Warring States period

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Warring States period

(Chinese: ; pinyin:
Zhngu shdi) was an era in
ancient Chinese history following
the Spring and Autumn period and
concluding with the Qin wars of
conquest that saw the annexation of
all other contender states, which
ultimately led to the Qin state's
victory in 221 BC as the first
unified Chinese empire known as
the Qin dynasty. Although different
scholars point toward different
dates ranging from 481 BC to 403
BC as the true beginning of the
Warring States, Sima Qian's choice
of 475 BC is generally the most
often cited and popularly accepted China at the beginning of the Warring States period (5th century BC) before the
one. The Warring States era also breakup of Jin and the Qin invasion of Sichuan. The W ei on this map is Wey, not the
other Wei that arose from the Partition of Jin.
overlaps with the second half of the
Eastern Zhou dynasty, though the
Chinese sovereign, known as the
king of Zhou, ruled merely as a figurehead and served as a Warring States period
backdrop against the machinations of the warring states.

The "Warring States Period" derives its name from the

Record of the Warring States, a work compiled early in the
Han dynasty.

Contents
1 Geography "Warring States" in seal script (top), Traditional
2 Periodisation (middle), and Simplified (bottom) Chinese
3 Background and formation characters
3.1 Partition of Jin (453403 BC)
4 Early Warring States Traditional Chinese
4.1 The three Jins recognized (403364 BC) Simplified Chinese
4.2 Qi resurgence under Tian (379340 BC)
4.3 Wars of Wei Literal meaning "Warring States era"
5 Dukes become kings Transcriptions
5.1 Qi and Wei become kings (344 BC) Standard Mandarin
5.2 Shang Yang reforms Qin (356338 BC)
5.3 Wei defeated by Qin (341340 BC) Hanyu Pinyin Zhngu shdi
5.4 Chu conquers Yue (334 BC) Gwoyeu Romatzyh Janngwo shyrday
5.5 Qin, Han and Yan become kings (325323
BC) WadeGiles Chan4-kuo2 shih2-tai4
5.6 Partition of Zhou (314 BC)
IPA [n.kw .ti]
6 Horizontal and vertical alliances (334249 BC)
6.1 Su Qin and the first vertical alliance (334 Yue: Cantonese
300 BC) Yale Romanization Jin-gwok sh-doih
 6.2 The first horizontal alliance (300287 IPA [tsn.k ks.t y]
BC)
Jyutping Zin3-gwok3 si4-doi6
6.3 Su Dai and the second vertical alliance
6.4 The second horizontal alliance Southern Min
6.5 Qin vs Zhao (278260 BC)
6.6 End of Zhou dynasty (256249 BC) Ti-l Tsin-kok s-ti
7 Qin unites China (247221 BC)
7.1 Conquest of Han
7.2 Conquest of Wei
7.3 Conquest of Chu
7.4 Conquest of Zhao and Yan
7.5 Conquest of Qi
8 Military theory and practice
8.1 Increasing scale of warfare
8.2 Military developments
8.3 Military thought
9 Culture and society
9.1 Nobles, bureaucrats and reformers
9.2 Sophisticated arithmetic
10 Literature
11 Economic developments
12 See also
13 Footnotes
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links

Geography
The political geography of the era was dominated by the Seven Warring States, namely:

Qin
The State of Qin was in the far west, with its core in the Wei River Valley and Guanzhong. This
geographical position offered protection from the states of the Central Plains, but limited its initial
influence.
The Three Jins
It is located northeast of Qin, on the Shanxi plateau, were the three successor states of Jin. These were:
Han
south, along the Yellow River, controlling the eastern approaches to Qin.
Wei
It is located in the middle.
Zhao
the northernmost of the three.
Qi
It is located in the east of China, centred on the Shandong Peninsula, described as east of Mount Tai but
whose territory extended far beyond.
Chu
It is located in the south of China, with its core territory around the valleys of the Han River and, later,
the Yangtze River.
Yan
It is located in the northeast, centred on modern-day Beijing. Late in the period Yan pushed northeast and
began to occupy the Liaodong Peninsula

Besides these seven major states, some minor states also survived into the period.
 Yue
On the southeast coast near Shanghai was the State of Yue, which was highly active in the late Spring
and Autumn era but was eventually annexed by Chu.
Sichuan
In the far southwest were the States of Ba and Shu. These were non-Zhou states that were conquered by
Qin late in the period.
It is located in the Central Plains comprising much of modern-day Henan Province, many smaller city
states survived as satellites of the larger states, though they were eventually to be absorbed as well.
Zhongshan
Between the states of Zhao and Yan was the state of Zhongshan, which was eventually annexed by Zhao
in 296 BC.

Periodisation
The Spring and Autumn period was initiated by the eastward flight of the Zhou court. There is no one single
incident or starting point for the Warring States era. The political situation of the period was a culmination of
historical trends of conquest and annexation which also characterised the Spring and Autumn period; as a result
there is some controversy as to the beginning of the era. Some proposed starting points are as follows:

481 BC
Proposed by Song-era historian L Zuqian, since it is the end of the Spring and Autumn Annals.
476475 BC
The author, Sima Qian, of Records of the Grand Historian who chose the inaugural year of King Yuan of
Zhou.
453 BC
The Partition of Jin saw the dissolution/destruction of that key state of the earlier period and creating
three of the seven warring states: Han, Zhao, and Wei.
441 BC
The inaugural year of Zhou Kings starting with King Ai of Zhou.
403 BC
The year when Han, Zhao and Wei were officially recognised as states by the Zhou court. Author Sima
Guang of Zizhi Tongjian tells us that the symbol of eroded Zhou authority should be taken as the start of
the Warring States era.

