P - D F J , T A ANALYSIS O F BUILDING STEUCTURES

By Regina Gaiotti a n d B r y a n Stafford Smith 2

1
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ABSTRACT: The trend towards more slender and lighter building structures has
resulted in potentially more significant P-delta effects; this has led to the demand
for simple and accurate methods of P-delta analysis. Methods are reviewed and
compared in terms of their efficiency and accuracy. Considered roughly in their
order of sophistication, the methods reviewed include the amplification factor method,
the direct method, the iterative method, the negative property member methods,
and the second-order computer program method. In addition to these, a new method
similar to the iterative method, but based on analyses using the actual gravity load-
ing applied to successive deflected shapes, is presented. The results are identical
to those given by the iterative method, while the analysis takes less than one-third
of the time. Factors that differentiate the methods include their accuracy, ease of
use, whether they are for hand or computer use, and whether they are applicable
to all types of structures or only to certain types.

INTRODUCTION

When horizontal loading acts on a building, causing it to deflect, the re-

sulting eccentricity of the gravity loading from the inclined axes of the struc-
ture's vertical members causes the lateral displacements of the structure and
the moments in the members to increase. This second-order effect is termed
the P-delta effect.
In heavily clad low- and medium-rise structures, the P-delta effects are
small enough to be neglected. However, with the trend toward taller and
lightly clad buildings with greater lateral flexibility, the P-delta effects be-
come more significant. In some cases, the P-delta effects are large enough
to require an increase in the designed member sizes. In an extreme case of
a very flexible structure with a large gravity loading, the P-delta effects
could, if not accounted for, be severe enough to initiate collapse. Thus, in
the design of any high-rise building, it is important to assess whether these
second-order effects are significant and, if so, to account for them in the
analysis and design.
A first-order analysis of a building having the wind and gravity loads ap-
plied simultaneously does not consider the interaction of the two loadings,
namely, the effect of the gravity loading on the lateral load-induced deflec-
tions. Each loading is in effect considered separately and the results super-
imposed. Since the P-delta effects cannot be obtained in this way, a variety
of special techniques has been developed.
To the best of the writers' knowledge a comprehensive review and com-
parison of P-delta methods, including those developed recently, has not been
presented. The purpose of this paper is to provide such a review, to comment
on the theoretical validity of the various P-delta methods, and to compare
'Grad. Student, Dept. of Civ. Engrg. and Applied Mech., McGill Univ., Mac-
donald Engrg. Building, 817 Sherbrooke Str. W., Montreal, PQ, Canada H3A 2K6.
2
Prof., Dept. of Civ. Engrg. and Applied Mech., McGill Univ., Macdonald Engrg.
Bldg., 817 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, PQ, Canada H3A 2K6.
Note. Discussion open until September 1, 1989. To extend the closing date one
month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The
manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on March
1, 1988. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 115, No.
4, April, 1989. ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445/89/0004-0755/$1.00 + $.15 per page.
Paper No. 23346.

755

J. Struct. Eng. 1989.115:755-770.

 them in terms of their efficiency, accuracy, and practical value. The methods
are considered in, more or less, their chronological order of development.
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR METHOD
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This is an approximate method in which a factor is applied to the trans-

verse displacements and moments of a first-order lateral force analysis. The
amplification factor is derived by considering the action of any axially loaded
member with an initial transverse displacement such as the horizontally loaded
cantilever in Fig. 1. From the solution of the differential equation of the
deflection curve, the final deflection at the free end, including the F-delta
effect, can be approximated by the expression (Timoshenko and Gere 1961):
1
(1)

Pc,
where A* = final deflection at free end, including the /'-delta effect; A =
first order deflection; P = axial load at the free end of the cantilever; and
P = elastic buckling load of the cantilever. Eq. 1 indicates that, when an
axial load P is present, the free end deflection due to a uniform lateral load
only is increased by an approximate amplification factor
1
F= (2)
1 -

