Saint Marys University.

Key Study words and brief notes for Astronomy 1001.2 all sections.

Key words for each chapter are mine and are bold faced.
The notes are currently incomplete. they are a work in progress.
It is everyones opinion that they are much better then nothing!
I agree. I hope they help your studying.! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! --Doug Pitcairn, Instructor.

Chapter 13 Taking the measure of Stars

Angular Measurement
! Degrees/minutes/seconds
Parallax
! Concept
! Baseline
! ! Eyes
! ! Earth
! ! Earth Orbit
Magnitude Scale
! History (Hipparchus)
! ! Visual
! ! Absolute.

! Weins law colour temperature

! Stefans Law energy T4

!
Spectral Lines
! Review Kirchoffs laws.
Spectral Classes
! Composition? Temperature
Spectrally derived information. (review)

Binary Stars
! -visible
! astrometric
! -CPM (common proper motion )
! ! real space, tangential,radial,proper.
! -Spectroscopic 1 line / 2 line!
! -Eclipsing
! Mass transfer

HR Diagram
! history
! sizes
! patterns

Angular measurement is used to determine the distance between two points on a spherical
surface. Since we perceive the sky as a sphere, angular measures are used to indicate separations
between objects in the sky. The units are degrees, minutes and seconds.
A degree is 1/360th of a circle. It is about the width of a penny viewed at arms length.
A minute of arc is 1/60th of a degree, it is about the width of a penny viewed across the width
of a football field.
A second of arc is 1/60th of a minute. Its about the width of a penny viewed from the other
! ! side of the halifax harbour.

Parallax is a physical effect that can be used as an important and fundamental way of
determine the distance to an unreachable but viewable object.
Parallax is the shift in a nearby objects viewed position in relation to a more distant object,
when the person shifts their viewing position. This can be a simple close observation, such as the
view though your two eyes when holding up a finger in front of you. The finger appears to jump
back and forth as you open first the right, then the left eye. Or it can be used to measure the
distance to a distant object, such as a far away tree.
In astronomy. we generally use the width of the Earth's orbit around the sun, as shown in the
diagram below.

Parallax angle (theta in the above diagram) can be measured directly by comparing the two
views (winter versus summer) and then a bit of geometry will determine the distance to the nearby
star. The distance you can measure is related to the size of the baseline. (distance between the two
viewing positions).
With the Earth as a baseline, we can measure distances to objects within the solar system, with
the Earths orbit as a baseline, we can measure distances out to several thousand light-years.
 Magnitude scales:
!
Stellar magnitude refers to how bright the star is in the sky. First developed by the ancient
Greek Hipparchus, who chose six levels of brightness for the stars in the sky, with first magnitude
being the brightest, and 6th magnitude being the faintest stars you can see.
(Note, this is reversed to what might be more reasonable, as the smaller the number, the
BRIGHTER is the object!)
In Galileos time the telescope showed fainter stars, and it was necessary to extend the scale up
to higher numbers, 7 thru 12 and so on. In the 19th century, the scale became precisely defined,
with the star Vega as 0.00 magnitude, and 5 magnitudes being equal to 100X in brightness. (ie; 15
mag difference = i million times brighter. 100 x 100 x 100)

Magnitude # = is as bright as!

30 = Campfire spark from 100,000 km away, visible in very large pro telescopes.
20 = Campfire spark from 1000 km away, visible in modest pro telescopes.
15 = Campfire spark form 10 km away, brightness of pluto. large amateur telescope
10 = Stars easily visible in typical binoculars.
6 = Faint naked eye stars
3 = typical stars in night sky
1 = brighter stars
-3 = Planets in the sky
-12 = Full Moon or brightness of street lamp when your standing under it.
-27 = Sun in the daytime sky.
-50 = Nuke at close range!

Visual magnitude

Because these are the brightnesses of stars as we see them with our eyesight, this scale is called
the Visual Magnitude Scale.

