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Solar PV basics

We call photovoltaic conversion the process of converting sunlights energy into electricity
through electronic devices based on semiconductor materials.

Solar energy can also be converted into heat. This application is called solar thermal energy. The
image shows a solar water heater.
In addition to generating heat and electricity, solar energy can also be converted into chemical
energy as well. We refer to that conversion as solar fuels. For producing solar fuels, photovoltaic
and regenerative fuel cells can be combined. Sunlight can also be directly converted into fuels
using photo electrochemical devices.

Solar electric systems or solar photovoltaic systems convert light energy into electricity using
photovoltaic cells made from layers of semi- conducting material, usually silicon.

The conversion of light into electricity is based on three important principles:

The first is excitation of free mobile charge carriers due to light absorption,
The second is separation of the charge carriers and,
The third one is collection of the charge carriers at the contacts.

Assembly of cells are used to make up solar panels, also called solar modules. Modules or
panels together constitute photovoltaic arrays.

Solar PV systems can be connected to the grid or can work as isolated systems for the use of
single household or institutions in areas where the grid is unavailable or just not reliable.

Solar PV systems are on grid when they are connected to the grid and off grid when they are
not.

On grid or grid-tied PV systems export excess energy to the grid. In case the sun is not available,
the connected loads get power from the grid.

A standalone PV system involves the use of storage batteries. The batteries store the excess
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energy generated by the PV array and, in it turn; provide electricity to the connected load when
the sun is not available.

Photovoltaic cells are categorized based on the type of semiconductor material used to build
them.

The three main types of PV cells in use are mono-crystalline silicon; poly-crystalline silicon and
thin films.

The most dominant PV technology is based on the use of silicon wafers that are typically 150-
200 microns (one fifth of a millimeter) thick. This technology represents around 90% of the
current PV market and belongs to the first generation PV technology.

Another PV technology based on silicon is thin film silicon. In this case no silicon wafers are
used but very thin layers of silicon, which are deposited on glass or flexible substra. This
technology belongs to the second generation.

Third generation PV technology covers a wide range of new novel and innovative ideas.
Most of them are still under testing.

Apart from their visual aspect the most obvious difference between PV cell technologies is in its
conversion efficiency:

Mono-crystalline silicon:12.5-15%
Poly-crystalline silicon:11-14%
Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS): 10-
13% Cadmium Telluride (CdTe):9-12%
Amorphous Silicon (a-Si):5-7%

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Remember, solar PV modules are made of the aggregation of cells; you should be aware that
cells efficiency impact on the size of the modules: under standard test conditions, and an
irradiance of 1000W/m, with an efficiency of 12.5% a mono-crystalline panel sizing 1m will
produce 125W. Under the same conditions, an amorphous silicon panel of the same size but
having 5% efficiency will generate only50W

Another important differentiator in solar PV performance, especially in hot climates, is the

temperature coefficient of power. PV cell performance declines as cell temperature rises.
Compared to crystalline technologies thin films have a lower negative temperature coefficient
In other words, they tend to lose less of their rated capacity as temperature rises.

Its important to understand the relationship between temperature and voltage. While
temperature does have a slight impact on current, it has a significant impact on voltage.

Lets now move to solar PV terms; for design purpose, you need to understand the information
delivered on the modules specification sheet.

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Modules performances are tested under predetermined conditions. These are the standard test
conditions (STC). To meet the test conditions, cells, not ambient, temperature of 25 degree
Celsius and an irradiance of 1000w/m must be respected.

Solar panels are DC electricity sources. DC electricity refers to direct current. In DC electrical
systems, the charge carriers flow or movement stays the same at all times. In contradiction;
alternating current or AC refers to electrical systems where the electric charge carriers
periodically reverse their moving direction. Diesel generators and the grid for example are AC
sources.

Electrical energy supposes the flow of electrons within a conductor. Electrical energy comes from
the conversion of other forms of energies: a generator for example convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy.

Electrical energy is measured in kWh; it is the product of power expressed in kW and time
expressed in hours. Therefore, Electrical energy is power over time. In our everyday life, KWh is
what we pay power companies for.

