Vectors 1

Chapter

0
Vectors
Introduction of Vector (5) Zero vector (0) : A vector having zero
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction magnitude and arbitrary direction (not known to us) is a
and obeying laws of vector algebra are called vectors. zero vector.
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, (6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude
momentum, force, impulse, weight, thrust, torque, is a unit vector. Unit vector for A is A (read as A cap or
angular momentum, angular velocity etc. A hat).
If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction
both, then it does not always imply that it is a vector. A
Since, A .
A AA
For it to be a vector the third condition of obeying laws A
of vector algebra has to be satisfied. Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the
Example : The physical quantity current has both direction.
magnitude and direction but is still a scalar as it (7) Orthogonal unit vectors
i ,
j and k are
disobeys the laws of vector algebra. y
called orthogonal unit vectors.
Types of Vector These vectors must form a Right
Handed Triad (It is a coordinate j
(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors A and B are said
system such that when we Curl x
to be equal when they have equal magnitudes and same
the fingers of right hand from x to k
direction.
y then we must get the direction
i
z
Fig. 0.1
(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors A and B are of z along thumb). The
said to be parallel when
x y z
i , j ,k
(i) Both have same direction. x y z
(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero
multiple of another vector.
x x i , y yj , z zk
(8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or
(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors A and
point of application . Example displacement and force
B are said to be anti-parallel when etc.
(i) Both have opposite direction. (9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational
(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple effects and are always along the axis of rotation in
of another vector. accordance with right hand screw rule. Angular velocity,
torque and angular momentum, etc., are example of
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under
physical quantities of this type.
consideration can share the same support or have a
Axial vector Axis of rotation
common support then the considered vectors are
collinear.

Anticlock wise Clock wise rotation

rotation
Axis of rotation Axial vector
 2 Vectors
If two non zero vectors are represented by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the resultant
is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing
Fig. 0.2 through the point of intersection of the two vectors.
(10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors (1) Magnitude
are called coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane.
Since, R 2 ON 2 CN 2
Two (free) vectors are always coplanar.
Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors R 2 (OA AN)2 CN 2
If two non zero vectors are represented by the two R 2 A 2 B2 2AB cos
sides of a triangle taken B
in same order then the R | R | | A B | A 2 B 2 2AB cos
resultant is given by the R A B
B C
closing side of triangle in
B
opposite order. i.e.
O A R AB
R A B A B B sin
Fig. 0.3 B
OB OA AB

O A N
A B cos
(1) Magnitude of resultant vector
Fig. 0.5
AN
In ABN, cos AN B cos Special cases : R A B when = 0o
B
BN R A B when = 180o
sin BN B sin
B R A 2 B 2 when = 90
o

In OBN, we have OB 2 ON 2 BN 2 (2) Direction

B
CN B sin
R tan
B B sin ON A B cos
Polygon Law of Vector Addition
O A A N
If a number of non zero vectors are represented by
B
Fig. 0.4 cos
the (n 1) sides of an n-sided polygon then the
resultant is given by the closing side or the nth side of
R 2 (A B cos )2 (B sin )2 the polygon taken in opposite order. So,
R 2 A 2 B 2 cos2 2AB cos B2 sin2 R A BC D E

R 2 A 2 B 2(cos2 sin2 ) 2AB cos OA AB BC CD DE OE

R 2 A2 B 2 2AB cos D D C

R A 2 B 2 2AB cos E C

(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If is E B

angle between A and B, then

| A B| A 2 B 2 2AB cos B

If R makes an angle with A, then in O A

A
OBN,
Fig. 0.6
BN BN Note : Resultant of two unequal vectors can
tan not be zero.
ON OA AN
Resultant of three co-planar vectors may
B sin
tan or may not be zero
A B cos
Resultant of three non co- planar vectors
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition can not be zero.
 Vectors 3
Subtraction of vectors Since R and are usually known, Equation (ii) and
(iii) give the magnitude of the components of R along
Since, A B A ( B) and x and y-axes respectively.
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved
| A B| A 2 B 2 2AB cos
into its components, the components themselves can be
| A B| A 2 B 2 2AB cos(180o ) used to specify the vector as
(1) The magnitude of the vector R is obtained by
Since, cos(180 ) cos
squaring and adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.
| A B| A 2 B 2 2AB cos
R Rx2 Ry2