Background and formation

The system of feudal states created by the Western Zhou dynasty underwent enormous changes after 771 BC
with the flight of the Zhou court to modern-day Luoyang and the diminution of its relevance and power. The
Spring and Autumn period led to a few states gaining power at the expense of many others, the latter no longer
able to depend on central authority for legitimacy or protection. During the Warring States period, many rulers
claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their conquest of other states and spread their influence.[1]

The struggle for hegemony eventually created a state system dominated by several large states, such as Jin,
Chu, Qin and Qi, while the smaller states of the Central Plains tended to be their satellites and tributaries. Other
major states also existed, such as Wu and Yue in the southeast. The last decades of the Spring and Autumn era
were marked by increased stability, as the result of peace negotiations between Jin and Chu which established
their respective spheres of influence. This situation ended with the partition of Jin, whereby the state was
divided between the houses of Han, Zhao and Wei, and thus enabled the creation of the seven major warring
states.

Partition of Jin (453403 BC)

The rulers of Jin had steadily lost political powers since the middle of the 6th century BC to their nominally
subordinate nobles and military commanders, a situation arising from the traditions of the Jin which forbade the
enfeoffment of relatives of the ducal house. This allowed other clans to gain fiefs and military authority, and
decades of internecine struggle led to the establishment of
four major families, the Han, Zhao, Wei and Zhi.

The Battle of Jinyang saw the allied Han, Zhao and Wei
destroy the Zhi family (453 BC) and their lands were
distributed among them. With this, they became the "de
facto" rulers of most of Jin's territory, though this situation
would not be officially recognised until half a century later.
The Jin division created a political vacuum that enabled
during the first 50 years expansion of Chu and Yue
northward and Qi southward. Qin increased its control of
the local tribes and began its expansion southwest to
Sichuan.

Early Warring States

The three Jins recognized (403364 BC)

In 403 BC, the Zhou court under King Weilie officially Warring States about early-4th century BC
recognized Zhao, Wei and Han as immediate vassals,
thereby raising them to the same rank as the other warring
states.

From before 405 until 383 the three Jins were united under the
leadership of Wei and expanded in all directions. The most important
figure was Marquess Wen of Wei (445396). In 408406 he conquered
the State of Zhongshan to the northeast on the other side of Zhao. At the
same time he pushed west across the Yellow River to the Luo River
taking the area of Xihe (literally 'west of the [Yellow] river').

The growing power of Wei caused Zhao to back away from the alliance.
In 383 it moved its capital to Handan and attacked the small state of
Wey. Wey appealed to Wei which attacked Zhao on the western side.
Being in danger, Zhao called in Chu. As usual, Chu used this as a
pretext to annex territory to its north, but the diversion allowed Zhao to
occupy a part of Wei. This conflict marked the end of the power of the
united Jins and the beginning a period of shifting alliances and wars on Tomb Guardian (300 BC) held at
several fronts. Birmingham Museum of Art

In 376 BC, the states of Han, Wei and Zhao deposed Duke Jing of Jin
and divided the last remaining Jin territory between themselves, which marked the final end of the Jin state.

In 370 BC, Marquess Wu of Wei died without naming a successor, which led to a war of succession. After three
years of civil war, Zhao from the north and Han from the south invaded Wei. On the verge of conquering Wei,
the leaders of Zhao and Han fell into disagreement about what to do with Wei, and both armies abruptly
retreated. As a result, King Hui of Wei (still a Marquess at the time) was able to ascend the throne of Wei.

By the end of the period Zhao extended from the Shanxi plateau across the plain to the borders of Qi. Wei
reached east to Qi, Lu and Song. To the south, the weaker state of Han held the east-west part of the Yellow
River valley, surrounded the Zhou royal domain at Luoyang and held an area north of Luoyang called
Shangdang.

Qi resurgence under T ian (379340 BC)

Duke Kang of Qi died in 379 BC with no heir from the house of Jiang,
which had ruled Qi since the state's founding. The throne instead passed to
the future King Wei, from the house of Tian. The Tian had been very
influential at court towards the end of Jiang rule, and now openly assumed
power.[2]

The new ruler set about reclaiming territories that had been lost to other
states. He launched a successful campaign against Zhao, Wey and Wei,
once again extending Qi territory to the Great Wall. Sima Qian writes that
the other states were so awestruck that nobody dared attack Qi for more A jade-carved dragon garment
than 20 years. The demonstrated military prowess also had a calming ornament from the Warring States
effect on Qi's own population, which experienced great domestic period
tranquility during Wei's reign.[3]

By the end of King Wei's reign, Qi had become the strongest of the states and proclaimed itself "king";
establishing independence from the Zhou dynasty (see below).

Wars of Wei

King Hui of Wei (370319 BC) set about restoring the state. In 362359
BC he exchanged territories with Han and Zhao in order to make the
boundaries of the three states more rational.

