 0
2. The Power Rule D x x = nx
n n 1
Ex. b) 1
f ( x) = 3 = x 3
a) f(x) = x3 x
f(x) = 3x2 f ' ( x) = 3 x 4 3
= 4
x
3. Derivative of Linear Combination
Dx [cf ( x)] = cDx f ( x)
Dx [af ( x) + bg ( x)] = a[ Dx f ( x)] + b[ Dx g ( x)]
Ex.
a) f(x) = 6x4 f(x) = 24x3
b) f(x) = 36 + 26x + 7x5 5x9

f(x) = 26 + 35x4 45x8
4. The Product Rule
Dx [ f ( x) g ( x)] = Dx f ( x) g ( x) + Dx g ( x) f ( x)
Dx [ f ( x) g ( x)] = f ' ( x) g ( x) + g ' ( x) f ( x)
Ex.
f(x)= (1 - 4x3)(3x2 5x 2 )
f(x) = (-12x2)(3x2 5x 2)+(1 - 4x3 )(6x 5)
= - 36x4 + 60x3 + 24x2 + 6x -24x4 + 20x3
5. The Reciprocal Rule
1 f ' ( x)
Dx =
f ( x) [ f ( x)] 2
Ex.
1
f ( x) = 2
x +1
2x
f ' ( x) = 2
( x + 1) 2
6. The Quotient Rule
f ( x) f ' ( x) g (( x) g ' ( x) f ( x)
Dx = 2
g ( x ) [ g ( x )]
Ex. Find the derivative of,
1 t3
z=
1+ t4
dz (3t )(1 + t ) (1 t )(4t )
3
2 4 3
=
dt (1 + t )
4 2
dz t 6 4t 3 3t 2
=
dt (1 + t 4 ) 2
Tangent and Normal Lines
Ex. Write an equation of a line tangent to the
curve y = f(x) at a given point P on the curve.
y = x3 + 3x2 4x 5; P(1,-5)
Express the answer in the form, ax + by = c.
Ex. Find the points on the curve,

y = 2x3 + 3x2 12x +1 where the tangent is
horizontal.
Derivatives of the Sine and Cosine
Functions
Derivatives of the Sine and Cosine Functions
Example 8 Derivatives Involving Sines and Cosines
Rates of Change
Rates of Change
You have seen how the derivative is used to determine slope.
The derivative can also be used to determine the rate of change

of one variable with respect to another.
Applications involving rates of change occur in a wide variety of

fields.
A few examples are population growth rates, production rates,

water flow rates, velocity, and acceleration.
Rates of Change
A common use for rate of change is to describe the motion of an
object moving in a straight line.
In such problems, it is customary to use either a horizontal or a

vertical line with a designated origin to represent the line of
motion.
On such lines, movement to the right (or upward) is considered

to be in the positive direction, and movement to the left (or
downward) is considered to be in the negative direction.
Rates of Change
The function s that gives the position (relative to the origin)
of an object as a function of time t is called a position
function.
If, over a period of time t, the object changes its position by the
amount s = s(t + t) s(t), then, by the familiar formula
the average velocity is

Example 9 Finding Average Velocity of a Falling Object
If a billiard ball is dropped from a height of 100 feet, its

height s at time t is given by the position function
s = 16t2 + 100 Position function
where s is measured in feet and t is measured in seconds. Find

the average velocity over the given time interval, [1, 2].
Solution
For the interval [1, 2], the object falls from a height of
s(1) = 16(1)2 + 100 = 84 feet to a height of
s(2) = 16(2)2 + 100 = 36 feet.
The average velocity is
Rates of Change
In general, if s = s(t) is the position function for an object moving
along a straight line, the velocity of the object at time t is
In other words, the velocity function is the derivative of the

position function.
Velocity can be negative, zero, or positive.
The speed of an object is the absolute value of its velocity.
Speed cannot be negative.
Rates of Change
The position of a free-falling object (neglecting air resistance)
under the influence of gravity can be represented by the
equation
where s0 is the initial height of the object, v0 is the initial velocity

of the object, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
On Earth, the value of g is approximately 32 feet per second

per second or 9.8 meters per second per second.
Example 10 Using the Derivative to Find Velocity
At time t = 0, a diver jumps from a platform

diving board that is 32 feet above the water
(see Figure 2.21). The position of the diver
is given by
s(t) = 16t2 + 16t + 32 Position function
where s is measured in feet and t is

measured in seconds.
a. When does the diver hit the water?

b. What is the divers velocity at impact?
Figure 2.21
Example 10(a) Solution
To find the time t when the diver hits the water, let s = 0 and
solve for t.
16t2 + 16t + 32 = 0 Set position function equal to 0.

