DOI: 10.
1007/s00267-004-0385-2
PROFILE
Revegetation Strategies for Bauxite Refinery Residue:
A Case Study of Alcan Gove in Northern Territory,
Australia
J. BERNHARD WEHR
School of Land and Food Sciences
The University of Queensland
St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
IAN FULTON
Alcan Gove Pty Ltd
PO Box 21
Nhulunbuy, NT 0881, Australia
NEAL W. MENZIES*
School of Land and Food Sciences
The University of Queensland
St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
ABSTRACT / Alumina extraction from bauxite ore with
strong alkali produces waste bauxite refinery residue con-
sisting of residue sand and red mud. The amount and
composition of refinery residue depend on the purity of the
bauxite ore and extraction conditions, and differs between
refineries. The refinery residue is usually stored in engi-
neered disposal areas that eventually have to be revege-
Alumina is extracted from bauxite ore with sodium
hydroxide under high temperature and pressure
(Bayer process). The waste remaining after alumina
extraction is termed bauxite refinery residue and con-
sists mainly of iron-, aluminium-, and titanium-oxides
(Table 1), as well as reactive silica (clay minerals) that
forms a sodium alumino-silicate, also termed desilica-
tion product (DSP) (Piga and others 1993; Whittington
and others 1998; Hausberg and others 2000). World-
wide production of alumina was estimated at 52.5
million metric tons in 2003, with Australia contributing
about one third of global alumina production (Inter-
national Aluminum Institute 2003). Between 0.6 and 4
KEY WORDS: Rehabilitation; Red mud; Residue sand; Gypsum;
Drainage; Capillary rise
Published online January 24, 2006.
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; email:
n.menzies@uq.edu.au
Environmental Management Vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 297306
tated. This is challenging because of the alkaline and sodic
nature of the residue. At Alcan Gove's bauxite refinery in
Gove, Northern Territory, Australia, research into revegeta-
tion of bauxite residue has been conducted since the mid-
1970s. In this review, we discuss approaches taken by Al-
can Gove to achieve revegetation outcomes (soil capping of
refinery residue) on wet-slurry disposal areas. Problems
encountered in the past include poor drainage and water
logging during the wet season, and salt scalding and cap-
illary rise during the dry season. The amount of available
water in the soil capping is the most important determinant
of vegetation survival in the seasonally dry climate. Vege-
tation cover was found to prevent deterioration of the soil
cover by minimising capillary rise of alkalinity from the
refinery residue. The sodicity and alkalinity of the residue in
old impoundments has diminished slightly over the 25 years
since it was deposited. However, development of a blocky
structure in red mud, presumably due to desiccation, allows
root penetration, thereby supplying additional water to salt
and alkali-tolerant plant species. This has led to the estab-
lishment of an ecosystem that approaches a native
woodland.
tons (dry) of refinery residue is produced per ton of
aluminium metal, depending on the purity of the ore
(Williams 1996; TAA 2000).
An estimated 70 million metric dry tons of residue is
produced globally per year and is disposed on land in
large residue disposal areas (tailings dams), either as
wet slurry or de-watered and dry-stacked (TAA 2000).
Several uses for bauxite refinery residue have been
investigated, including waste water purification (Haake
1988; Glenister and others 1992; Apak and others 1998;
Lopez and others 1998; TAA 2000; Gupta and Sharma
2002; Genc and others 2003; Gupta and others 2004),
soil amendment to immobilize heavy metals and
phosphate (Glenister and others 1992; Lombi and
others 2002a, 2002b; Friesl and others 2004) or in-
crease soil pH (Snars and others 2003, 2004), trace
element recovery (Haake 1988; McConchie and others
1996; Subrahmanyam and Singh 1997), and as an
ingredient in the plastic, steel, and construction
industry (Haake 1988; Glenister and others 1992; TAA
2006 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.