In 364 BC Wei was defeated by Qin at the Battle of Shimen and was only
saved by the intervention of Zhao. Qin won another victory in 362 BC. In
361 BC the Wei capital was moved east to Daliang to be out of the reach of
Qin.

In 354 BC, King Hui of Wei started a large-scale attack on Zhao. By 353 A jade-carved huang with two
BC, Zhao was losing badly and its capital, Handan, was under siege. The dragon heads, Warring States,
State of Qi intervened. The famous Qi strategist, Sun Bin the great-great- Shanghai Museum
great-grandson of Sun Tzu (author of the Art of War), proposed to attack
the Wei capital while the Wei army was tied up besieging Zhao. The
strategy was a success; the Wei army hastily moved south to protect its capital, was caught on the road and
decisively defeated at the Battle of Guiling. The battle is remembered in the second of the Thirty-Six
Stratagems, "besiege Wei, save Zhao" meaning to attack a vulnerable spot to relieve pressure at another point.

Domestically, King Hui patronized philosophy and the arts, and is perhaps best remembered for hosting the
Confucian philosopher Meng Zi at his court; their conversations form the first two chapters of the book which
bears Meng Zi's name.

Dukes become kings

Qi and Wei become kings (344 B C)

The title of "king" (wang, ) was held by figurehead rulers of the Zhou dynasty, while the rulers of most states
held the title of "duke" (gong, ) or "marquess" (hou, ). A major exception was Chu, whose rulers were
called kings since King Wu of Chu started using the title c. 703 BC.

In 344 BC the rulers of Qi and Wei mutually recognized each other as "kings": King Wei of Qi and King Hui of
Wei, in effect declaring their independence from the Zhou court. This marked a major turning point: unlike
those in the Spring and Autumn period, the new generation of rulers ascending the thrones in the Warring
States period would not entertain even the pretence of being vassals of the Zhou dynasty, instead proclaiming
themselves fully independent kingdoms.
Shang Yang reforms Qin (356338 BC)

During the early Warring States period Qin generally avoided

conflicts with the other states. This changed during the reign of
Duke Xiao, when prime minister Shang Yang made centralizing
and authoritarian reforms in accordance with his Legalist
philosophy between the years 356 and 338 BC.

Shang introduced land reforms, privatized land, rewarded farmers

who exceeded harvest quotas, enslaved farmers who failed to meet
quotas, and used enslaved subjects as rewards for those who met
government policies. As manpower was short in Qin relative to the
other states at the time, Shang enacted policies to increase its
manpower. As Qin peasants were recruited into the military, he
encouraged active immigration of peasants from other states into
Qin as a replacement workforce; this policy simultaneously
increased the manpower of Qin and weakened the manpower of
Qin's rivals.

Shang made laws forcing citizens to marry at a young age and Painting on silk depicting a man riding a
passed tax laws to encourage raising multiple children. He also dragon from Zidanku Tomb no. 1 in
enacted policies to free convicts who worked in opening Changsha, Hunan Province (5th-3rd century
wastelands for agriculture. Shang abolished primogeniture and BC).
created a double tax on households that had more than one son
living in the household, to break up large clans into nuclear
families. Shang also moved the capital to reduce the influence of
nobles on the administration.

The rise of Qin was recognized by the royal court, and in 343 BC
the king conferred the title of hegemon on Duke Xiao. As was
customary for the designated hegemon, the duke hosted a
conference of all the feudal lords, although it did not lead to any
lasting peace.[2]
The Bianzhong of Marquis Yi of Zeng, a set of
After the reforms Qin became much more aggressive. In 340 Qin bronze bianzhong percussion instruments from
took land from Wi after it had been defeated by Qi. In 316 Qin the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng in Hubei
conquered Shu and Ba in Sichuan to the southwest. Development province (433 BC).
of this area took a long time but slowly added greatly to Qin's
wealth and power.

Wei defeated by Qin (341340 B C)

In 341 BC, Wei attacked Han. Qi allowed Han to be nearly defeated and then intervened. The generals from the
Battle of Guiling met again (Sun Bin and Tian Ji versus Pang Juan), using the same tactic, attacking Wei's
capital. Sun Bin feigned a retreat and then turned on the overconfident Wei troops and decisively defeated them
at the Battle of Maling. After the battle all three of the Jin successor states appeared before King Xuan of Qi,
pledging their loyalty.[4]

In the following year Qin attacked the weakened Wei. Wei was devastatingly defeated and ceded a large part of
its territory in return for truce. With Wei severely weakened, Qi and Qin became the dominant states in China.

Wei came to rely on Qi for protection, with King Hui of Wei meeting King Xuan of Qi on two occasions. After
Hui's death, his successor King Xiang also established a good relationship with his Qi counterpart, with both
promising to recognize the other as "king".[3]
Chu conquers Yue (334 BC)

Early in the Warring States period, Chu was one of the strongest states
in China. The state rose to a new level of power around 389 BC when
King Dao of Chu () named the famous reformer Wu Qi as his
chancellor.

Chu rose to its peak in 334 BC, when it conquered Yue to its east on the
Pacific coast. The series of events leading up to this began when Yue
prepared to attack Qi to its north. The King of Qi sent an emissary who
persuaded the King of Yue to attack Chu instead. Yue initiated a large-
A Warring States bronze ding vessel with
scale attack at Chu but was defeated by Chu's counter-attack. Chu then
gold and silver inlay
proceeded to conquer Yue.