16(t + 1)(t 2) = 0 Factor.
t = 1 or 2 Solve for t.
Because t 0, choose the positive value to conclude that

the diver hits the water at t = 2 seconds.
Example 10(b) Solution contd
The velocity at time t is given by the derivative of

s(t) = 16t2 + 16t + 32
s(t) = 32t + 16.
So, the velocity at time t = 2

s(2) = 32(2) + 16
= 48 feet per second.
Ex.
The conical tank shown has radius of 2 m
and height 4 m. Water is running out of a
small hole in the bottom of the tank. When
the height h of water in the tank is 3 m what is
the rate of change of its volume V with
respect to h? Ans. 81/4 m3/m
V = 1/3r2h
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Knowing the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions, you
can use the Quotient Rule to find the derivatives of the four
remaining trigonometric functions.
Example 8 Differentiating Trigonometric Functions
Ex.
Find the equation of the tangent line T to the
graph of f ( x ) = 8sin x at the given point
( 5,8sin 5) .
Soln. f ( x) = 8 sin x
f ' ( x) = 8 cos x
m = 8 cos x
y 8 sin 5
8 cos x =
x5
y 8 sin 5 = 8 cos x( x 5)
y = 8 cos x( x 5) + 8 sin 5
Higher-Order Derivatives
Higher-order derivatives are denoted as follows.
Find the second derivative of the function .
Ans.
1
16 95
1. f ( x) = 4 x 5 f ( x) = x
25
2. f (v) = 3v 2
+ 4v 5 10
v
f (v) = 3
v
Ex. Find the given derivative by finding the first
few derivatives and observing the pattern that
occurs.
d 75
75
sin x
dx
Just as you can obtain a velocity function by differentiating a
position function, you can obtain an acceleration function by
differentiating a velocity function.
Another way of looking at this is that you can obtain an

acceleration function by differentiating a position function twice.
The function given by a(t) is the second derivative of s(t) and is
denoted by s"(t).
The second derivative is an example of a higher-order

derivative.
You can define derivatives of any positive integer order. For

instance, the third derivative is the derivative of the second
derivative.
Example 10 Finding the Acceleration Due to Gravity
Because the moon has no atmosphere, a falling object on the

moon encounters no air resistance. In 1971, astronaut David
Scott demonstrated that a feather and a hammer fall at the same
rate on the moon. The position function for each of these falling
objects is given by
s(t) = 0.81t2 + 2
where s(t) is the height in meters and t is the time in seconds.

What is the ratio of Earths gravitational force to the moons?
Example 10 Solution
To find the acceleration, differentiate the position function
twice.
s(t) = 0.81t2 + 2 Position function
s'(t) = 1.62t Velocity function
s"(t) = 1.62 Acceleration function
So, the acceleration due to gravity on the moon is 1.62

meters per second per second.
Because the acceleration due to gravity on Earth is 9.8

meters per second per second, the ratio of Earths
gravitational force to the moons is
The Chain Rule
The Chain Rule
For example, compare the functions shown
below. Those on the left can be differentiated
without the Chain Rule, and those on the right
are best differentiated with the Chain Rule.
Basically, the Chain Rule states that if y changes

dy/du times as fast as u, and u changes du/dx
times as fast as x, then y changes (dy/du)(du/dx)
times as fast as x.
The Chain Rule
The General Power Rule
The General Power Rule
Example 4 Applying the General Power Rule
Find the derivative of f(x) = (3x 2x2)3.
Solution:
Let u = 3x 2x2.
Then f(x) = (3x 2x2)3 = u3
and, by the General Power Rule, the derivative
Simplifying Derivatives
Simplifying Derivatives
The next three examples illustrate some
techniques for simplifying the raw derivatives
of functions involving products, quotients, and
composites.
Example 7 Simplifying by Factoring Out the Least Powers
Example 8 Simplifying the Derivative of a Quotient
Example 9 Simplifying the Derivative of a Power
Trigonometric Functions and the Chain
Rule
Trigonometric Functions and the Chain Rule
The Chain Rule versions of the derivatives of

the six trigonometric functions are as follows.
Example 10 Applying the Chain Rule to Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric Functions and the Chain Rule
2.5 Implicit Differentiation