Fainter Stars are more numerous. The number of stars visible in the sky at a given magnitude
increases rapidly as you go up to fainter magnitudes. There are a few hundred 3rd mag stars, but
thousands of 6th mag stars, and hundreds of thousands of 10th mag stars. The reason for this is
fainter stars tend to be further away, (thats why they are fainter) and the further away you look,
the larger the volume of space contributing stars to that brightness level!

Absolute magnitude

Absolute magnitude (MA) is the magnitude a star would have if it was relocated to a distance
of 32. light years, (or 10 ParSecs!) It is thus entirely dependent on the stars actual luminosity. If star
A has an MA of 2, and another has an MA of 7. Then star A is 100 times more luminous then star B.
Absolute magnitude can be thought of as the "wattage" of a star. It is a property of the star itself and
not affected by the distance to the star from the viewer. (ie., A hundred watt light bulb is always 100
watts, if its in your face, or two kilometers away across a lake.)
 Stellar properties, How we determine them.

Weins Law
A formula which essentially states that the peak of the black body spectrum moves towards the
high energy end of the spectrum as you raise the temperature.

Stephans Law
Total energy radiated is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature.

Together these two laws account for the behavior of black body radiation.

Spectral Classes

The graphic below shows the spectra of different stars. Although all these stars all have
similar composition, you can see a great variation in the line pattern produced. At first a mystery,
now we know this is due to the different temperatures of the photospheres of the stars. As the
temperature goes higher, thermal effects alter which electrons are available to make the jump, and
 there fore the line pattern changes. (For example, a particular line might be the result of electron
jumping from level 1, up to level 2. But, if the temperature already has all the electrons in level
three, then there is no electrons available to jump from one to two, and that line will not exist.)
Astronomers classify the spectra from hotter to cooler with the sequence OBAFGKM,
(memory hint. Oh Be A Fine Gorilla Kiss Me)!) They use the line pattern to determine the
temperature of a star.

We categorize binaries by the method we discover them. Here is a list of the common categories:

1) Visible: If the star is close enough, we can actually see the two stars going around each other.
2) Astrometric: Only one star is visible, but you can see it wiggling back and forth as it orbits the
unseen companion.
3)CPM Common Proper Motion: Two close stars are moving in the same direction in space. one
infers that they are actually binaries, but perhaps with a long period
4)Spectroscopic ( 2 Line ) The stars spectra regularly splits into pairs as the two members orbit about
each other. One is blue shifted, and the other one is red shifted.
 5) Spectroscopic ( 1 Line ) The stars spectral lines wiggle back and forth. same as above, but one
stars lines are too faint to see.
6) Eclipsing: Astronomers favorite! The star has regular dips in it light curve as a result of each star
passing in front of the other one. (thus hiding some of the companions light from view.

Mass Exchange: The twos stars stay together throughout their lives. They will likely not have any
planets, as such a system is gravitationally unstable, planets would probably get either
ejected or eaten by one of the stars. Also, as the stars age, the more massive one will start to
expand and material from it will be drawn down onto the other, a so called mass exchange
binary. This has major implications, more about this later.

line from the upper left to the lower right. This is called the main sequence. Another large group
run from the centre to the upper right (the giants) , and a small number are found scatted across the top
( the supergiants) and in the lower left corner. (the white dwarfs).

Chapter 14 The Sun

Physical description / size

History of source of energy
Overall properties
! temperature
! pressure
 ! hydrostatic equilibrium
How do we know
! models
! helioseismography
! neutrino astronomy
!
Fusion (p-p chain)
Stability
Passive vs Active
! Passive
! ! core
! ! radiative zone
! ! convective zone
! ! photosphere
! ! chromosphere
! ! corona
! ! solar wind
! Active
! ! magnetic field source / cycle
! ! sunspots
! ! prominences
! ! flares / CMEs
! ! effects on earth (aurora )

Physical description / size-

Spectral type of G2. Mass of sun is 1.99 x 10(30) kg, 15 million k core temperature, dropping to 5600K at
the top of the photosphere.