Qin, Han and Yan become kings (325323 BC)

King Xian of Zhou had attempted to use what little royal prerogrative
he had left by appointing the dukes Xian (384-362 BC), Xiao (361-338
BC) and Hui (338-311 BC) of Qin as hegemons, thereby in theory
making Qin the chief ally of the court.[5]

However, in 325 the confidence of Duke Hui grew so great that he

proclaimed himself "king" of Qin; adopting the same title as the king of A lacquerware painting from the
Zhou and thereby effectively proclaiming independence from the Zhou Jingmen Tomb (Chinese: ;
dynasty.[5] King Hui of Qin was guided by his prime minister Zhang Yi, Pinyin: Jngmn ch m) of the State of
a prominent representative of the School of Diplomacy.[6] Chu (704223 BC), depicting men
wearing precursors toHanfu (i.e.
He was followed in 323 BC by King Hui of Han and King Yi of Yan, as traditional silk dress) and riding in a two-
well as King Cuo of the minor state Zhongshan.[2] In 318 BC, even the horsed chariot
ruler of Song, a relatively minor state, declared himself king.

Partition of Zhou (314 BC)

King Kao of Zhou had enfeoffed his younger brother as Duke Huan of Henan. Three generations later this
cadet branch of the royal house began calling themselves "Dukes of East Zhou".[5]

Upon the ascension of King Nan in 314 BC, East Zhou became an independent state. The king came to reside
in what became known as West Zhou.[5]

Horizontal and vertical alliances (334249 BC)

Towards the end of the Warring States period, the Qin state became disproportionately powerful compared with
the other six states. As a result, the policies of the six states became overwhelmingly oriented towards dealing
with the Qin threat, with two opposing schools of thought. One school advocated a 'vertical' or north-south
alliance called hezong (/) in which the states would ally with each other to repel Qin. The other
advocated a 'horizontal' or east-west alliance called lianheng (/) in which a state would ally with Qin
to participate in its ascendancy.

There were some initial successes in hezong, though mutual suspicions between allied states led to the
breakdown of such alliances. Qin repeatedly exploited the horizontal alliance strategy to defeat the states one
by one. During this period, many philosophers and tacticians travelled around the states, recommending that the
rulers put their respective ideas into use. These "lobbyists," such as Su Qin (who advocated vertical alliances)
and Zhang Yi (who advocated horizontal alliances), were famous for
their tact and intellect, and were collectively known as the School of
Diplomacy, whose Chinese name (, literally 'the school of the
vertical and horizontal') was derived from the two opposing ideas.

Su Qin and the first vertical alliance (334300 BC)

Beginning in 334 BC, the diplomat Su Qin spent years visiting the
courts of Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi and Chu and persuaded them to form
a united front against Qin. In 318 BC all states except Qi launched a
joint attack on Qin, which however was not successful.[2]

King Hui of Qin died in 311 BC, followed by prime minister Zhang Yi
one year later. The new monarch, King Wu, reigned only four years
before dying without legitimate heirs. Some damaging turbulence
ensued throughout 307 BC before a son of King Hui by a concubine
(i.e. a younger half-brother of King Wu) could be established as King Rectangular lacquered shield from the
Zhao, who in stark contrast to his predecessor went on to rule for an Warring States Period. Found in Baoshan
unprecedented 53 years. Tomb 2, Jingmen.

After the failiure of the first vertical alliance, Su Qin eventually came to
live in Qi, where he was favored by King Xuan and drew the envy of
the ministers. An assassination attempt in 300 BC left Su mortally
wounded but not dead. Sensing death approaching, he advised the
newly crowned King Min have him publicly executed to draw out the
assassins. King Min complied with Su's request and killed him, putting
an end to the first generation of Vertical alliance thinkers.[7]

The first horizontal alliance (300287 BC)

An iron sword and two bronze swords
King Min of Qi came to be highly influenced by Lord Mengchang, a dated to the Warring States period
grandson of the former King Wei of Qi. Lord Mengchang made a
westward alliance with the States of Wei and Han. In the far west, Qin,
which had been weakened by a succession struggle in 307, yielded to the new
coalition and appointed Lord Mengchang its chief minister. The alliance
between Qin and Qi was sealed by a Qin princess marrying King Min.[3] This
"horizontal" or east-west alliance might have secured peace except that it
excluded the State of Zhao.

Around 299 BC, the ruler of Zhao became the last of the seven major states to
proclaim himself "king".

In 298 BC Zhao offered Qin an alliance and Lord Mengchang was driven out of
Qin. The remaining three allies, Qi, Wei and Han, attacked Qin, driving up the
Yellow River below Shanxi to the Hangu Pass. After 3 years of fighting they
took the pass and forced Qin to return territory to Han and Wei. They next
inflicted major defeats on Yan and Chu. During the 5-year administration of
Lord Mengchang, Qi was the major power in China.

In 294 BC Lord Mengchang was implicated in a coup d'etat and fled to Wei.
His alliance system collapsed. Qi and Qin made a truce and pursued their own
interests. Qi moved south against the State of Song whilst the Qin General Bai A bronze statue of a seated
Qi pushed back eastward against a Han/Wei alliance, gaining victory at the man, from the State of Yue,
Battle of Yique. Warring States period
In 288 BC King Zhao of Qin and King Min of Qi took the title "Di", ( literally emperor), of the west and east
respectively. They swore a covenant and started planning an attack on Zhao.