^^"7777777-

:
IG. 1. Flexura! Cantilever

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rrfrrr

(a) (b)
FIG. 2. Cantilevers with Uniformly Distributed Gravity Load: (a) Flexural; and (b)
Shear

The amplification factor method can be extended to a tall building struc-

ture, in which the gravity loading is distributed throughout the height, as
shown in Fig. 2. Although Eq. 1 was derived only for the maximum de-
flection at the free end of the cantilever, it is usually assumed in practice
that the factor can be applied without significant error at any point in the
height of the structure. Hence, for level i of a structure, the final deflection
is given by

A
* = Nl | (3)

where A* = final deflection, including the F-delta effect at level i in the

structure; A, = first order deflection at level i in the structure; P0 = total
gravity load at the base of the structure; and Pocr = elastic buckling load at
the base of the structure. The amplification factor in this method is a constant
over the height of the structure.
In a />-delta analysis, the relationship between the displacements and the
gravity loading is nonlinear; hence it is necessary that the loads correspond-
ing to the failure state be used in the analysis. Factored loads must be used
when checking ultimate limit states, while specified loads are used when
checking serviceability limit states. Further, the stiffness of members to be
used should correspond to the assumed failure state.
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J. Struct. Eng. 1989.115:755-770.

 By using the appropriate elastic buckling load, Pocr, at the base of the
structure, Eq. 3 can be applied to uniform shear wall structures at one ex-
treme, rigid frame structures at the other and, more approximately, to any
combination of shear walls and rigid frames in between. For structures buck-
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ling as a flexural cantilever under distributed axial loads, the elastic buckling
load is given by (Goldberg 1973):
7.83E/
Pocr = J, (1 - 0.30) (4)

where EI0 = flexural stiffness at the base of the structure; /(l (3) =
flexural stiffness at the top of the structure; and L = full height of the struc-
ture.
For rigid frames deforming primarily in the shear mode, when the columns
of the frame have rigid base connections, the buckling load can be derived
from Eq. 18 and Goldberg (1947) as

\2E\ 1 +
V 6G,
Pocr = (5a)
1 :

A, + -
VA 3G,y
and, when the columns have a pinned base connection
(5b)
12E
h.
A 2G
where E = modulus of elasticity; A, = first-story height; A = 2(/ c //i)i for
which the summation is carried out over all columns in the first story; and
Gj = S(/ g /0i for which the summation includes all the girders (of length /)
in the floor above the first story. For cases in which a combination of shear
and flexural modes may contribute to buckling, P0 may be determined very
approximately from the interaction formula (Goldberg 1973)
1 1 1
= -f-
(6)
p Pof Pa
* ocr
where Pocr = buckling load for the combined modes of buckling; Paj = buck-
ling load for the flexural mode of buckling; and Pos = buckling load for the
shear mode of buckling.
The .P-delta effect causes an increase not only in transverse displacements
but also in internal moments. It has been demonstrated (Timoshenko and
Gere 1961) that the amplification factor for the internal moments is the same
as for the deflections, thus

M* = M\ \ (7)

where Mf = final moment, including the P-delta effect at level i; in the

J. Struct. Eng. 1989.115:755-770.

 M= Vh +P6
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V + P<5*

M = Vh + VS
M= Vh + P<5*

(a) (b)

FIG. 3. Story Height Column

structure; and M, = first-order moment at level i in the structure.

The amplification factor method is a rapid but approximate method for
obtaining P-delta effects. However, rather than being a practical method for
determining the magnitude of the F-delta effects, it serves more as a guide
to whether or not the effects may be significant.