298 J. B. Wehr and others

Table 1. Elemental composition (%) and loss on ignition (LOI) of various bauxite residues
Origin of residue Al Fe Ti Ca Na Si LOI
Australia Gladstone (Hanahan and others 2004) 1116 1524 25 14 48 912 916
Australia Gove (Menzies and others 2004) 11 21 5 2 6 8 10
Australia Kwinana (Ward 1987) 611 1821 12 04 02 1938 611
Canada (Fortin and Karam 1998) 10 27 4 3 5 9
Greece (Ochsenkuhn-Petropulu and others 1994) 8 28 4 14 1 6
India (Mohapatra and others 2000) 8 35 2 1 6
Jamaica (Li 2001) 210 3638 57 34 1 1 613
Spain (Lopez and others 1998) 11 21 14 4 4 4
Turkey (Alp and Goral 2003) 11 25 4 1 7 11 9

2000; Martinent-Catalot and others 2002). Such uses
would be feasible, but high transport costs and the
radioactivity of some refinery residue (Glenister and
others 1992; Von Philipsborn and Kuhnast 1992;
Summers and others 1993; Cooper and others 1995;
TAA 2000) precludes use for brick and steel
manufacture or large-scale soil application. Currently,
the quantities of residue produced vastly exceed de-
mand, requiring that refinery disposal areas are re-
vegetated when decommissioned to minimise
environmental impact and improve visual amenity
(Ward 1987; Williams 1996; TAA 2000).
Although revegetation of bauxite mine sites is rela-
tively straightforward, the refinery residue is difficult to
revegetate. The refinery residue is characterised by
high pH (pH >10), high electrical conductivity
(EC > 30 dS m)1), and high exchangeable sodium
percentage (>70%) (Meecham and Bell 1977a; Fuller
and others 1982; Hinz 1982; Ward 1987; Wong and Ho
1993; Fortin and Karam 1998; Snars and others 2003;
Friesl and others 2004). On the other hand, concen-
trations of plant nutrients such as calcium, magnesium,
manganese, and phosphorus are low (Meecham and
Bell 1977b; Barrow 1982; Hinz 1982; Fortin and Karam
1998) and the fine texture impedes penetration of
plant roots (Meecham and Bell 1977a, b; Lewis and
others 1995). Consequently, the chemical and physical
limitations of the refinery residues must be addressed
prior to revegetation if the refinery residues are to
form part of the plant growth medium.
The chemical characteristics of refinery residue can
be improved by neutralising with seawater because this
increases the concentration of plant-available calcium
and magnesium, while at the same time reducing the
sodicity and pH of the residue (Meecham and Bell
1977a; McConchie and others 1996; Hanahan and
others 2004; Menzies and others 2004). Seawater neu-
tralisation, feasible for refineries located near the sea,
is utilised by Alcan Gove and Queensland Alumina
Limited in Australia. Further flushing of the seawater-
neutralised refinery residue with freshwater then low-
ers the salinity of the residue and makes the material
more suitable for vegetation establishment (Meecham
and Bell 1977a; Ward 1987). This approach works best
for the coarse-grained residue sand and has been used
by Alcan Gove. At other refineries, inclusion of gypsum
(CaSO4 2H2O) and other material (sewage sludge, fly
ash, chicken manure) is used to improve the physical
characteristics and reduce nutrient deficiencies (Fuller
and others 1982; Ward 1987; Wong and Ho 1991, 1993,
1995; Lewis and others 1995; Ward and others 1996;
Fortin and Karam 1998; Polcaro and others 2000).
However, a major constraint may arise from the pres-
ence of DSP, which forms during the Bayer process
(Hausberg and others 2000) and dissolves very slowly.
The DSP releases sodium and hydroxyl ions (Wong
and Ho 1995; Whittington and others 1998) and leads
to sustained sodicity and alkalinity, which cannot be
overcome by seawater neutralisation and freshwater
leaching (Barrow 1982; Wong and Ho 1995; Polcaro
and others 2000). Our preliminary data indicate that
the dissolution of DSP is controlled by the sodium
concentration of the residue; hence in seawater neu-
tralised residue, DSP will dissolve over timeframes of
decades rather than years (Menzies and others 2004).
Because the type and quantity of DSP present in
bauxite ore is dependent on the source of the ore, clay
impurities, extraction temperature, and pressure (Li
1998, 2001; Whittington and others 1998; Hausberg
and others 2000), large differences in DSP composi-
tion have been observed between refineries, which
ultimately affects the ease with which the residue can
be revegetated.