Su Dai and the second vertical alliance

In 287 BC Su Dai, the younger brother of Su Qin[7] and possibly an agent of Yan, persuaded King Min that the
Zhao war would only benefit Qin. King Min agreed and formed a 'vertical' alliance with the other states against
Qin. Qin backed off, abandoned the presumptuous title of "Di", and restored territory to Wei and Zhao. In 286
Qi annexed the state of Song.

The second horizontal alliance

In 285 BC the success of Qi had frightened the other states. Under the leadership of Lord Mengchang, who was
exiled in Wei, Qin, Zhao, Wei and Yan formed an alliance. Yan had normally been a relatively weak ally of Qi
and Qi feared little from this quarter. Yan's onslaught under general Yue Yi came as a devastating surprise.
Simultaneously, the other allies attacked from the west. Chu declared itself an ally of Qi but contented itself
with annexing some territory to its north. Qi's armies were destroyed while the territory of Qi was reduced to
the two cities of Ju and Jimo. King Min himself was later captured and executed by his own followers.

King Min was succeeded by King Xiang in 283 BC. His general Tian Dan was eventually able to restore much
of Qi's territory, but it never regained the influence it had under King Min.

Qin vs Zhao (278260 BC)

General Bai Qi of Qin attacked from Qin's new (from 316)

territory in Sichuan to the west of Chu. The capital of Ying
was captured and Chu's western lands on the Han River
were lost. The effect was to shift Chu significantly to the
east.

After Chu was defeated in 278, the remaining great powers

were Qin in the west and Zhao in the north-center. There
was little room for diplomatic maneuver and matters were
decided by war in 265260. Zhao had been much
strengthened by King Wuling of Zhao (325299). In 307 he
enlarged his cavalry by copying the northern nomads. In
306 he took more land in the northern Shanxi plateau. In
305 he defeated the northeastern border state of
Zhongshan. In 304 he pushed far to the northwest and
occupied the east-west section of the Yellow River in the
Seven Warring States late in the period
north of the Ordos Loop. King Huiwen of Zhao (298266) Qin has expanded southwest, Chu north and Zhao
chose able servants and expanded against the weakened Qi northwest
and Wei. In 296 his general Lian Po defeated two Qin
armies.

In 269 BC Fan Sui became chief advisor to Qin. He advocated authoritarian reforms, irrevocable expansion and
an alliance with distant states to attack nearby states (the twenty-third of the Thirty-Six Stratagems). His maxim
"attack not only the territory, but also the people" enunciated a policy of mass slaughter that became
increasingly frequent.

In 265 King Zhaoxiang of Qin made the first move by attacking the weak state of Han which held the Yellow
River gateway into Qin. He moved northeast across Wei territory to cut off the Han exclave of Shangdang north
of Luoyang and south of Zhao. The Han king agreed to surrender Shangdang, but the local governor refused
and presented it to King Xiaocheng of Zhao. Zhao sent out Lian Po who based his armies at Changping and Qin
sent out general Wang He. Lian Po was too wise to risk a decisive battle with the Qin army and remained inside
his fortifications. Qin could not break through and the armies were locked in stalemate for three years. The
Zhao king decided that Lian Po was not aggressive enough and sent out Zhao Kuo who promised a decisive
battle. At the same time Qin secretly replaced Wang He with the notoriously violent Bai Qi. When Zhao Kuo
left his fortifications, Bai Qi used a Cannae maneuver, falling back in the center and surrounding the Zhao army
from the sides. After being surrounded for 46 days, the starving Zhao troops surrendered in September 260 BC.
It is said that Bai Qi had all the prisoners killed and that Zhao lost 400,000 men.

Qin was too exhausted to follow up its victory. Some time later it sent an army to besiege the Zhao capital but
the army was destroyed when it was attacked from the rear. Zhao survived, but there was no longer a state that
could resist Qin on its own. The other states could have survived if they remained united against Qin, but they
did not.

End of Zhou dynasty (256249 BC)

The forces of King Zhao of Qin defeated King Nan of Zhou and conquered West Zhou in 256 BC, claiming the
Nine Cauldrons and thereby symbolically becoming The Son of Heaven.

King Zhao's exceptionally long reign ended in 251 BC. His son King Xiaowen, already an old man, died just
three days after his coronation and was succeeded by his son King Zhuangxiang of Qin. The new Qin king
proceeded to conquer East Zhou, seven years after the fall of West Zhou. Thus the 800-year Zhou dynasty,
nominally China's longest-ruling regime, finally came to an end.[5]

Sima Qian contradicts himself regarding the ultimate fate of the East Zhou court. Chapter 4 (The Annals of
Zhou) concludes with the sentence "thus the sacrifices of Zhou ended", but in the following chapter 5 (The
Annals of Qin) we learn that "Qin did not prohibit their sacrifices; the Lord of Zhou was allotted a patch of land
in Yangren where he could continue his ancestral sacrifices".