ITERATIVE METHOD

In this method the effect of the eccentric gravity loading on the structure
is transformed by stages into a fully equivalent lateral loading (Adams 1974).
By adding this equivalent lateral loading to the actual lateral loading on the
structure, a lateral load analysis of the building will give results which in-
clude the P-delta effects.
The P-delta effect is illustrated for a single-story-height column shown in
its displaced position in Fig. 3(a). The column is assumed to be straight
between its ends. This assumption implies that the only effect of the gravity
load, P, is to cause a moment at the end of the column of magnitude P8*.
The moment at the top or the bottom of the column in Fig. 3(a) is then
M* = Vh + P8*. (8)
759

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i-l>

FIG. 4. Increments of Equivalent Lateral Load

where M* = final moment, including the P-delta moment, at the top or

bottom of the column; V = lateral shear in the column; P = gravity load
on the column; 8* = final-story drift, including the P-delta story drift; and
h = story height.
The iterative method is based on the fact that, if the horizontal shear V is
increased by an amount Pb*/h, Fig. 3(b), a moment analysis of the column
would give the correct P-delta moment at its ends. Thus, Pb*/h is the equiv-
alent lateral shear that simulates the effect of the gravity load.
To obtain the P-delta moment at the column ends in a single operation,
the final story drift 8* would have to be known. Since the final story drift
is initially not known, the iterative method is begun with a Ph/h increment
based on the first-order drift, and the analysis repeated using successive val-
ues of story drift until the story drift converges to 8*.
The procedure described for a single column is easily extended to a mul-
tistory building. Fig. 4 shows successive stories of a multistory building
where i denotes the floor level. The increment of lateral shear in story i
equivalent to the eccentricity of the gravity loading in that story is given by
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J. Struct. Eng. 1989.115:755-770.

 where 2F,- = sum of the column and wall axial loads in story /; ht = height
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of story i; and A,-+1, A, = displacements of floor levels i + 1 and i from the

vertical, respectively.
The initial value for the displacements A would be obtained from a first-
order analysis of the building using the actual horizontal loads. The incre-
ments of equivalent story shears obtained from Eq. 9 produce the P-delta
moments at the ends of the columns and walls in story i. Thus, the increment
of equivalent lateral load which is to be added at floor (' is equal to the
difference between the story shears below and above that level, that is
H\ = V('_, - V, (10)
The increments of equivalent lateral loads H[ are used to augment the cor-
responding external lateral loads and the structure is reanalyzed. The process
is repeated for lateral loads augmented by increments based on the new val-
ues of the displacement until the values do not change significantly from
those of the previous iteration. The resulting moments and displacements in
the structure then include the P-delta effect. Normally, two or three iterations
are sufficient. If the results do not converge after five iterations, the structure
may be unstable {Handbook of Steel Construction 1980).
When using the iterative method, it is important to adhere strictly to the
conventions of Fig. 4 and to Eqs. 9 and 10 as they apply to Fig. 4. Story
i is defined as being above floor level i, and H\ is added to the external
load at floor level i. When using the iterative method, it is advisable, for
ease and speed, to tabulate the deflections and force increments working
from the top of the structure downwards.
Although the method gives results that are comparable with the high ac-
curacy of those from second-order programs, which will be discussed later,
it is too tedious to use for tall structures.

ITERATIVE GRAVITY LOAD METHOD

To avoid the extensive computational effort of the iterative incremental

lateral load method, a simpler and more realistic iterative method of P-delta
analysis is available for computer use (Stafford Smith and Gaiotti 1988).
After a first-order horizontal load analysis of the structure using a frame
analysis program, the gravity loads are applied to the unloaded structure,
specified as deflected by the first-order displacements A, to obtain an incre-
ment in displacement 8 n , Fig. 5(a). The gravity loads are then applied to
the structure specified as deflected by this increment to obtain another in-
crement in displacement 8,2 Fig. 5(b). The procedure is repeated until the
additional increment in displacement is negligible, Fig. 5(c). The final de-
flection, including the P-delta effect, at story ;', A*, is the sum of the first-
order displacement and all the additional displacements
Af = A,. + 8n + 8;2 + 8 a + (11)
The iterative process is required because when the vertical loads are applied,
they are not being applied to the final deflected shape. The final moment,
including the P-delta effect, at story i, Mf, is also obtained by adding the
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J. Struct. Eng. 1989.115:755-770.