Furthermore, the texture of the refinery residue
plays an important role. The fraction of coarse-tex-
tured material in the refinery residue (residue sand) to
fine-textured red mud is dependent on the ore and the
operational parameters of the Bayer process, in par-
ticular, grinding and digestion temperature (Williams
1996; Li 1998, 2001; Hausberg and others 2000)
 Bauxite Residue Revegetation in Monsoonal Climates
Table 2. Textural analysis of various bauxite refinery residues
Origin of residue Sand (%) 20.02 mm
Australia Gove 13
Australia Kwinana (Wong 1990) 30
Canada (Fortin and Karam 1998) 0 47
Jamaica (Li 1998) 49
Spain (Lopez and others 1998) 12
USA Texas (Wong 1990) 8 66
(Table 2). The coarse fraction has a low buffering
capacity and a high hydraulic conductivity (0.2 m h)1)
(Menzies and others 2004), which enables the rapid
neutralisation of the residue sand and allows for good
revegetation outcomes (Fuller and others 1982; Hinz
1982; Ward 1987; Glenister and others 1992; Ward and
others 1996). On the other hand, the fine fraction has
a high buffering capacity and low hydraulic conduc-
tivity (<0.004 m h)1) (Ward 1987; Wong and Ho 1991).
Consequently, red mud cannot be flushed well with
fresh water and direct revegetation of red mud is
generally unsuccessful (Ward 1987; Wong 1990; Lewis
and others 1995; Ward and others 1996; Fortin and
Karam 1998). Depending on the operational processes,
the refinery residue can be separated into residue sand
and red mud, allowing the use of residue sand to cover
the red mud. This improves revegetation outcomes by
providing a surface material that can, after ameliora-
tion, be exploited by plant roots.
The ratio of red mud to residue sand in the refinery
residue has a profound effect on the revegetation out-
come (Tacey and others 1977), and this ratio differs
between refineries (Williams 1996). Consequently, a
direct comparison of revegetation approaches and out-
come between refineries is not very revealing. For
example, at Gove (Australia), the sand fraction consti-
tutes only 13% of the refinery residue, while in the case of
Kwinana in Western Australia, sand constitutes 30% of
the waste (Table 2). Furthermore, the sand at Kwinana is
predominantly quartz and hence is easier to ameliorate
(Ward 1987; Ward and others 1996; Williams 1996).
Published research into rehabilitation of bauxite
residues focussed on two approaches: 1) amelioration
of the surface layer of the residue, and 2) capping with
soil materials. Vegetation, most commonly a grass
species, is then planted into the amended surface layer.
The vegetation then derives its water and nutrients
primarily from the amended top layer.
Amelioration of the surface layer has been widely
attempted using gypsum (Wong and Ho 1991), man-
ure/compost (Fortin and Karam 1998; Thomann and
Portier 1981), sewage sludge (Wong and Ho 1991;
Courtney and others 2003; Courtney and Timpson
299
Silt (%) 0.020.002 mm Clay (%) <0.002 mm
40 47
30 40
36
919 7180
50 38
26
2004; Fuller and others 1982; Thomann and Portier
1981), soil (Lewis and others 1995; Wong and Ho
1991), and combinations thereof. The quantities of
ameliorants required ranged from 3577 t ha)1 gypsum
to 110400 t ha)1 compost, and vegetation survival was
only good at the highest application rates. Most
researchers attributed the positive effect of high addi-
tion rates to improvement of the physical structure
(bulk density, porosity) of red mud, thereby improving
drainage and leaching of salts from red mud. However,
there are no indications that vegetation would have
survived over longer timescales or with minimal input,
or that roots penetrated into the unamended red mud.
Furthermore, the quantities suggested by these studies
are economically unlikely to be viable.