Implicit and Explicit Functions
Most functions have been expressed in explicit
form. For example, in the equation
Explicit form
the variable y is explicitly written as a function

of x. Some functions, however, are only
implied by an equation. For instance, the
function y = 1/x is defined implicitly by the
equation xy = 1.
Suppose you were asked to find dy/dx for this
equation. You could begin by writing y explicitly
as a function of x and then differentiating.
This strategy works whenever you can solve for

the function explicitly.
You cannot, however, use this procedure when
you are unable to solve for y as a function of x.
For instance, how would you find dy/dx for the
equation
where it is very difficult to express y as a
function of x explicitly? To do this, you can use
implicit differentiation.
Example 1 Differentiating with Respect to x
Example 1 Differentiating with Respect to x
contd
Implicit Differentiation
Implicit Differentiation
Example 2 Implicit Differentiation
Find dy/dx given that y3 + y2 5y x2 = 4.
Solution:
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with
respect to x.
Example 2 Solution
2. Collect the dy/dx terms on the left side of thecontd
equation and move all other terms to the right
side of the equation.
3. Factor dy/dx out of the left side of the

equation.
4. Solve for dy/dx by dividing by (3y2 + 2y 5).

Example 5 Finding the Slope of a Graph Implicitly
Determine the slope of the graph of

3(x2 + y2)2 = 100xy at the point (3, 1).
Solution:
Example 5 Solution
At the point (3, 1), the slope of the graph is as
contd
shown in
Figure 2.30. This graph is called a lemniscate.
Figure 2.30
2.6 Related Rates

Finding Related Rates
The Chain Rule can be used to find dy/dx
implicitly. Another important use of the Chain
Rule is to find the rates of change of two or
more related variables that are changing with
respect to time.
For example, when water is drained out of a
conical tank (see Figure 2.33), the volume V, the
radius r, and the height h of the water level are
all functions of time t.
Knowing that these variables are related

by the equation
Figure 2.33
you can differentiate implicitly with respect to t
to obtain the related-rate equation
From this equation you can see that the rate of

change of V is related to the rates of change of
both h and r.
Example 1 Two Rates That Are Related
Suppose x and y are both differentiable functions of t
and are related by the equation
y = x2 + 3. Find dy/dt when x = 1, given that dx/dt = 2
when x = 1.
Solution:Using the Chain Rule, you can differentiate
both sides of the equation with respect to t.
When x = 1 and dx/dt = 2, you have

Problem Solving with Related Rates
Problem Solving with Related Rates
Example 3 An Inflating Balloon
Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon
(see Figure 2.35) at a rate of 4.5 cubic feet per
minute. Find the rate of change of the radius
when the radius is 2 feet.
Figure 2.35
Example 3 Solution
Let V be the volume of the balloon and let r be
its radius.
Because the volume is increasing at a rate of 4.5
cubic feet per minute, you know that at time t
the rate of change of the volume is So,
the problem can be stated as shown.
Given rate: (constant rate)
Find: when r = 2
To find the rate of change of the radius, you

must find an equation that relates the radius r to
the volume V.
Differentiating both sides of the equation with
respect to t produces
Finally, when r = 2, the rate of change of the

radius is
3 Applications of Differentiation

Extrema of a Function
In calculus, much effort is devoted to
determining the behavior of a function f on an
interval I.
Does f have a maximum value on I? Does it have

a minimum value? Where is the function
increasing? Where is it decreasing?
Relative Extrema and Critical Numbers
In Figure 3.2, the graph of f(x) = x3 3x2 has a relative maximum
at the point (0, 0) and a relative minimum at the point (2, 4).
Informally, for a continuous function,

you can think of a relative maximum
as occurring on a hill on the graph,
and a relative minimum as occurring
in a valley on the graph.
Figure 3.2
To find the critical numbers of f, you must find

all x-values for which f'(x) = 0 and all x-values
for which f'(x) does not exist.
f'(x) = 12x3 12x2 = 0 Set f'(x) equal to
0.
12x2(x 1) = 0 Factor.
x = 0, 1 Critical numbers
Because f' is defined for all x, you can conclude

that these are the only critical numbers of f.
Find all critical numbers of the function
Ex. g ( x=
) x 10 x
4 2
g ' ( x) = 4 x( x 2 5)
g ' ( x) = 0
x = 0, 5 , 5
Ex. 2
f ( x ) sin 5 x + cos 5 x
= 2
f ' ( x ) = 2(5) sin 5 x cos 5 x + 5( sin 5 x)