R sum A B
(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by
dividing equation (iii) by (ii), i.e.
B
tan (Ry / Rx ) or tan1(Ry / Rx )
1
2 A
Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector
180
B
R R x R y R z q or R Rx
i Ryj Rzk

R dif A ( B)
Fig. 0.7

Ry R
B sin Rx
tan 1
A B cos
Rz
X
B sin(180 )
and tan 2 Z
A B cos(180 ) Fig. 0.9

But sin(180 ) sin and If R makes an angle with x axis, with y axis
180 ) cos
cos( and with z axis, then

B sin R R
tan 2 cos R
x x
l
A B cos
Rx Ry2 Rz2
2

Resolution of Vector Into Components

y Ry R
Consider a vector R in X-Y cos R m
plane as shown in fig. If we draw
Y Rx Ry2 Rz2
2

orthogonal vectors R x and R y

R R
cos R
z z
along x and y axes respectively, Ry R n
by law of vector addition, Rx Ry2 Rz2
2

R Rx R X
y Rx Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the
Fig. 0.8 vector R and
Now as for any vector

A An so, R x i Rx and R y jRy

l 2 m2 n2
so R
i Rx jRy 2 2 2 Rx2 Ry2 Rz2
cos cos cos 1
(i) Rx2 Ry2 Rz2
But from figure Rx R cos
(ii) Note : When a point P have coordinate
(x, y, z) then its position vector OP x
i y
j zk
and Ry R sin (iii)
When a particle moves from point (x1,
y1, z1) to (x2, y2, z2) then its displacement vector
 4 Vectors

A . B (iAx jAy kAz ).(iBx jBy kBz )
r (x2 x1)
i (y2 y1)j (z2 z1)k
[Ax Bx Ay By AZ Bz ]
Scalar Product of Two Vectors
(3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for constant
(1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot
force work is defined as, W Fs cos
product) of two vectors is defined as the product of the
magnitude of two vectors with cosine of angle between (i)
them. But by definition of scalar product of two vectors,
F . s Fs cos
Thus if there are two vectors A and B having
(ii)
angle between them, then their scalar product
written as A . B is defined as A . B AB cos So from eqn (i) and (ii) W F .s i.e. work is the
scalar product of force with displacement.
(2) Properties : (i) It is always a
scalar which is positive if angle B (ii) Power P :
between the vectors is acute (i.e., < dW ds
90) and negative if angle between As W F .s or F.
dt dt
them is obtuse (i.e. 90< < 180).
[As F is constant]
(ii) It is commutative, i.e. A
A. B B. A
or P F .v i.e., power is the scalar product of
Fig. 0.10
(iii) It is distributive, i.e.

A .(B C) A . B A . C force with velocity. ds
dW ds B
(iv) As by definition A . B AB cos
As P and v

dt dt

The angle between the vectors

A. B (iii) Magnetic Flux :
cos1
O
AB
Magnetic flux through an
area is given by
(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum
d B dscos (i) Fig. 0.11
when cos max 1, i.e. 0o , i.e., vectors are
parallel But by definition of scalar product
B . d s Bdscos ...(ii)
(A . B)max AB
So from eqn (i) and (ii) we have
(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum
when | cos | min 0, i.e. 90o d B . d s or B. ds

(A . B)min 0 (iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric

dipole of moment p is situated in an electric field E
i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors
or a magnetic dipole of moment M in a field of
vanishes the vectors are orthogonal.
induction B, the potential energy of the dipole is given
(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is
termed as self dot product and is given by by :