Capping of the residue with more benign material has
been evaluated. For instance, Wong and Ho (1991)
placed 20 cm of sandy soil onto red mud at Kwinana in
Western Australia, while Mohan and others (1997) tried
marine dredging sediment as capping material for red
mud at Point Comfort, Texas. Both studies indicated a
lack of long-term success, probably due to lack of suffi-
cient water and nutrients in the capping. Capping can
prevent erosion of the red mud by wind and water and
reduce the amount of ameliorants, but the approach
requires large quantities of capping materials.
Published revegetation outcomes indicate that
drainage and amelioration of refinery residue is nec-
essary if it is to form part of the growing medium. A
lowering of pH and decrease in salinity, although
helpful, is not imperative for successful revegetation if
salt- and alkali-tolerant plant species are being used.
Also, there is consensus that material with good
hydraulic conductivity (residue sand) can be revege-
tated more easily than ameliorated red mud. However,
the quantities of amendments added in the studies are
unlikely to be implemented in the field due to scarcity
of materials and costs involved. A major shortcoming
of the published information is that all studies re-
ported were conducted for a short duration (a few
months to 1 year), and it is not known how the vege-
tation cover would have survived over longer periods
with no or minimal further input.
300 J. B. Wehr and others
Revegetation Experience at Gove, Northern
Territory
The Alcan Gove bauxite mine and refinery is located
on the Gove peninsula (latitude 1215) in the North-
ern Territory, Australia. Alcan Gove currently produces
approximately 2 million tonnes of alumina and an
equal amount of bauxite residue per annum. The
climate at Gove is monsoonal, with an average annual
rainfall of 1330 mm, of which more than 90% falls in
the December to April wet season. The reference
evapotranspiration of 959 mm and 1104 mm for the
wet and dry season, respectively, was calculated with the
computer program ETo (Raes 2000).
Research into revegetation of bauxite refinery dis-
posal areas at Alcan Goves operation started in 1974,
allowing us to review more than 30 years of
accumulated research, highlighting some problems
encountered and identifying factors critical to suc-
cessful long-term revegetation of bauxite refinery resi-
due. The philosophy of the revegetation approach was
to use exotic and native salt- and alkali-tolerant plant
species that can be planted onto ameliorated refinery
residue with only a minimal layer of capping soil, be-
cause capping materials or ameliorants are not readily
available at Gove. The aim of revegetation at Gove is to
re-establish an open woodland ecosystem. Initially, pot
trials were undertaken to identify plant species able to
grow in a thin soil capping overlying the alkaline and
sodic residue with daily irrigation (Hinz and Doettling
1979; Hinz 1982). The plant species identified
(Table 3) were subsequently used for revegetation of a
decommissioned residue disposal area. The applica-
bility of the concept of using alkali- and salt-tolerant
plant species for revegetation was later confirmed by
Bell and others (1993) for the Mediterranean climate
region of Western Australia, which has a different na-
tive plant composition.
The rehabilitation experience discussed in the fol-
lowing section relates to an 80-ha pond, which was the
initial disposal area at Gove and was utilised from 1972
to 1975. The residue was deposited as wet slurry. The
western end of the disposal area had a higher pro-
portion of residue sand that was partially seawater
neutralised, whereas the eastern end was dominated by
red mud that was minimally seawater neutralised. Soil
samples were obtained either by augering or from
drenches dug by backhoe. The pH and EC was deter-
mined on 1:5 suspensions in water, and the particle
size by the pipette method (Gee and Bauder 1986).
Total and exchangeable cations (Gillman and Sumpter
1986) were determined by atomic adsorption spec-
troscopy or inductively coupled plasma atomic emis-
Table 3. Alkali- and salt-tolerant plants used for
bauxite residue revegetation at Gove
Species Origin
Chloris gayana Kunth. Exotic pasture grass
Cynodon dactylon L. (Pers.) Exotic pasture grass
Sporobolus virginicus (L.) Kunth. Native grass
Stylosanthes humilis cv Exotic pasture legume
Townsville Kunth.