 i
u
r i i i , S / g i2 2
13
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"* EM**-**

1
II
\l

1/

fTrrfT
(b) (c)

FIG. 5. Gravity Loading Applied to the Deflected Shape (A? = A, + 8(1 + 8,2 +
8,3 + )

first-order moment M, and the moments 8M, obtained in the additional in-
cremental analyses, that is
Mf = M, + bMn + 8Af,-2 + 8Ma + (12)
In practice, the method can be simplified by adding a full-height, axially
rigid fictitious column with a flexural stiffness equivalent to zero, and con-
necting it to the structure by axially rigid links, Fig. 6. Then the total gravity
loading at each floor is applied only to corresponding levels of the deflected
fictitious column in the same iterative manner as described above. In this
way, only the coordinates of the fictitious column, and not the entire struc-
ture, need to be altered. The results obtained by this method are identical
to those given by the iterative incremental lateral load method, while the
analysis can be performed in less than one-third of the time.

DIRECT METHOD

In this method, the iterations of the previous techniques are avoided by a

direct second-order adjustment in each story of the results of a first-order
lateral load analysis by a factor based on the gravity loading and the lateral
stiffness of the story.
As shown in the development of the iterative method, the effect of su-
perimposing a total vertical load P, on the set of displaced columns of the
rth story is to increase the external shear 5, in story i by the amount (Gold-
berg 1974)
7RP

J. Struct. Eng. 1989.115:755-770.

 Fictitious
Column
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^il etc. as for

. Figure 5

FIG. 6. Gravity Loading Applied to Deflected Fictitious Column (Af = A, + 8 +

8,-2 + 8,3 + . . .)

P,8f
85, = -r2- (13)

where 8* = final drift within the ith story, including the P-delta effect.
When horizontal loads only are acting, the shear stiffness of the ith story
of a frame can be expressed as
5,
K* =r (14)
o,
where 8, = first order lateral drift in the ith story.
The P-delta effect in the final deflected state can be represented by the
initial shear 5, in story i and the increment 85, given in Eq. 13 to give an
effective total shear in the ith story of
P 8*
St = S, + 85,- = 5,- + -L-L (15)
hi

Assuming for a frame that the story drift is proportional only to the shear
in the story, then
St = 8 ] X (16)
Substituting this into Eq. 15, the final story drift in the ith story, including
763

J. Struct. Eng. 1989.115:755-770.

 the P-delta effect, is given by (Goldberg 1974)

\S, +
' h,
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8* = (17)

which, by substituting for Ksi from Eq. 14, provides the solution for the final
story drift

8? (18)
'Ph
1- | ^
,Stht
Then the total lateral displacement at story /, including the P-delta effect is

A? = 2 8* (19>
Eqs. 18 and 19 allow the approximate final displacements, which include
the P-delta effect, to be obtained from a first-order horizontal load analysis.
The factor 1/[1 - ( P . S . / ^ / J , ) ] in Eq. 18 varies throughout the height of the
structure as a nonlinear function of the gravity loading.
Similarly, the final moments Mf in the members of the jth story, which
include the F-delta effect, can be approximated from the moments M, of the
first-order horizontal load analysis as follows
Mi
Mf = Tr^: (20)
\s,h,
The direct method gives accurate and efficient results for low- or medium-
rise rigid frames. However, the assumption used in the derivation of the
method, that the story drift is proportional only to the shear at that level,
Eq. 16, is not valid for structures that deflect significantly in overall flexure.
The practical method of P-delta analysis developed by LeMessurier (1977)
for analyzing one-story rigid frames and multistory frames that are reason-
ably regular from floor to floor is essentially the direct method. Hence, it
is also limited to structures deforming primarily in a shear mode.