History of source of energy-

Coal burning would last 10,000 years

Gravitational contraction would last 50,000,000 years
Only possible source to explain lifetime is nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. Called hydrogen
burning, the actual reactions involved are a process called the p-p chain. (see diagram)
The net reaction is four hydrogen nuclei (protons) turn into one Helium4 nucleus and release energy in
the form of gamma rays.

Strong nuclear force - Glues protons and neutrons together in the nucleus. Energy changes involving this
powerful force are at the root of the energy released in the PP chain.

Sun, Overall properties

Temperature-
The temperature on the Sun's surface (photosphere) is 6,000 degrees Celsius.
In the center (core), the temperature is an incredible 15,000,000 (15 million) degrees Celsius.

Pressure-
Pressure and gravity is key balance inside the sun, increases further into the sun.
- at each point within the sun the outward push of pressure is balanced by the inward pull of gravity.
- if gravity were stronger the sun would collapse, if pressure were stronger the sun would
explode.

hydrostatic equilibrium-
Pressure at any point within the sun must be just enough to hold up the weight of all the layers above
that point.
- As we move deeper into the sun the weight above increases as does pressure. Higher pressure means
higher density and temperature . Balance occurs with density, temperature and pressure

We learn about the suns interior with three methods.

1) Computer Models-
A model of the sun must start with no more info than the mass and chemical composition and from
these it must predict all other observed properties. However, the sun, at first look, is quite simple a
huge ball of gas. Because we have good laws that describe the properties of gasses, and heat, and gravity,
we are able to accurately model the Sun. The techniques are similar to those used by meteorologists to
predict weather changes here on the Earth.

2) Helioseismography-
The use of solar oscillations to study the interior of the sun. Our instruments can monitor the
doppler shift (see notes) of gasses in the Sun, and sophisticated computer programs can turn this
information into data regarding the "goings on" inside the star. This process is similar to using
ultrasound to see a baby in a mother's womb.

3) Neutrino astronomy-
A branch of astronomy studying neutrino particles: These small sub-atomic particles are released
from the many atomic reactions which take place inside the sun. Neutrinos are able to go through
everything at almost the speed of light. We use special instruments to capture and study a small
percentage of these, thus obtaining clues about processes going on deep in the solar interior.

Fusion (proton-proton chain)-

An energy releasing nuclear reaction chain which is important in our sun and other low mass stars.
(See p-p chain diagram below). In a series of three reactions, hydrogen nuclei (protons) collide and
become helium nuclei, losing some mass in the process which gets released in the form of gamma ray
energy. Every second, in the sun's core, about 600,000,000 tons of hydrogen goes through this reaction,
turning into 596,000,000 tons of helium. The missing 4,000,000 tons is converted into energy as predicted
in Einstein's famous equation, E=mc2 . This essentially counts for our sun's energy output.
Above: The proton-proton chain reaction.

Features of the sun can be divided into two classes, (Active) those that come and go with the
magnetic field cycle, and (Passive) those that are present all the time.

The primary parts of the sun are shown in this cutaway view.

Passive Sun
(From the center outwards. reference the above diagram.)
 Core- This is the center of the sun, its "nuclear heart" so to speak. Density of 150x of water and
temperature of 15 million Kelvin's. This is the only area in the sun where energy is produced by the
Proton-Proton chain reaction.

Radiative zone-
Region inside the sun where opacity is low and radiative transfer carries energy produced in the
core outward in the sun. Closer to the core of the sun than convective zone. The photons are repeatedly
absorbed and remitted, resulting in a very indirect outward movement called a drunken walk pattern.

Convective zone-
Higher in the Sun, This zone extends from the outer boundary of the radiative zone out to just
below the photosphere. Here lower temperatures allow electrons to bind with protons to form atoms
again. These electrons are very good at capturing photons, so the opacity greatly increases, and thermal
transfer has to happen by convection.

Photosphere-
The apparent surface of the sun seen in visible light. Not an actual surface, but a region where the
density drops enough to allow the gas to become transparent, thus allowing it to radiate its energy off to
space Thus cooled, the gas descends back into the convection layer.
The photosphere shows a granulated texture, almost like the skin of an orange. These
granulations are actually the tops of convection cells, and are similar to the pattern seen on the surface
of a pot of boiling soup. Each granulation is about the size of Quebec, and they come and go every few
hours.