Acacia holosericea A.Cunn. ex G.Don. Native tree
Acacia leptocarpa A.Cunn. ex Benth. Native tree
Acacia multisiliqua (Benth.) Native shrub
Maconochie
Eucalyptus alba Reinw. ex Blume Native tree
Eucalyptus polycarpa F. Muell. Native tree
Melaleuca viridiflora Sol. ex Gaertn. Native tree
Casuarina equisetifolia L. Native tree
sion spectroscopy and the elemental composition of
residue by X-ray fluorescence. Hydraulic conductivity
was determined by the constant head method (Klute
and Dirksen 1986), and the soil water characteristic
using a pressure plate apparatus (Klute 1986). Red
mud was characterised by high pH (pH 10.5), whereas
the residue sand fraction was less alkaline (pH 9.7).
The residue was solar dried, resulting in shrinkage and
cracking of the residue. Progressive rehabilitation of
the area occurred from 1978 through to 1982 and in-
volved capping with 75150 cm of clayey subsoil (30%
clay, 9% silt, 61% sand; pH 6.47.6, EC 0.1 dS m)1) and
approximately 15 cm of sandy topsoil (38% gravel, 51%
sand, 9% silt and 2% clay; pH 5.86.0, EC 0.04 dS m)1)
(Hinz 1982). The calculated plant-available water con-
tent (PAWC; i.e., water content at field capacity water
content at permanent wilting point) was 9 mm and 15
mm per 10 cm of topsoil and subsoil, respectively.
Therefore, the overall PAWC of the capping was 130
220 mm, depending on the thickness of the capping.
The whole area was ripped to a depth of 60 cm with a
bulldozer. A mix of exotic pasture and native seeds was
broadcast (6 kg ha)1) and pot-grown seedlings
(Table 3) were planted. The area was fertilised (11.7%
N, 5.1% P, and 14.9% K plus trace elements, Tropigro
Pty Ltd) at a rate 1200 kg ha)1 plus an additional 300
kg ha)1 superphosphate (Hinz 1982). No supplemen-
tary irrigation was applied.
Natural vegetation adjacent to the disposal area is
dominated by Eucalyptus tetrodonta F. Muell., Eucalyptus
miniata Cunn. ex Schauer, Acacia leptocarpa A.Cunn. ex
Benth, Acacia aulacocarpa Cunn. ex Benth, Livistona
humilis R.Br., Sterculia diversifolia G. Don., Brachychiton
paradoxus Schott & Endl., and Grevillea pteridifolia
Knight. The vegetation cover, comprising planted
seedlings (Table 3) and seedlings emerged from the
 Bauxite Residue Revegetation in Monsoonal Climates
soil-derived seedbank, grew well, and in 1982, a vege-
tation survey revealed that the site was also colonised by
Dactyloctenium aeqyptium (L.) Willd., Merremia tridentata
ssp hastata (Hall.f.) Oost and Tephrosia Pers. species
(Hinz 1982). Within 5 years of planting, the pH of the
red mud under vegetation had decreased from pH 10.5
to pH 9.5, and roots penetrated up to 60 cm into red
mud (Hinz 1982).
Six years after completion of planting, the western
end of the disposal area was dominated by trees and
shrubs of Acacia leptocarpa with Chloris gayana Kunth.
contributing the groundcover. Acacia holosericea
A.Cunn. ex G.Don and A. multisiliqua (Benth.)
Maconochie were abundant, with scattered occur-
rences of Grevillea pteridifolia and Casuarina equisetifolia
L. Generally, vegetation was taller and more vigorous
on the western end than on the eastern end, where
grasses and shrubs such as Chloris gayana, Panicum,
Brachiaria sp. Buckl., Borreria sp. G. Mey., Stylosanthes
hamata (L.) Taub., A. leptocarpa, and A. holosericea were
dominant. The acacia species were notably absent from
low-lying (wetter) areas. On the eastern side, areas with
localised vegetation decline were observed, manifesting
as loss of trees and thinning of the grass cover, whereas
areas totally devoid of vegetation had salt scald on the
soil surface. An aerial survey of the area in 1990 re-
vealed that the western end (30 ha) comprised 23 ha
tree cover, 6 ha grass cover, and 1 ha bare areas,
whereas the eastern end (43 ha) comprised 6 ha tree
cover, 32 ha grass cover, and 5 ha bare areas. Soil
analyses indicated that the soil surface became sodic
(pH > 8.5, EC > 1 dS m)1) in areas with decline,
whereas areas that maintained vegetation cover had pH
5.58.8 and EC 0.050.9 dS m)1 (Pegrum 1991). It was
observed that areas with shallow soil cover (0.6 0.3
m) generally only supported grass cover, whereas areas
with a deep soil capping (1.4 0.4 m) had a dense
vegetation cover, comprising trees, shrubs, and grass
(Sanders 1996).