Electric power in watt is obtained by multiplying voltage expressed in volts and current
expressed in amps. Power is defined as the rate at which energy is supplied to a circuit or a
load; it is energy over an instant.

But, what is voltage and what is current? Electricity is the flow of electrons and the current the
amount of electrons passing in a single point of a circuit.

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 Making an analogy with a water hose, current can be compared with the quantity of water and
voltage with the force or pressure that is necessary to move water within the hose.

Just like in a water hose, if we increase the voltage, or the pressure, then the current or the
water flow will increase.

Resistance refers to the resistance to the flow of electricity through a conductor. It is measured
in ohm. Resistance reduces the voltage. Referring again to a water hose, an increase in the
pressure causes the flow to increase, but getting a kink in the hose, increasing the resistance,
will cause the flow to decrease.

Voltage drop in a circuit is calculated by multiplying current and resistance. The relationship
between voltage, current, and resistance is described by Ohm's law.

Together, a power source, conductors and loads make an electric circuit.

Electric circuits can be configured in series or in parallel to power several loads, such as light
bulbs, TVs, washing machines and others.

In a series circuit made of load 1 and load 2, the negative of the load 1 is connected to the
positive of the load2.

Current is constant in a series circuit and voltage ads.

In a parallel circuit, the negative of the loads 1 and 2 are connected together and the positives,
separate from the negatives are also connected together.

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 In a parallel circuit current ads and voltage remains constant.

For large-scale generation of solar electricity solar panels are connected together into a solar
array. The PV array consists of strings of solar panels, where string means that the panels are
connected in series. A PV module or solar module or again solar panel itself, is made up of the
interconnection of solar cells.
Solar cells within a PV module can be connected in different ways: first, cells can be connected in
series. In a series connection the voltages add up.

For example, if the open circuit voltage of one cell is equal to 0.6 V, a string of three cells
will deliver an open circuit voltage of 1.8 V.

For solar cells with a classical front metal grid, a series connection can be established by
connecting the bus bars at the front side with the back contact of the neighbor cell. For series
connected cells, the current does not add up but is determined by the photocurrent in each solar
cell. Hence, the total current in a string of solar cells is equal to the current generated by one
single solar cell. If we connect two solar cells in series, the voltages add up while the current stays
the same. The resulting open circuit voltage is two times the voltage of the single cell. If we
connect three solar cells in series, the open circuit voltage becomes three times as large, whereas
the current is still that of one single solar cell.

Secondly, we can connect solar cells in parallel. In parallel, the voltage is the same over all cells,
while the currents of the cells add up.

If we connect e.g. three cells in parallel, the current becomes three times as large, while
the voltage is the same as for one single cell

For a PV module, the voltage and current output can be partially tuned via the arrangements of
the solar cells connections. On a typical PV module that contains 36 solar cells connected in
series. If a single junction solar cell would have a short circuit current of 5 A, and an open circuit
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voltage of 0.6 V, the total module would have an output of Voc = 36 multiplied by 0.6V which is =
21.6V and Isc = 5 A.

However, if two strings of 18 series-connected cells are connected in parallel, the output of the
module will be:
Voc = 18 multiplied by 0.6V = 10.8V and,
Isc = 2 times 5A = 10 A.

In general, for the current-voltage characteristics of a module consisting of m identical cells in

series and n identical cells in parallel the voltage multiplies by a factor m while the current
multiplies by a factor n. This also applies for the PV array: the voltage of a PV array made of m
identical strings in series and n identical string in parallel is equal to the voltage of a single string
and the current is equal to the current of a single module multiplied by n identical strings.

Electricity represents 17% of the entire Worlds secondary energy use. It is important to note that
without electricity modern society as we know it would not have been possible: access to
electricity strongly determines our living standard.

However, today, 1.3 billion people in the world, many of whom living in isolated areas, still do not
have access to electricity and to clean water, primary health care, education and other basic
services. Changing this situation depends to a large extent on access to electricity. Photovoltaic
can significantly contribute to economic and social development of those populations living off
the grid. With decreasing PV prices, PV / diesel hybrid mini-grids attract significant attention from
institutions in charge of rural electrification.

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 2. Stand-alone PV systems

What makes a standalone PV system different from a grid connected system is that its not
connected to the grid. The PV modules are responsible of producing enough energy to meet
the load requirement.