NEGATIVE PROPERTY FICTITIOUS MEMBER METHODS

In the following methods proposed by Rutenberg (1981), the structural

model is modified so that, when it is analyzed for horizontal loading, the
deflections and moments include the F-delta effects. The modification con-
sists of adding a fictitious column having negative lateral stiffness properties
proportional to the story gravity-loading. Its effect is to reduce the horizontal
stiffness of each story so that the resulting increased deflection and the in-
creased member moments are a function of the gravity loading as well as
of the lateral loading.
A method using a similar principle was developed earlier by Nixon et al.
764

J. Struct. Eng. 1989.115:755-770.

 (1975), whereby a fictitious diagonal brace with a negative area is inserted
in each story to provide the reduction in lateral stiffness of the structure
corresponding to the P-delta effect. However, the applicability of this tech-
nique is limited to buildings in which axial deformations of the columns are
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negligible because the fictitious diagonal members introduce vertical com-

ponents of force and stiffness which affect those deformations.
To consider the basis of the fictitious column method, refer to Fig. 4. The
increments of horizontal load H' which are equivalent to the P-delta action
of the gravity loads and are calculated as for the iterative method, can be
written in a matrix formulation as

Po P,
0 0 . 0 Af
m h0 hi hi
Pi Pi Pi
0 . 0 A?
m hi hi h2 hi
Pi Pz
0 0 A?
m hi hi h2 hi
> = - \ (21)
JVi P,
Hi 0 0 0 0 .
hi-1 h,

fi-i Pn
H' 0 0 0 0 0 A?
+

This formulation was presented for the transverse forces due to axial loads
on a beam structure by Clough and Panzien (1975), while Nair (1975) pre-
sented it as pertaining to the P-delta analysis of multistory buildings.
Eq. 21 can be written as
{H'} = [Kg]{A*} (22)
where P, = sum of column axial forces in story i; ht = story height above
level /; Af = final lateral displacement of level i, including the P-delta ef-
fect; and [Kg] = geometric stiffness matrix.
By adding the increments of horizontal load due to the gravity loading to
the external lateral forces H acting on the structure, the following expression
is obtained
{H} + {H1} = [K]{A*} ; (23)
where [K] = first-order lateral stiffness matrix.
Substituting Eq. 22 into Eq. 23, and rearranging, gives the equilibrium
equations of the system
{H} = [K - KS]{A*} = [KJ{A*} (24)
where [KJ = second-order stiffness matrix.
Referring to Fig. 4 again, the expression for the additional shear force,

V, = f'(A, +1 - A , ) . (25)

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J. Struct. Eng. 1989.115:755-770.

 Fictitious Shear
' Column
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->

0-

0-

nnrr Trtrrr
FIG. 7. (a) Fictitious Shear Column Model

comprises the product of (A,+i - A,), a deflection, and Pi/h,, a stiffness.

Therefore by introducing a full-height fictitious column with a lateral stiff-
ness equal to -P,/hh and connecting it to the structure by axially rigid links,
as shown in Fig. 7(a), a first-order computer program will generate all the
terms of the second-order stiffness matrix in Eq. 24. The required stiffness
of a shear column is defined in story i by (Rutenberg 1981)
GK, -Pi
(26)
h> h,
to give
-Pi
A = (27)
G
where As, = shear area of the fictitious shear column in story i; and G =
shear modulus of the fictitious shear column.
If the analysis program does not allow the assignment of a shear area, the
same result may be achieved by using a rotation-fixed, translation-free, flex-
ural column, Fig. 1(b), with its horizontal stiffness set equal to the required
reduction (Rutenberg 1981), that is
127 -Pi
(28)
hi
to give
-Pih]
J. = (29)
12E
where /, = flexural inertia of the fictitious column in story i; and E = mod-
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J. Struct. Eng. 1989.115:755-770.

 o 0^^ / Fictitious Flexural
U^ Column
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Tfr frr

rfr M"

-os fp

77T" *fer

yyfpf" frrrr
FIG. 7. (/)) Fictitious Flexural Column Model

ulus of elasticity of the fictitious column.