Areas with vegetation dieback could not be reveg-
etated during the wet season by reseeding or fertilis-
ing, making it obvious that the problem must
originate in the soil. To pinpoint the cause of die-
back, some bare areas were left while other bare areas
were re-treated in 1994 by mounding of fresh topsoil
combined with the installation of drainage lines and
replanting. This remedial work resulted in improved
drainage and prevented soil contamination by a rising
watertable. A soil survey conducted in 1996 indicated
that the pH of the topsoil layer was pH 6.87.2 for
recently revegetated mounds and for areas with full
cover, whereas bare areas had pH > 10. The salinity
(EC) of the top soil layer ranged from > 0.6 dS m)1
301
in bare areas to <0.1 dS m)1 in vegetated areas
(Sanders 1996).
In 2003, many areas on the western side of the dis-
posal area still maintained a healthy vegetation cover,
and vegetation density had increased on the mounded
areas and spread to surrounding areas, indicating that
the improved drainage and the vegetation had suc-
ceeded in lowering the sodicity of the soil capping. The
only areas devoid of vegetation, or having a sparse
cover of Rhodes grass, were those areas that have not
been mounded or drained and were still prone to
waterlogging during the wet season. All other areas
supported open woodland with Acacia, Melaleuca, and
Eucalyptus trees. Successional trends in the vegetation
cover have been observed, with termite activity
destroying healthy, stressed, and dead trees, which
were replaced by seedlings emerging from the seed-
bank. The omnivorous termite species, Mastotermes
darwiniensis Froggatt, is of particular importance in its
impact on trees and other vegetation across much of
northern Australia (Hill 1942). Application of fertiliser
was necessary during the early years of the revegeta-
tion, but inclusion of legumes in the vegetation cover
supplies nitrogen to the ecosystem and nutrient cycling
will take place once sufficient biomass (carbon) has
accumulated. This requires that a dense and vigorous
ground cover be established, which has the added
benefit of reducing erosion during intense wet season
storms.
Our excavation of areas with full vegetation cover
on both the western and eastern sides of the tailings
dam showed that there were few roots in the clayey
subsoil capping (pH 7.27.6, EC 0.020.4 dS m)1, 50
750 mg kg)1 Na), either due to compaction or hard-
setting behaviour of the soil, whereas most roots were
found in the topsoil (pH 6.4, EC 0.04 dS m)1, 30 mg
kg)1 Na) and some roots penetrated more than 60 cm
into the structured blocky red mud. Because red
mud was deposited as slurry, drying of the red mud,
either over time or due to plant water extraction, led
to the development of cracks and small peds, allowing
roots to penetrate into the red mud along the peds.
However, roots did not grow into the peds, and there
were no differences in pH between the interior and
exterior of the peds (ranging between pH 9.1 and
9.6). The pH and depth of root exploration was
similar to that described by Hinz (1982) more than 20
years earlier, indicating that chemical characteristics
of red mud change only very slowly. No roots were
found to grow into unstructured soft pastey red
mud. This could indicate that soft red mud is too
hostile to plant root growth, whereas the chemical
and physical constraints to plant growth in structured
302 J. B. Wehr and others
red mud have diminished, probably due to increased
leaching.
Close examination of the roots growing in struc-
tured red mud revealed that the roots were much
branched and stubby, indicating nutrient imbalances.
This is understandable because the red mud was not
ameliorated with fertiliser and gypsum before placing
the soil cover, and the amount of nutrients present in
residue is insufficient. However, the presence of roots
in the structured red mud indicates that plants are
extracting water, and possibly nutrients, from the mud.
A 60-cm depth of red mud would contribute approxi-
mately 80 mm of water to the water-holding capacity of
the soil profile, thereby increasing survival of the
vegetation during the dry season.