Qin unites China (247221 BC)

King Zhuangxiang of Qin ruled for only three years. He
was succeeded by his son Zheng, who unlike the two
elderly kings that preceded him was only 13 years old at
his coronation. As an adult Zheng would turn out to be a
brilliant commander who, in the span of just nine years,
unified China.[6]

Conquest of Han

In 230 BC, Qin conquered Han.[9] Han, the weakest of the

Seven Warring States, was adjacent to the much stronger
Qin, and had suffered continuous assaults by Qin in earlier
years of the Warring States period. This went on until
Emperor Qin Shi Huang sent general Wang Jian to attack
Zhao. King An of Han, frightened by the thought that Han
would be the next target of the Qin state, immediately sent
diplomats to surrender the entire kingdom without a fight,
saving the Han populace from the terrible potential
Animated map of the Warring States period[8]
consequences of an unsuccessful resistance.

Conquest of Wei

In 225 BC, Qin conquered Wei. The Qin army led a direct invasion into Wei by besieging its capital Daliang
but soon realized that the city walls were too tough to break into. They devised a new strategy in which they
utilized the power of a local river that was linked to the Yellow River. The river was used to flood the city's
walls, causing massive devastation to the city. Upon
realizing the situation, King Jia of Wei hurriedly came out
of the capital and surrendered it to the Qin army in order to
avoid further bloodshed of his people.

Conquest of Chu

In 223 BC, Qin conquered Chu. The first invasion was

however an utter disaster when 200,000 Qin troops, led by
the inexperienced general, Li Xin, were defeated by
500,000 Chu troops in the unfamiliar territory of Huaiyang,
modern-day northern Jiangsu and Anhui provinces. Xiang
Unification of Qin from 230 BC to 211 BC
Yan, the Chu commander, had lured Qin by allowing a few
initial victories, but then counterattacked and burnt two
large Qin camps.

The following year, Wang Jian was recalled to lead a second invasion with
600,000 men. High in morale after their victory in the previous year, the Chu
forces were content to sit back and defend against what they expected to be a siege
of Chu. However, Wang Jian decided to weaken Chu's resolve and tricked the Chu
army by appearing to be idle in his fortifications whilst secretly training his troops
to fight in Chu territory. After a year, the Chu defenders decided to disband due to
apparent lack of action from the Qin. Wang Jian invaded at that point, with full
force, and overran Huaiyang and the remaining Chu forces. Chu lost the initiative
and could only sustain local guerrilla-style resistance until it too was fully
conquered with the destruction of Shouchun and the death of its last leader, Lord
A drinking cup carved from
Changping, in 223 BC. At their peak, the combined armies of Chu and Qin are
crystal, unearthed at
estimated to have ranged from hundreds of thousands to a million soldiers, more Banshan, Hangzhou,
than those involved in the campaign of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years Warring States period,
earlier.[10] Hangzhou Museum.

Conquest of Zhao and Yan

In 222 BC, Qin conquered Zhao and Yan. After the conquest of Zhao, the Qin army turned its attention towards
Yan. Realizing the danger and gravity of this situation, Crown Prince Dan of Yan had sent Jing Ke to
assassinate King Zheng of Qin, but this failure only helped to fuel the rage and determination of the Qin king,
and he increased the number of troops to conquer the Yan state.

Conquest of Qi

In 221 BC, Qin conquered Qi. Qi was the final unconquered warring state. It had not previously contributed or
helped other states when Qin was conquering them. As soon as Qin's intention to invade it became clear, Qi
swiftly surrendered all its cities, completing the unification of China and ushering in the Qin dynasty. The last
Qi king lived out his days in exile in Gong and was not given a posthumous name after death, therefore he is
known to posterity by his personal name Jian.

The Qin king Zheng declared himself Qin Shi Huangdi, The first Sovereign Emperor of Qin".[9]

In the rule of the Qin state, the union was based solely on military power. The feudal holdings were abolished,
and noble families were forced to live in the capital of China, Xianyang in order to be supervised. A national
road as well as greater use of canals was used in order for deployment and supply of the army to be done with
ease and speed. The peasants were given a wider range of rights in regards of land, although they were subject
to taxation, creating a large amount of revenue to the state.[9]
Military theory and practice
Increasing scale of warfar e

The chariot remained a major factor in Chinese warfare long

after it went out of fashion in the Middle East. Near the
beginning of the Warring States period there is a shift from
chariots to massed infantry, possibly associated with the
invention of the crossbow. This had two major effects. First it
led the dukes to weaken their chariot-riding nobility so they
could get direct access to the peasantry who could be drafted
as infantry. This change was associated with the shift from
aristocratic to bureaucratic government. Second, it led to a
Iron sword of the Period of Warring States.
massive increase in the scale of warfare. When the Zhou
overthrew the Shang at the Battle of Muye they used 45,000
troops and 300 chariots. For the Warring States period the
following figures for the military strengths of various states
are reported:

Qin
1,000,000 infantry, 1,000 chariots, 10,000 horses;
Chu
same numbers;
Wei
200360,000 infantry, 200,000 spearmen, 100,000
servants, 600 chariots, 5,000 cavalry;
Han A Chinese soldier's bronze helmet, from theState of
300,000 total; Yan, dated to the Zhou Dynasty.
Qi
several hundred thousand;

For major battles, the following figures are reported:

Battle of Maling
100,000 killed;
Battle of Yique
240,000 killed;
General Bai Qi is said to have been responsible for
890,000 enemy deaths over his career.