The method is accurate in assessing P-delta effects and is efficient in not
requiring iterations. Rutenberg subsequently extended the method to allow
direct second-order analyses of three-dimensional asymmetric building struc-
tures, (Rutenberg 1982). In such cases, the geometric stiffness of the struc-
ture is modeled as a fictitious column, with negative lateral and torsional
stiffness properties, and is located in each story at the centroid of the column
loads in the story.

SIGNIFICANCE OF COLUMN BENDING EFFECT

The action of the gravity load acting through the deflected shape of the
column results in two second-order effects. The most significant second-
order effect, which has been the subject of this paper so far, is the end
moment produced by the gravity load acting eccentrically over the story drift.
The other second-order effect is the reduction in flexural stiffness of the
columns due to the column load, which acts along the straight line joining
the column ends, being eccentric from the flexurally deformed shape of the
columns. In the methods described, the additional effect has not been ac-
counted for.
Exact, second-order computer programs which consider equilibrium of the
deformed structure, thus giving results that include the additional moments
and deflections caused by the action of the axial loads on the deflected shape
of the structure, do exist. For these programs, the second-order stiffness
matrix is formulated to account for the two sources of second-order effect
mentioned in the previous paragraph. The procedures performed by these
programs are iterative and, therefore, slower and more costly to run than the
negative property column method. In general, such programs with second-
order analysis capability are not readily available.
767

J. Struct. Eng. 1989.115:755-770.

 The negative property column method proposed by Rutenberg (1981), and
described in the previous section, can be modified to include the column
bending effect. It is accounted for in an approximate manner by multiplying
the negative stiffness of the fictitious column by a factor. The factor is a
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ratio of the shear force for the bending column to the shear force for the
straight column approximation (Rutenberg 1981).
Although the additional effect due to column bending can in an extreme
case be as large as 20% of the P-delta effect (Rutenberg 1981), in most
practical designs the effect is not significant. Hence, it is usually adequate
to consider only the vertical eccentricity effect of the gravity loading.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The trend towards slender and more efficient building structures has re-
sulted in more significant P-delta effects, which has led to the demand for
simple and accurate methods of P-delta analysis.
The following recommendations and comments are made by the writers
on the basis of their study and use of the various P-delta methods of analysis:

1. If a second-order computer program in which equilibrium is formulated for

the deformed structure is available, it provides the most accurate method of ob-
taining P-delta effects.

Second-order programs are presently not readily available in design of-

fices, and can be expensive to run; however, a method which uses a first-
order analysis program can be used in almost all situations with acceptably
accurate results.
If the first-order analysis program is capable of accepting negative member
properties:

2. The negative property column method is the best method of assessing P-

delta effects. It requires no iterations and, even when the column bending effect
is not included, only slightly underestimates the results given by a second-order
program. The method can be used for structures deforming in a shear mode, or
a flexural mode, or any combination thereof.

If the first-order program is not capable of accepting negative member

properties, then:

3. For flexurally deforming structures and tall frames, it is suggested that the
iterative gravity load method be used. It gives results as accurate as the iterative
method, in which the gravity load is transformed to an equivalent horizontal
load, but it can be applied more easily and rapidly. It is applicable to all types
of structures.
4. The direct method and the method proposed by LeMessurier (1977), in
which the results of a lateral force analysis are increased by a nonlinear factor,
give accurate and efficient results. These methods apply however, only to struc-

768

J. Struct. Eng. 1989.115:755-770.

 tures, such as low- to medium-rise rigid frames, having a shear mode of defor-
mation. The assumption used in the derivation of the methods, that the story
drift is proportional only to the shear in that story, is invalid for structures having
a significant flexural response. Although the direct method is very efficient for
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medium-rise shear deforming structures, for taller ones the iterative gravity load
method is more rapid and accurate.