Although bauxite residue contains trace elements
(Ochsenkuhn-Petropulu and others 1994; Hanahan
and others 2004) that can be potentially taken up by
plants and thus ingested by herbivores, the presence
of ferric hydrous oxide in the residue (Table 1) and
the high pH prevent mobility and availability of most
cationic trace elements (Barber 1984). The only ele-
ments that may be accumulated in shoots and leaves
are Ga, Al, Se, Cr, Sn, and V, because these elements
are more available at high pH (Kabata-Pendias and
Pendias 2001). In addition, plants will take up most
elements from the soil capping, not the alkaline
residue, effectively minimising the risk of fauna
poisoning.
Proposed Residue Revegetation Approach
The rationale of our approach is to neutralise red
mud with seawater, thereby lowering the alkalinity of
the red mud to pH 9 (Menzies and others 2004).
Furthermore, we observed that on drying, seawater-
treated wet slurried red mud shrank, developing a
stable blocky structure. This would allow leaching of
the salinity and alkalinity of red mud by rainfall and
permit penetration of roots into red mud along the
cracks. Whether such structure development will also
apply to seawater-treated dry-stacked red mud would
still need investigation. Further amelioration of the
surface layer (upper 0.5 m) of seawater neutralised red
mud with gypsum, followed by drying, ripping, and/or
tillage will break the red mud into smaller aggregates,
because soft pastey red mud cannot be penetrated
by roots. The structured substrate of red mud is then
covered (without mixing) by soil. Salt- and alkali-tol-
erant plants will then derive most of their nutrients and
water from the capping layer, but will also grow into
the red mud for water, presumably once the soil cap-
ping has dried out during the dry season.
c
Figure 1. Flowchart of management processes required for
revegetation of red mud ponds in monsoonal climates.
Depending on landform, drainage or erosion control mea-
sures have to be implemented. The ability of the capping to
supply sufficient water to the vegetation during the dry season
is critical to revegetation success. The water requirement of
the vegetation during the dry season can be calculated from
the product of the dry season reference evaporation (ETod)
and the crop coefficient Kcd. The plant-available water con-
tent of the capping (PAWCtotal) can be diminished by capillary
rise of alkalinity from red mud, and only water stored in the
part of the capping unaffected by capillary rise (PAWCclean)
can be utilised by plant roots. If PAWCclean is below the
minimum water requirement of the vegetation, a capillary
break layer may be needed to prevent soil contamination. If
this still does not sufficiently increase plant-accessible water
(PAWCtotal), the red mud needs to be ameliorated, a thicker
soil capping used, or irrigation applied; otherwise only a sparse
vegetation cover (which uses less water) can be maintained
during the dry season.
The requisite steps for establishing a native vegeta-
tion cover on bauxite residue in monsoonal climates,
and probably any climate with strongly seasonal rain-
fall, is schematically presented in Figure 1. The first
consideration is the slope of final land form of the
disposal area (Decision point 1 in Figure 1). On flat
impoundments (slope < 3%), such as wet-slurry ponds,
drainage will be important since red mud does not
drain because of its low hydraulic conductivity, leading
to a rising water table and waterlogging of the flat
surface of the disposal area with sodic water during
extended rainfall in the wet season. This is aggravated
by the shallow layer of capping soil, which has a higher
water infiltration than red mud. A similar problem was
noted by Tacey and others (1977) for bauxite residue
disposal areas in the Mediterranean climate region of
Western Australia, with predominant winter rainfall
and dry summers. Extended periods of waterlogging
will also cause low-oxygen conditions in the soil. At
Gove, salt scald and complete loss of vegetation was
observed in areas that had shallow depressions, point-
ing towards contamination of the capping layer due to
a rising water table during the wet season. This high-
lights the importance of good internal drainage (e.g.,
subsurface drains, ditches) of the residue disposal area
to prevent a rising water table. Drying out of the cap-
ping soil during the dry season concentrates caustic
salts in the capping layer, stressing or killing the plants.