f ' ( x) = 0
0 = 10 sin 5 x cos 5 x 5 sin 5 x
5 sin 5 x = 10 sin 5 x cos 5 x
1
= cos 5 x
2

x= ,
15 3
Finding Extrema on a Closed Interval
Finding Extrema on a Closed Interval
Example 2 Finding Extrema on a Closed Interval
Find the extrema of f(x) = 3x4 4x3 on the

interval [1, 2].
Solution:
Begin by differentiating the function.
f(x) = 3x4 4x3 Write original function.
f'(x) = 12x3 12x2 Differentiate.

By evaluating f at these two critical numbers and

at the endpoints of [1, 2], you can determine
that the maximum is f(2) = 16 and the minimum
is f(1) = 1, as shown in the table.
The graph of f is shown in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5
Ex. Find the area of the largest rectangle
that can be inscribed in a given circle.
Ex. Find the altitude of the largest circular

cylinder that can be inscribed in a circular
cone of radius r and height h.
Rolles Theorem and the
3.2 Mean Value Theorem

Rolles Theorem
Rolles Theorem
Rolles Theorem, named after the French

mathematician Michel Rolle (16521719), gives
conditions that guarantee the existence of an
extreme value in the interior of a closed interval.
Rolles Theorem
Rolles Theorem
From Rolles Theorem, you can see that if a
function f is continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b), and if f(a) = f(b), there
must be at least one x-value between a and
b at which the graph of f has a horizontal
tangent, as shown in Figure 3.8(a).
Figure 3.8(a)
Rolles Theorem
If the differentiability requirement is dropped

from Rolles Theorem, f will still have a critical
number in (a, b), but it may not yield a
horizontal tangent. Such a case is shown in
Figure 3.8(b).
Figure 3.8(b)
Example 1 Illustrating Rolles Theorem
Find the two x-intercepts of

f(x) = x2 3x + 2
and show that f(x) = 0 at some point between
the two x-intercepts.
Solution:Note that f is differentiable on the
entire real line. Setting f(x) equal to 0 produces
So, f(1) = f(2) = 0, and from Rolles Theorem you

know that there exists at least one c in the interval
(1, 2) such that f'(c) = 0.
To find such a c, you can solve the equation
and determine that f'(x) = 0 when x =

Note that this x-value lies in the open interval (1, 2), as shown in
Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9
The Mean Value Theorem
The Mean Value Theorem
Rolles Theorem can be used to prove another

theoremthe Mean Value Theorem.
Example 3 Finding a Tangent Line
Given f(x) = 5 (4/x), find all values of c in the

open interval (1, 4) such that
Solution:
The slope of the secant line through (1, f(1)) and (4, f(4)) is
Note that the function satisfies the conditions of the Mean

Value Theorem.
That is, f is continuous on the interval [1, 4] and

differentiable on the interval (1, 4).
So, there exists at least one number c in (1, 4)

such that f'(c) = 1.
Solving the equation f'(x) = 1 yields
which implies that x = 2.

So, in the interval (1, 4), you can conclude that

c = 2, as
shown in Figure 3.13.
Figure 3.13
Example
Determine whether Rolle's Theorem can be
.
applied to the function f ( x ) = x 2

6 x + 8 on
the closed interval [2,4]. If Rolle's Theorem can
be applied, find all values of c in the open
interval (2,4) such that .
f ( x) = x 6 x + 8
2
f (c) = 0
f ' ( x) = 2 x 6
f ' ( x) = 0
0 = 2x 6
x=3
c=3
.
Ex.
Determine whether the Mean Value Theorem can be
applied to the function f ( x) = x 2 on the closed
interval [1,9]. If the Mean Value Theorem can be
applied, find all numbers c in the open interval (1,9)
such that .
9 2 (1) 2 80 f (9) f (1)
f ' ( x) = = =8 f (c) =
9 (1) 10 9 1
f ( x) = x 2
f ' ( x) = 2 x
2x = 8
x=4
c=4