The following conclusions are also drawn from this report:

5. The iterative method, in which the gravity load is transformed to an equiv-

alent additional horizontal load, gives very accurate results for both shear and
flexurally deforming structures. However, it is too tedious to perform for tall
structures.
6. The amplification factor method is a rapid, but very approximate, method
for assessing P-delta effects. Its practical use is limited to making an estimate
of whether P-delta effects are likely to be significant and whether a more ac-
curate P-delta analysis is necessary.
7. The negative property column method can be extended to enable a direct
second-order analysis of asymmetric building structures to be made.
8. Second-order effects due to column bending are very rarely significant in
practical structures and generally may be neglected in the analysis.
9. Due to the nonlinear relationship between the deflections and the gravity
loads, it is necessary that loads corresponding to the failure state under consid-
eration be used in a P-delta analysis. The member stiffnesses assumed in the
analysis should also correspond to the level of loading being considered.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writers wish to record their appreciation of the support given to this
study by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
The writers also acknowledge the valuable discussions they held on this topic
with Dr. Patrick Paultre and Mr. Andrew Philip.

APPENDIX I. REFERENCES

Adams, P. F. (1974). The design of steel beam-columns. Can. Steel Industries Con-
struction Council, Willowdale, Ont., Can.
Clough, R. W., and Penzien, J. (1975). Dynamics of structures. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York, N.Y.
Goldberg, J. E. (1947). "Analysis of two-column symmetrical bents and Vierendeel
trusses having parallel and equal chords." J. Am. Cone. Inst., 19(3), 225-234.
Goldberg, J. E. (1973). "Approximate methods for stability and frequency analysis
of tall buildings." Proc. of the Regional Conference on Tall Buildings, Madrid,
Spain, 123-146.
Goldberg, J. E. (1974). "Approximate methods in stress and stability analysis of tall
building frames." Proc. of the Regional Conference on Tall Buildings, Bangkok,
Thailand, 177-194.
Handbook of steel construction, (1980). 3rd Ed., Can. Inst, of Steel Constr., Wil-
lowdale, Ont., Can., 4-21.
LeMessurier, W. J. (1977). "A practical method of second order analysis." AISC
Engrg. J., 14(2), 49-67.
Nair, R. S. (1975). "Overall elastic stability of multistory buildings." J. Struct. Div.,
ASCE, 101(12), 2487-2503.

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 Nixon, D., Beaulieu, D., and Adams, P. F. (1975). "Simplified second order frame
analysis." Can. J. Civ. Engrg., 2(4), 602-605.
Rutenberg, A. (1981). "A direct P-delta analysis using standard plane frame com-
puter programs." Comput. Struct., 14(1-2), 97-102.
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Rutenberg, A. (1982). "Simplified P-delta analyses for asymmetric structures." J.

Struct. Div., ASCE, 108(9), 1995-2013.
Stafford Smith, B., and Gaiotti, R. (1988). "Iterative gravity load method for P-
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Timoshenko, S. P., and Gere, J. M. (1961). Theory of elastic stability, 2nd Ed.,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y.

APPENDIX II. NOTATION

The following symbols are used in this paper:
As = shear area;
E = modulus of elasticity;
F = amplification factor;
G = shear modulus;
H = external lateral forces;
H' = increments of lateral loads;
h = story height;
A, = first story height;
/ = flexural inertia;
Ks = shear stiffness;
[K] = first order lateral stiffness matrix;
[K,] = geometric stiffness matrix;
[KJ = second order stiffness matrix;
L = full height of structure;
I = length of girder;
M = moment;
M* = final moment, including P-delta effect;
P = axial or gravity load;
Per = critical buckling load;
Pof = critical buckling load for flexural mode;
Pos = critical buckling load for shear mode;
s = external shear;
s* = total shear, including P-delta effect;
V = lateral shear;
V = increment of lateral shear;
=
(3 1 - (ratio of flexural inertia at top of structure to flexural
inertia at the base of structure);
A = deflection;
A* = final deflection, including P-delta effect;
8 = story drift;
8* = final story drift, including P-delta effect; and
8/i, 8,2 = additional displacements at level i.
Subscripts
c = column;
g = girder;
i, i + 1 = levels i, i + 1, etc.; and
0 = at the base.
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