On sloping (>3%) impoundments such as dry-
stacked dewatered red mud, the outward sloping
landform will minimise waterlogging and ponding
problems, simplifying the revegetation of dry-stacked
Bauxite Residue Revegetation in Monsoonal Climates 303
304 J. B. Wehr and others
disposal areas. However, erosion control measures will
be needed on dry-stacked disposal areas, especially on
steep batter slopes.
The experience at Gove shows that the water balance
of revegetation areas is a key determinant of revegeta-
tion success, and this is directly related to the thickness
of the soil cover layer and the type of soil available. The
total plant-available water content of the soil capping
layer (PAWCtotal) and the fraction unimpaired by
capillary rise (PAWCclean) needs to be assessed by
simple laboratory experimentation. Capillary rise dur-
ing the dry season will draw water and dissolved salts
upwards (McIntyre 1982), which will be concentrated in
the soil capping, leading to salt scald on the surface.
Although capillary rise from red mud is limited by its
low hydraulic conductivity of approximately 0.003 mm
h)1 (N. Menzies, unpublished data), which equates to a
rise of circa 15 mm of water during the dry season, it will
contaminate the lower 1020 cm of the capping layer.
To prevent this, a layer of coarse textured material (e.g.,
residue sand) can be placed between the red mud and
the capping. However, such a capillary break layer was
not installed on the pond during construction of the
capping layer. It was suggested by Hinz (personal
communication) that salt accumulation in the capping
layer due to capillary rise of caustic porewater during
the dry season is considerable if the soil capping is left
exposed, necessitating rapid establishment of a vegeta-
tion cover after placement of the capping layer. If a
good vegetation cover can be maintained, it can act as a
pump, thereby limiting capillary rise and preventing conditions, resulting in the development of a stable
deterioration of the soil cover. This principle is also
used in alleviating dryland salinity with deep-rooted
vegetation. Should the vegetation cover be killed due to
drought, flooding, or fire, the capillary rise would be
more pronounced because no deep-rooted species
would be present that could lower the water table,
resulting in deterioration of the soil cover and conse-
quently impairing the re-establishment of vegetation.
The water requirement of the desired vegetation
cover can be determined from published literature
values that are available for most vegetation types or it
can be inferred from similar vegetation. For instance,
the reference evapotranspiration during the dry season
(ETod) at Gove is 1100 mm, and the vegetation crop
coefficient during the dry season (Kcd) is 0.10.5 for
Australian native trees (Raper 1998; Hutley and others
2000). Thus, the minimum water requirement (ETod *
Kcd) of the vegetation cover is approximately 110550
mm during the dry season. This is more than the total
amount of water available in soil capping unaffected by
capillary rise (PAWCclean) or even in the whole depth
of the soil capping (PAWCtotal; 130220 mm) (Decision
points 2 and 3 in Figure 1). Consequently, either a
thicker layer of capping soil, amelioration of the red
mud, or irrigation is necessary to meet the water
requirement of the desired vegetation cover.
Conclusion
Red mud, being highly saline and alkaline, is too
hostile for plant root growth and needs amelioration.
Although mixing of large quantities of amendments
(around 100 t ha)1) into the surface of red mud
impoundments is generally insufficient to ensure long-
term survival of vegetation, this approach is precluded
at Gove due to the scarcity of ameliorants. Therefore,
soil capping of seawater-neutralised red mud is the
currently preferred revegetation approach at Gove.
Slow dissolution of DSP implies that alkalinity and
salinity will be a long-term problem (tens of years) that
requires the use of salt- and alkali-tolerant plants. Al-
though plants can lower their rhizosphere pH in
bauxite residue (Kopittke and Menzies 2004), this
process would take a long time to have an effect on the
bulk of the residue, because red mud is strongly buf-
fered (in part through DSP dissolution). Therefore, it
is unlikely that a native ecosystem encompassing salt-
and alkalinity-sensitive plants can be established on
capped red mud disposal areas until DSP has dissolved.
Nevertheless, Alcan Gove has succeeded in establishing
a self-sustainable vegetation cover for over 20 years
using plant species that can tolerate saline and alkaline
ecosystem that approaches a native ecosystem.
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of
Alcan Gove, and the Australian Research Council
Linkage program.
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