Error Propagation
If you let x represent the measured value of a
variable and let x + x represent the exact value,
then x is the error in measurement.
Finally, if the measured value x is used to
compute another value f(x), the difference
between f(x +x) and f(x) is the propagated
error.
34
The measured radius of a ball bearing is 0.7
inch, as shown in Figure 3.68. If the
measurement is correct to within 0.01 inch,
estimate the propagated error in the volume V
of the ball bearing.
35
The formula for the volume of a sphere is ,
where r is the radius of the sphere.
So, you can write
and
To approximate the propagated error in the volume,

differentiate V to obtain and write
propagated error in volume dV = 4r2dr

dV = 40.72(0.01)
= 0.06
36
Increasing and Decreasing
3.3 Functions and the First Derivative
Test

Determine intervals on which a function is
increasing or decreasing.
Apply the First Derivative Test to find relative

extrema of a function.
38
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
39
40
A function is increasing if, as x moves to the

right, its graph moves up, and is decreasing if its
graph moves down. For example, the function in
Figure 3.15 is decreasing on the interval
is constant on the interval (a, b) and is
increasing on the interval
Figure 3.15
41
42
Example 1 Intervals on Which f Is Increasing or Decreasing
Find the open intervals on which is increasing or decreasing.
Solution:
Note that f is differentiable on the entire real number line.
To determine the critical numbers of f, set f'(x) equal to zero.
43
Because there are no points for which f' does not exist, you can conclude that x = 0
and x = 1 are the only critical numbers.
The table summarizes the testing of the three intervals determined by these two
critical numbers.
44
So, f is increasing on the intervals and and decreasing on the interval

(0, 1), as shown in Figure 3.16.
Figure 3.16
45
46
A function is strictly monotonic on an interval if it is either increasing on the entire
interval or decreasing on the entire interval. For instance, the function f(x) = x3
is strictly monotonic on the entire real number line because it is increasing on the
entire real number line, as shown in Figure 3.17(a).
Figure 3.17(a) 47
The function shown in Figure 3.17(b) is not strictly monotonic on the entire real
number line because it is constant on the interval [0, 1].
Figure 3.17(b)
48
The First Derivative Test
49
The intervals on which a function is increasing or
decreasing, it is not difficult to locate the relative
extrema of the function.
For instance, in Figure 3.18 (from Example 1), the
function
has a relative maximum at the point

(0, 0) because f is increasing
immediately to the left of x = 0
and decreasing immediately to the
right of x = 0. Figure 3.18 50
Similarly, f has a relative minimum at the point

because f is decreasing immediately to the left
of x = 1 and
increasing immediately to the right of x = 1.
51
52
Example 2 Applying the First Derivative Test
Find the relative extrema of the function
in the interval (0, 2).
Solution:
Note that f is continuous on the interval (0, 2).
To determine the critical numbers of f in this
interval, set f'(x) equal to 0.
53
Example 2 Solution cont'd
Because there are no points for which fx does

not exist, you can conclude that x = /3 and x =
5/3 are the only critical numbers.
The table summarizes the testing of the three

intervals determined by these two critical
numbers.
54
Example 2 Solution cont'd
By applying the First Derivative Test, you can

conclude that f has a relative minimum at the point
where
and a relative maximum at the point

where
as shown in Figure 3.19.

Figure 3.19
55

Concavity and the Second
3.4
Derivative Test

Concavity
Concavity
Concavity
The following graphical interpretation of
concavity is useful.
1. Let f be differentiable on an open interval I. If
the graph of f is concave upward on I, then
the graph of f lies above all of its tangent lines
on I. [See Figure 3.24(a).]
Figure 3.24(a)
Concavity
2. Let f be differentiable on an open interval I. If

the graph of f is concave downward on I, then
the graph of f lies below all of its tangent lines
on I. [See Figure 3.24(b).]
Figure 3.24(b)
Concavity
Example 1 Determining Concavity
Determine the open intervals on which the
graph of
is concave upward or downward.
Solution:
Begin by observing that f is continuous on the
entire real line.
Next, find the second derivative of f.
Because f''(x) = 0 when x = 1 and f'' is defined on the

entire line, you should test f'' in the intervals ,
(1, 1), and
The results are shown in the table and in Figure 3.26.
Figure 3.26
Points of Inflection
If the tangent line to the graph exists at such a
point where the concavity changes, that point is
a point of inflection. Three types of points of
inflection are shown in Figure 3.28.
The concavity of changes at a point of inflection. Note that the graph crosses its tangent line at a point of
inflection.
Figure 3.28
Example 3 Finding Points of Inflection
Determine the points of inflection and discuss