Excess energy is stored in a battery bank which in it turn provides electricity to the connected
loads when the sun is not available.

The brighter the sunlight, the more the voltage the PV modules produce, then, a charge
controller is used to prevent overcharging or excessive discharge of the battery bank.

The brighter the sun, the more the voltage but, what if a string of cloudy days happens? Or,
what if you draw more power than what the battery bank can support? Off course the battery
bank will get empty, the system will go down and you will run out of power. To prevent this, the
battery bank is over sized.

In the same goal, off grid solar PV systems are often supported by a generator set or a wind
turbine to enable continuous charging of the battery bank.

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It is also advisable to reduce load demand: all the connected appliances must be the most energy
efficient.

Power from the PV modules up to the battery bank is DC. If AC loads has to be connected to the
system, an inverter is then necessary. The inverter is responsible of converting DC power from the
battery bank into AC power usable by most of appliances.

Four major issues arise when designing standalone PV systems:

1. The load (power) required to be supplied by the system is not constant over the period of one
day;

2. Daily energy usage is not constant over the year;

3. The amount of energy available from the PV array may change from time to time during the
day;

4. The amount energy available from the PV array will change from day to day during the year.
Since the system is based on photovoltaic modules, then a comparison should be undertaken
between the available energy from the sun and the actual energy demands. The worst month is
when the ratio between solar energy available and energy demand is smallest.

Basic system design process follows 4 steps:

Step 1. Determination of the energy usage that the system must supply.
Step 2. Determination of the battery storage required.
Step 3. Determination of the energy input required from the PV array
Step 4. Selection of the remaining system components.

Additionally, off grid PV systems design is influenced by budget and site constraints.

Again here, the importance of energy efficiency is revealed; making small changes on the way
energy is used could make a big difference on the size of the system you need and therefore help
fit in the available budget.

Solar modules produce more power when they are pointed directly to the sun. Designer should
inspect the site and find out to comply with this requirement. Additionally, suitable areas should
be found where controller, battery bank and inverter will be located.

Furthermore when designing a system, it must comply with local electrical standards
requirements.

3. Hybrid PV Systems
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A hybrid energy system supplies energy to specific loads by combining energy from more than one
source, either conventional fossil fuel based or renewable.

When at least one renewable source of energy is included in such a system, the system is then
described as Hybrid Renewable Energy System.

A hybrid energy system does not necessarily include a storage unit. In a mini-grid, the hybrid system
is connected to a local AC distribution network. As PV power output is DC and mini-grids operate in
AC, at the heart of the hybrid system are the multifunctional inverter, a device which converts DC
into AC and rectify AC to DC to charge the batteries. The multifunctional inverter also controls the
generator switching on and off; monitor the storage systems and set up the voltage and frequency
of the mini-grid.

Hybrid PV systems are designed to increase the reliability of solar. In hybrid PV systems, the most
used conventional source is a diesel generator.

The benefit of integration of photovoltaic energy with conventional fossil fuel based generator is
that the weakness of solar are complemented by the strength of the generator and conversely.
Solar resource, as all other renewable source of energy, is variable in nature; its cant all the time
and everywhere be reliable. A generator which can locally produce enough power to supply the
load makes hybrid systems more reliable. On the other end, running a generator on low loads is
highly inefficient: even at zero loads, a generator consumes up to 30% of full load consumption.

Generators high running cost due to their fuel consumption and continuous maintenance
requirements can be drastically reduced in a hybrid system. Under normal conditions, excess
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energy from the PV array is stored within batteries which will supply load in case there is no energy
available from the PV array. The generator is only used to compensate the PV array when the load
has reached a certain level or the batteries are at their maximum allowed discharge while the PV
array is not fully available.

Hybrid PV systems are suitable for:

Off grid or unreliable grid areas

Remote industries such as mines, oil & gas and desalination
Large farms or for irrigation
Hotels and resorts
Offices and warehouses

They are the best solution:

Where a generator could be used 24h/7;

When the effective cost of fuel at the point of consumption, including transportation and
storage, exceed one dollar per liter
Where there is willingness to save operational expenditure or to reduce on CO2 emissions
and going green.

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