(A)2 A . A AA cos A 2 U E p. E and U B M . B

i.e. A A. A Vector Product of Two Vectors

(viii) In case of unit vector n (1) Definition : The vector product or cross
product of two vectors is defined as a vector having a
.n
n 1 1 cos0 1 so magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of

.n
n i .
i
j . .k
j k 1 two vectors with the sine of angle between them, and
direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two
(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors
i,
j and vectors in accordance with right hand screw rule.
k,
i .
j k
j .k .
i 1 1 cos90 0 C A B
(x) In terms of components Thus, if A and B are two vectors, then their
vector product written as A B is a vector C defined
by
 Vectors 5
C A B AB sin n
(vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector
by itself vanishes, i.e., is null vector
A A AA sin0o n
0

(vii) In case of unit vector 0 so that

n
n

i k
i j j k 0

(viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors,

i,
j, k
in accordance with right hand screw rule :
Fig. 0.12

j j
The direction of A B, i.e. C is perpendicular
to the plane containing vectors A and B and in the
sense of advance of a right handed screw rotated from k
A (first vector) to B (second vector) through the i i
smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right handed
screw whose axis is perpendicular to the plane framed k Fig. 0.13
by A and B is rotated from A to B through the
smaller angle between them, then the direction of
i ,
j k
jk i
and k i
j
advancement of the screw gives the direction of A B And as cross product is not commutative,
i.e. C

j , k
i k
j
i and
i k j
(2) Properties
(x) In terms of components
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a
vector perpendicular to the plane containing these two i j k
vectors, i.e., orthogonal to both the vectors A and A B Ax Ay Az
B, though the vectors A and B may or may not be Bx By Bz
orthogonal.
(ii) Vector product of two vectors is not
i (Ay Bz Az By )
commutative, i.e., A B B A [but B A] (A B A B )
j(Az Bx A x Bz ) k x y y x

Here it is worthy to note that (3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors
| A B|| B A| AB sin is a vector, vector physical quantities (particularly
representing rotational effects) like torque, angular
i.e. in case of vector A B and B A momentum, velocity and force on a moving charge in a
magnitudes are equal but directions are opposite. magnetic field and can be expressed as the vector
product of two vectors. It is well established in physics
(iii) The vector product is distributive when the
that :
order of the vectors is strictly maintained, i.e.
(i) Torque r F
A (B C) A B A C
(ii) Angular momentum L r p
(iv) The vector product of two vectors will be
maximum when sin max 1, i.e., 90o (iii) Velocity v r
(iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with

[A B]max AB n
velocity v in a magnetic field B is given by
i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are F q(v B)
orthogonal.
(v) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be (v) Torque on a dipole in a field E p E and
minimum when | sin | minimum = 0, i.e., B M B
o o
0 or 180 Lami's Theorem
[ A B]min 0 In any A B C with sides a, b, c
180
i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors sin sin sin
vanishes, the vectors are collinear.
a b c
c b

180

180 a

Fig. 0.14
 6 Vectors

Now to find the velocity of a moving object relative

to another moving object, consider a particle P whose

position relative to frame S is r
PS
while relative to S

is r .
PS
i.e. for any triangle the ratio of the sine of the
angle containing the side to the length of the side is a If the position of frames S relative to S at any
constant.

time is r then from figure, r r r
For a triangle whose three sides are in the same SS PS PS SS
order we establish the Lami's theorem in the following
Differentiating this equation with respect to time
manner. For the triangle shown

a b c 0 [All three sides are taken in order] drPS drPS drSS

(i) dt dt dt
a b c
(ii)
or vPS vPS vSS [as
Pre-multiplying both sides by a
v dr /dt ]
a (a b) a c 0 a b a c

a b c a (iii) or vPS vPS vSS
Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by b (2) General Formula : The relative velocity of a

b (a b) b c b a b b b c particle P1 moving with velocity v with respect to
1

a b b c a b b c another particle P2 moving with velocity v is given by,
2
(iv)