the concavity of the graph of
Solution:
Differentiating twice produces the following.
Setting f"(x) = 0, you can determine that the

possible points of inflection occur at x = 0 and x
= 2.By testing the intervals determined by these
x-values, you can conclude that they both yield
points of inflection.A summary of this testing is
shown inthe table, and the graph of f is shown
in Figure 3.29.
Figure 3.29
The Second Derivative Test
The Second Derivative Test
Example 4 Using the Second Derivative Test
Find the relative extrema for f(x) = 3x5 + 5x3
Solution:
Begin by finding the critical numbers of f.
f '(x) = 15x4 + 5x2
= 15x2(1 x2) = 0
x = 1, 0, 1
Using
f ''(x) = 60x3 + 30x = 30(2x3 + x)
you can apply the Second Derivative Test as
follows.
Because the Second Derivative Test fails at (0, 0),

you can use the First Derivative Test and observe
that f increases to the left and right of x = 0.
So, (0, 0) is neither a relative minimum nor a

relative maximum (even though the graph has a
horizontal tangent line at this point).The graph
of f is shown in Figure 3.32.
Figure 3.32
3.7 Optimization Problems

Applied Minimum and Maximum
Problems
Applied Minimum and Maximum Problems
One of the most common applications of

calculus involves the determination of minimum
and maximum values.
Example 1 Finding Maximum Volume
A manufacturer wants to design an open box

having a square base and a surface area of 108
square inches, as shown in Figure 3.53. What
dimensions will produce a box with maximum
volume?
Figure 3.53
Example 1 Solution
Because the box has a square base, its volume is
V = x2h. Primary equation
This equation is called the primary equation because it gives a

formula for the quantity to be optimized.
The surface area of the box is

S = (area of base) + (area of four sides)
S = x2 + 4xh = 108. Secondary equation

Because V is to be maximized, you want to write

V as a function of just one variable.
To do this, you can solve the equation x2 + 4xh =
108 for h in terms of x to obtain h = (108
x2)/(4x).
Substituting into the primary equation produces
Before finding which x-value will yield a

maximum value of V, you should determine the
feasible domain.
That is, what values of x make sense in this
problem?
You know that V 0. You also know that x must
be nonnegative and that the area of the base
(A = x2) is at most 108.
So, the feasible domain is
To maximize V, find the critical numbers of the volume

function on the interval
So, the critical numbers are x = 6.
You do not need to consider x = 6 because it is outside the

domain.
Evaluating V at the critical number x = 6 and at the endpoints

of the domain produces V(0) = 0, V(6) = 108, and
So, V is maximum when x = 6 and the dimensions of the box

are 6 6 3 inches.
Applied Minimum and Maximum Problems
Example 2 Finding Minimum Distance
Which points on the graph of y = 4 x2 are
closest to the point (0, 2) ?
Solution:
Figure 3.55 shows that there are two
points at a minimum distance from the
point (0, 2).
The distance between the point (0, 2) and
a point (x, y) on the graph of y = 4 x2 is
given by Figure 3.55
Using the secondary equation y = 4 x2, you can

rewrite the primary equation as
Because d is smallest when the expression inside

the radical is smallest, you need only find the
critical numbers of f(x) = x4 3x2 + 4.
Note that the domain of f is the entire real line.
So, there are no endpoints of the domain to
consider.
Moreover, setting f'(x) equal to 0 yields
The First Derivative Test verifies that x = 0 yields a relative

maximum, whereas both yield a
minimum distance.
So, the closest points are

Ex.
A rectangular storage container with an
open top is to have a volume of 10 m3 . The
length of its base is twice the width. Material for
the base costs $13 per square meter. Material
for the sides costs $10 per square meter. Find
the cost of the materials for the cheapest such
container. Round the result to the nearest cent.
W
2W
5 Logarithmic, Exponential, and
Other Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithmic
5.1 Function: Differentiation

The Natural Logarithmic Function
Example 1 Expanding Logarithmic Expressions
Example 1 Expanding Logarithmic Expressions
contd
The Derivative of the Natural
Logarithmic Function
The Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function
Example 3 Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions
It is convenient to use logarithms as aids in

differentiating nonlogarithmic functions.
This procedure is called logarithmic

differentiation.
Example 6 Logarithmic Differentiation
Find the derivative of
Solution:
Example 7 Derivative Involving Absolute Value
Find the derivative of

f(x) = ln|cosx|.
Solution:
Using Theorem 5.4, let u = cos x and write

Exponential Functions:
5.4 Differentiation

Derivatives of Exponential Functions
Derivatives of Exponential Functions
One of the most intriguing (and useful) characteristics of the
natural exponential function is that it is its own derivative.
In other words, it is a solution to the differential equation y' =

y. This result is stated in the next theorem.
Example 3 Differentiating Exponential Functions