Many scholars think these numbers are exaggerated (records

are inadequate, they are much larger than those from similar Model of a Warring States period tractiontrebuchet.
societies, soldiers were paid by the number of enemies they
killed and the Han dynasty had an interest in exaggerating the
bloodiness of the age before China was unified). Regardless of exaggeration, it seems clear that warfare had
become excessive during this period. The bloodshed and misery of the Warring States period goes a long way
in explaining China's traditional preference for a united throne.[11]

Military developments

The Warring States period saw the introduction of many innovations to the art of warfare in China, such as the
use of iron and of cavalry.
Warfare in the Warring States period evolved considerably from the Spring and Autumn period, as most armies
made use of infantry and cavalry in battles, and the use of chariots became less widespread. The use of massed
infantry made warfare bloodier and reduced the importance of the aristocracy, which in turn made the kings
more despotic. From this period onward, as the various states competed with each other by mobilizing their
armies to war, nobles in China belonged to the literate class, rather than to the warrior class as had previously
been the case.

The various states fielded massive armies of infantry, cavalry, and chariots. Complex logistical systems
maintained by efficient government bureaucracies were needed to supply, train, and control such large forces.
The size of the armies ranged from tens of thousands to several hundred thousand men.[12] Iron became more
widespread and began to replace bronze. Most armour and weapons of this period were made from iron.

The first official native Chinese cavalry unit was formed in 307 BC during the military reforms of King Wuling
of Zhao, who advocated 'Nomadic dress and horse archery'.[13] But the war chariot still retained its prestige and
importance, despite the tactical superiority of cavalry.

The crossbow was the preferred long-range weapon of this period, due to several reasons. The crossbow could
be mass-produced easily, and mass training of crossbowmen was possible. These qualities made it a powerful
weapon against the enemy.

Infantrymen deployed a variety of weapons, but the most popular was the dagger-axe. The dagger-axe came in
various lengths, from 9 to 18 feet; the weapon consisted of a thrusting spear with a slashing blade appended to
it. Dagger-axes were an extremely popular weapon in various kingdoms, especially for the Qin, who produced
18-foot-long pike-like weapons.

Military thought

The Warring States was a great period for military strategy; of the Seven Military Classics of China, four were
written during this period:

The Art of War

It is attributed to Sun Tzu, a highly influential study of strategy and tactics.[14]
Wuzi
It is attributed to Wu Qi, a statesman and commander who served the states of Wei and then Chu.
Wei Liaozi
of uncertain authorship.
The Methods of the Sima
It is attributed to Sima Rangju, a commander serving the state of Qi.

Culture and society

The Warring States period was an era of intensive warfare, as well as
bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation; the major states,
ruling over large territories, quickly sought to consolidate their powers,
leading to the final erosion of the Zhou court's prestige. As a sign of
this shift, the rulers of all the major states (except for Chu, which had
claimed kingly title much earlier) abandoned their former feudal titles
for the title of , or King, claiming equality with the rulers of the
Zhou. A Chinese lacquerware drinking vessel
(over wood), Warring States period,
At the same time, the constant conflict and need for innovative social Honolulu Museum of Art
and political models led to the development of many philosophical
doctrines, later known as the Hundred Schools of Thought. The most
notable schools of thought include Mohism, expounded by Mozi;
Confucianism, represented by Mencius and Xunzi, and Legalism, represented
by Shang Yang, Shen Buhai, Shen Dao and Han Fei, and Taoism, represented
by Zhuangzhi and Lao Tzu.

The many states that were competing between each other attempted to display
their power not only militarily but in their courts and state philosophy. Many
differing rulers adopted the differing philosophies in their own advantage or
that of their kingdom.

Mencius attempted to instate Confucianism as a state philosophy through

proposing that through the governing of moral principles like benevolence and
righteousness, the state would win popular support from one state and those
neighboring, eliminating the need of a war altogether. Mencius had attempted
A nephrite pendant in the shape
to convince King Hui of Liang, although was unsuccessful since the king saw
of a man wearing silk robes,
no advantage in the period of wars.[15]
5th-3rd centuries BC, Warring
States period, Arthur M.
Mohism was developed by Mozi (468376 BC) and it provided a unified moral
Sackler Museum
and political philosophy based on impartiality and benevolence.[16] Mohists
had the belief that people change depending on environments around. The same
was applied to rulers, which is why one must be cautious of foreign influences.
Mozi was very much against warfare, although he was a great tactician in defense. He defended the small state
of Song from many attempts of the Chu state.[17]

Taoism was advocated by Laozi, and believed that human nature was good and can achieve perfection by
returning to original state. It believed that like a baby, humans are simple and innocent although with
development of civilizations it lost its innocence only to be replaced by fraud and greed. Contrarily to other
schools, it did not want to gain influence in the offices of states and Laozi even refused to be in the minister of
the state of Chu.[17]

Legalism created by Shang Yang in 338 BC, rejected all notions of religion and practices, and believed a nation
should be governed by strict law. Not only were severe punishments applied, but they would be grouped with
the families and made mutually responsible for criminal act. It proposed radical reforms, and established a
society based on solid ranks. Peasants were encouraged to practice agriculture as occupation, and military
performance was rewarded. Laws were also applied to all ranks with no exception; even the king was not above
punishment. The philosophy was adapted by the Qin state and it created it into a well-organized, centralized
state with a bureaucracy chosen on the basis of merit.[15] This period is most famous for the establishment of
complex bureaucracies and centralized governments, as well as a clearly established legal system. The
developments in political and military organization were the basis of the power of the Qin state, which
conquered the other states and unified them under the Qin Empire in 221 BC.