From (iii) and (iv), we get a b b c c a v r12 = v1 v2
Taking magnitude, we get
v1
| a b| | b c| | c a|
v2
180 ) bcsin(
absin( 180 ) casin(
180 ) P2

absin bcsin casin P1

Fig. 0.16
Dividing through out by abc, we have (i) If both the particles are moving in the same
sin sin sin direction then :

a b c r12 1 2
Relative Velocity (ii) If the two particles are moving in the opposite
direction, then :
(1) Introduction : When we consider the motion
of a particle, we assume a fixed point relative to which r12 1 2
the given particle is in motion. For example, if we say
(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually
that water is flowing or wind is blowing or a person is
perpendicular directions, then:
running with a speed v, we mean that these all are
relative to the earth (which we have assumed to be
r12 12 22
fixed).
Y
Y P (iv) If the angle between and
1 2 be , then

r
PS'

r12 12 22 21 2 cos 1/ 2
.
r
PS
X
S
rS' S
S X
Fig. 0.15
 Vectors 7
(3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of

moving in equatorial plane with velocity v and a point water, vM v vR
s

(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is

on the surface of earth with v relative to the centre of
e
flowing with velocity r . A man can swim in still water
earth, the velocity of satellite relative to the surface of
earth with velocity m . He is standing on one bank of the
river and wants to cross the river, two cases arise.

vse vs v e (i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That
is to cross the river straight, the man should swim
So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the
making angle with the upstream as shown.
direction of rotation of earth on its axis) its velocity

A vr B
relative to earth's surface will be vse vs ve

And if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e.,
vr
opposite to the motion of earth, w v
vm
vse vs (ve) vs ve

(4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is falling Upstream O Downstrea
m
vertically with a velocity v and an observer is moving Fig. 0.18
R
Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which

horizontally with speed v the velocity of rain relative
M OA vm, AB r . Their resultant is given by OB
. The direction of swimming makes angle with
to observer will be v
RM vR vM upstream. From the triangle OBA, we find,

which by law of vector addition has magnitude r r

cos Also sin
2 2
m m
vRM vR vM
Where is the angle made by the direction of
direction tan1(vM / vR ) with the vertical as swimming with the shortest distance (OB) across the
shown in fig. river.
Time taken to cross the river : If w be the width of
vM
vR the river, then time taken to cross the river will be given
vR

vR by
vM vM
w w
t1
2
m r2
Fig. 0.17

(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time : The

man should swim perpendicular to the bank.
(5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a man can The time taken to cross the river will be:

swim relative to water with velocity v and water is w
t2
flowing relative to ground with velocity v velocity of
m
R
A vr B

man relative to ground v will be given by:
M

vr
w vm
v vM vR , i.e., vM v vR

So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of

water, vM v vR Upstream O Downstrea
m
Fig. 0.19
 8 Vectors
In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank
i .
i
j . .k
1
j k
at a distance AB down stream. This distance will be

i k
i j j k 0
given by:

i ,
j k
jk
i, k i
j
w
AB r t2 r or AB r w k
.
m m
i .
j
j .k i 0

A A 0 . Also A A 0 But A A A A

Because A A A and A A is collinear with

A
Multiplication of a vector with 1 reverses its
direction.
All physical quantities having direction are not
B
If A B , then A = B and A .
vectors. For example, the electric current possesses

direction but it is a scalar quantity because it can not B
If A B 0 , then A = B but A .
be added or multiplied according to the rules of
vector algebra. Minimum number of collinear vectors whose
resultant can be zero is two.
A vector can have only two rectangular
components in plane and only three rectangular Minimum number of coplaner vectors whose
components in space. resultant is zero is three.
A vector can have any number, even infinite Minimum number of non coplaner vectors whose
components. (minimum 2 components) resultant is zero is four.
Following quantities are neither vectors nor Two vectors are perpendicular to each other if