Inverse Trigonometric
5.6 Functions: Differentiation

Inverse Trigonometric Functions
None of the six basic trigonometric functions has

an inverse function.
This statement is true because all six
trigonometric functions are periodic and
therefore are not one-to-one. In this section you
will examine these six functions to see whether
their domains can be redefined in such a way
that they will have inverse functions on the
restricted domains.
Under suitable restrictions, each of the six
trigonometric functions is one-to-one and so has
an inverse function, as shown in the following
definition.
The graphs of the six inverse trigonometric
functions are shown in Figure 5.29.
Figure 5.29
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric
Functions
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The derivative of the transcendental function

f(x) = ln x is the algebraic function f'(x) = 1/x.
You will now see that the derivatives of the

inverse trigonometric functions also are
algebraic.
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The following theorem lists the derivatives of

the six inverse trigonometric functions.
Example 4 Differentiating Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The absolute value sign is not necessary because

e2x > 0.
Review of Basic Differentiation Rules
An elementary function is a function from the

following list or one that can be formed as the
sum, product, quotient, or composition of
functions in the list.
With the differentiation rules introduced so far
in the text, you can differentiate any elementary
function.
For convenience, these differentiation rules are
summarized below.
Review of Basic Differentiation Rules contd

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Differential Calculus Review

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terms of its volume V.

2) f(x) = (-1)[X] Range= { -1, 1 }

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

In such cases, the limit can be evaluated by direct substitution.

Such well-behaved functions are continuous at c.

Find the limit:

Find the limit:

By factoring and dividing out like factors, you can rewrite f

conclude that f and g have the same limit at x = 1.

An expression such as 0/0 is called an indeterminate form

When you try to evaluate a limit and encounter this form,

One way to do this is to divide out like factors, as shown in

A table or a graph can reinforce your conclusion that the

Squeeze Theorem is also called the Sandwich Theorem

Find the limit:

To solve this problem, you can write tan x as (sin x)/(cos x)

you can obtain

(See Figure 1.23.)

the limit does not exist.

f (2) = lim (2 x 2 ) = lim+ (2 x 2 )

The function f(x) = 2 x2 is continuous

At a point x = a where the denominator q(a) is zero, there are

* if p(a) 0, then f(x) has an infinite discontinuity at x = a.

* or f(x) may have removable discontinuity at x = a

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Dx [cf ( x)] = cDx f ( x)

Dx [af ( x) + bg ( x)] = a[ Dx f ( x)] + b[ Dx g ( x)]

b) f(x) = 36 + 26x + 7x5 5x9

Dx [ f ( x) g ( x)] = f ' ( x) g ( x) + g ' ( x) f ( x)

Ex. Find the points on the curve,

The derivative can also be used to determine the rate of change

Applications involving rates of change occur in a wide variety of

A few examples are population growth rates, production rates,

In such problems, it is customary to use either a horizontal or a

On such lines, movement to the right (or upward) is considered

the average velocity is

If a billiard ball is dropped from a height of 100 feet, its

where s is measured in feet and t is measured in seconds. Find

In other words, the velocity function is the derivative of the

where s0 is the initial height of the object, v0 is the initial velocity

On Earth, the value of g is approximately 32 feet per second

At time t = 0, a diver jumps from a platform

where s is measured in feet and t is

a. When does the diver hit the water?

16t2 + 16t + 32 = 0 Set position function equal to 0.

Because t 0, choose the positive value to conclude that

The velocity at time t is given by the derivative of

s(t) = 32t + 16.

So, the velocity at time t = 2

Another way of looking at this is that you can obtain an

The second derivative is an example of a higher-order

You can define derivatives of any positive integer order. For

Because the moon has no atmosphere, a falling object on the

where s(t) is the height in meters and t is the time in seconds.

s(t) = 0.81t2 + 2 Position function

s'(t) = 1.62t Velocity function

s"(t) = 1.62 Acceleration function

So, the acceleration due to gravity on the moon is 1.62

Because the acceleration due to gravity on Earth is 9.8

Basically, the Chain Rule states that if y changes