Nobles, bureaucrats and reformers

The phenomenon of intensive warfare, based on mass formations of infantry rather than the traditional chariots,
was one major trend which led to the creation of strong central bureaucracies in each of the major states. At the
same time, the process of secondary feudalism which permeated the Spring and Autumn period, and led to such
events as the partition of Jin and the usurpation of Qi by the Tian clan, was eventually reversed by the same
process of bureaucratisation.

The reforms of Shang Yang in Qin, and of Wu Qi in Chu, both centred on increased centralisation, the
suppression of the nobility, and a vastly increased scope of government based on Legalist ideals, which were
necessary to mobilise the large armies of the period.

Sophisticated arithmetic
A bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the Tsinghua collection dated to 305
BC are the worlds' earliest example of a two digit decimal multiplication
table, indicating that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already
established during this period.[18]

Literature
An important literary achievement of the Warring States period is the Zuo
Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, which summarizes the
preceding Spring and Autumn period. The less famous work Guoyu is
thought to be by the same author.

Many sayings of Spring and Autumn philosophers, which had previously

been circulated orally, were put into writing in the Warring States. These
include the Analects and The Art of War. The Tsinghua Bamboo Slips,
containing the world's earliest
Economic developments decimal multiplication table, dated
305 BC
The Warring States period saw the proliferation of iron working in China,
replacing bronze as the dominant type of metal used in warfare. Areas such
as Shu (present-day Sichuan) and Yue (present-day Zhejiang) were also brought into the Chinese cultural
sphere during this time. Trade also became important, and some merchants had considerable power in politics,
the most prominent of which was L Buwei, who rose to become Chancellor of Qin and was a key supporter of
the eventual Qin Shihuang.

At the same time, the increased resources of consolidated, bureaucratic states, coupled with the logistical needs
of mass levies and large-scale warfare, led to the proliferation of economic projects such as large-scale
waterworks. Major examples of such waterworks include the Dujiangyan Irrigation System, which controlled
the Min River in Sichuan and turned the former backwater region into a major Qin logistical base, and the
Zhengguo Canal which irrigated large areas of land in the Guanzhong Plain, again increasing Qin's agricultural
output.

See also
Sengoku period
A period in Japanese history named after this period

Footnotes
1. S. Cook, San De and Warring States Views on Heavenly Retribution. Journal of Chinese Philosophy
37. (2010) pp. 101123
2. Shi Ji, chapter 15
3. Shi Ji, chapter 46
4. Shi Ji, chapter 16
5. Shi Ji, chapter 4
6. Shi Ji, chapter 5
7. Shi Ji, chapter 69
8. MDBG (http://www.mdbg.net/chindict/chindict.php?page=worddict&wdrst=0&wdqb=),
Skord:
9. Cotterell (2010), pp. 9091.
10. Lewis (1999), pp. 626629.
11. Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy, The Cambridge History of Ancient China,1999,page 625
12. Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. ?
13. Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. 29.
 14. Tzu & Griffith (1963), p. v.
15. Stephen G. Haw. A travellers history of China. Interlink Books. (Canada 2008) Library of Congress.
pp. 6471
16. Fraser, Chris (1 January 2015). "Mohism" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mohism/). The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
17. Lu & Ke (2012).
18. NatureThe 2,300-year-old matrix is the world's oldest decimal multiplication table (http://www.nature.co
m/news/ancient-times-table-hidden-in-chinese-bamboo-strips-1.14482)

References
Cotterell, Arthur (2010), Asia, a Concise History, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-470-
82959-2.
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006), Pre-Modern East Asia: A Cultural,
Social, and Political History, Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, ISBN 0-618-13386-0.
Lewis, Mark Edward (1999), "Warring States Political History", in Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy,
Edward L., The Cambridge history of ancient China: from the origins of civilization to 221 B.C.,
Cambridge University Press, pp. 587649, ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.
Lu, Liqing; Ke, Jinhua (2012), "A Concise History of Chinese Psychology of Religion", Pastoral
Psychology, 61 (56): 623639, doi:10.1007/s11089-011-0395-y.
Tzu, Sun; Griffith, Samuel B. (1963), The Art of War, New York: Oxford University Press

Further reading
Li Xueqin. Eastern Zhou and Qin Civilizations. Trans. K.C. Chang. New Haven: Yale University Press,
1985. ISBN 0-300-03286-2.
Yap, Joseph P. (2009). Wars With The Xiongnu, A Translation from Zizhi tongjian. AuthorHouse,
Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.A. ISBN 978-1-4490-0604-4.
Zizhi tongjian, Warring States and Qin by Sima Guang, Volume 1 to 8 - 403-207 BCE. Trans.Joseph P.
Yap CreateSpace, 2016. ISBN 978-1533086938. LCCN: 2016908788.

External links
Warring States Project, University of Massachusetts Amherst
Rulers of the warring states Chinese Text Project

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&oldid=793197572"

This page was last edited on 31 July 2017, at 07:36.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may
apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia is a registered
trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.