scalars : Relative density, density, viscosity, A.B 0 .
frequency, pressure, stress, strain, modulus of
elasticity, poissons ratio, moment of inertia, specific Two vectors are parallel to each other if

heat, latent heat, spring constant loudness, A B 0.
resistance, conductance, reactance, impedance, Displacement, velocity, linear momentum and
permittivity, dielectric constant, permeability, force are polar vectors.
susceptibility, refractive index, focal length, power of
lens, Boltzman constant, Stefans constant, Gas Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and
constant, Gravitational constant, Rydberg constant, angular momentum are axial vectors.
Plancks constant etc. Division with a vector is not defined because it is
Distance covered is a scalar quantity. not possible to divide with a direction.
The displacement is a vector quantity. Distance covered is always positive quantity.
Scalars are added, subtracted or divided The components of a vectors can have magnitude
algebraically. than that of the vector itself.
Vectors are added and subtracted geometrically. The rectangular components cannot have
magnitude greater than that of the vector itself.
Division of vectors is not allowed as directions
cannot be divided. When we multiply a vector with 0 the product
Unit vector gives the direction of vector. becomes a null vector.

Magnitude of unit vector is 1. The resultant of two vectors of unequal

magnitude can never be a null vector.
Unit vector has no unit. For example, velocity of
an object is 5 ms1 due East. Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add
up to give a null vector.
i.e. v 5ms1 due east.
A quantity having magnitude and direction is not
necessarily a vector. For example, time and electric
v 5ms1(East)

v East current. These quantities have magnitude and
| v| 5ms1 direction but they are scalar. This is because they do
So unit vector v has no unit as East is not a physical not obey the laws of vector addition.
quantity. A physical quantity which has different values in
different directions is called a tensor. For example :
Unit vector has no dimensions.
 Vectors 9
Moment of inertia has different values in different order, then

directions. Hence moment of inertia is a tensor. Other | A| | B | | C |
examples of tensor are refractive index, stress, strain,
ab bc ca
density etc. is equally inclined to the
The vectors
i j k
The magnitude of rectangular components of a coordinate axes at an angle of 54.74 degrees.
vector is always less than the magnitude of the vector
If A B C , then A . B C 0 .

If A B , then Ax Bx , Ay By and Az Bz If A . B C 0 , then A . B and C are
. coplanar.

If angle between A and B is 45,
If A B C . Or if A B C 0 , then A, B
then A . B | A B |
and C lie in one plane.
If A1 A2 A3 ...... An 0 and
If A B C , then C is perpendicular to A as
A1 A2 A3 ...... An then the adjacent vector
well as B .
are inclined to each other at angle 2 / n .
If | A B | | A B | , then angle between A

and B is 90. If A B C and A2 B2 C 2 , then the angle

Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when between A and B is 90. Also A, B and C can have
= 0 i.e. vectors are parallel. the following values.
(i) A = 3, B = 4, C = 5
Rmax P 2 Q 2 2PQ cos0 | P Q | (ii) A = 5, B = 12, C = 13
Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when (iii) A = 8, B = 15, C = 17.
= 180 i.e. vectors are anti-parallel.
Rmin P 2 Q2 2PQ cos180 | P Q |
Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors
is equal to the difference of their magnitude.
Thus, maximum value of the resultant of two
vectors is equal to the sum of their magnitude.
When the magnitudes of two vectors are unequal,
then
Rmin P Q 0

[| P || Q |]

Thus, two vectors P and Q having different
magnitudes can never be combined to give zero
resultant. From here, we conclude that the minimum
number of vectors of unequal magnitude whose
resultant can be zero is three. On the other hand, the
minimum number of vectors of equal magnitude
whose resultant can be zero is two.

Angle between two vectors A and B is given
by

A.B
cos
| A | | B|

Projection of a vector A in the direction of

vector B

A.B

| B|

Projection of a vector B in the direction of vector

A

A.B

| A|

If vectors A, B andC are represented by
three sides ab, bc and ca respectively taken in a