Chromosphere-
The region in the sun located between the photosphere and corona. the thinning gas begins to be
heated by magnetic effects, so the temperature actually climbs. This area contains many spikes and loops
of plasma being controlled by the suns magnetic field.

Corona-
The hot outer most part of the suns atmosphere. The gas gets thinner but hotter from magnetic
reactions. Extremely hot compared to the photosphere due to magnetic forces. This is the region seen
during an eclipse of the sun as whitish streamers heading out into space in all directions.

Solar wind-
The stream of charged particles emitted by the sun that flows at high speeds through interplanetary
space. The boundary between corona and solar wind is ill defined.

Active Sun

Active magnetic field source / cycle-

A magnetic field is a force field that is able to exert a force on a moving electric charge. Magnetic
fields in astronomy usually require three things. A large mass of electrically conducting fluid in
motion. In the Earth, it is liquid iron in the outer core, in Jupiter, it is metallic hydrogen in the mantle,
in stars, it is moving plasma in the vicinity of the tachocline, the boundary between the convective layer
and the radiative layer. Some stars have very powerful magnetic fields, while others have none.
 The Suns magnetic field starts weak and builds over an 11 year cycle, then erupts out through the
surface of the star before settling back down to begin building again. Features of the active sun come and
go on this same 11 year cycle.

Flares-
Violent intense brightening in the corona, usually around sunspots. Thought to be caused by
compression of plasma by twisting magnetic fields. Develops in minutes, and could last hours. Flares
release bursts of high energy particles, electrons and x-rays out into space. These are blasted out in
random directions close to (or equal, in the case of X-rays) to the speed of light, and do pose some risks to
mankind's activities if they happen to hit the Earth. They will cause auroras, as well as interference in
radio communications and possible damage to satellites in orbit above the Earth. Very powerful flares
can even cause damage to electrical transmission lines here on the Earths surface.

CMEs or Coronal Mass Ejections are large regional explosions of material off photosphere and out
into space. Much larger events then flares, but traveling much slower, CMEs typically take a few days to
reach the Earth. CMEs are usually accompanied by flares, but the opposite is not always true.

Aurora, or as well call them, the Northern Lights, are a result of radiation from the Sun passing
through the earth upper atmosphere. This plasma excites electrons into higher orbits, and when they fall
down, they release light in the form of an emission spectrum.
 Chapter 15 Interstellar Gas / star formation

Nebulae
! general info
! types / radiation / illumination / temperature
! composition gas / dust
! molecular clouds
Stellar Formation
! compression
! ! o stars
! ! nova / supernova
! ! cloud collisions
! ! passing stars
! ! spiral arms
! ! PN formation
! rotation
! ! angular momentum conserved
! heating
! ! gravitational energy released
! Protostars
! ! IR / variable / disks
! T Tauri stage
! ! High rotation rate thus powerful mag field.
! ! IR variability
! ! H-H objects
! ! mag field dissipation
! HR diagram so far.

Chapter 15 Interstellar Gas / star formation

General info

Approximately 99% of the interstellar medium is composed of interstellar gas, and of its mass, about
75% is in the form of hydrogen (either molecular or atomic), with the remaining 25% as helium. The
interstellar gas consists partly of neutral atoms and molecules, as well as charged particles, such as ions
and electrons. This gas is extremely dilute, and although density varies, the average density is about 1
atom per cubic centimeter. (For comparison, the air we breathe has a density of approximately 1020
molecules per cubic centimeter.) Even though the interstellar gas is very dilute, the amount of matter
adds up over the vast distances between the stars. Although found with a range of temperatures and
densities, the interstellar gas is typically found in two forms:
! 1.! Cold, higher density clouds of neutral atomic or molecular hydrogen; and
! 2.! Hot but thinner clouds of ionized hydrogen near hot young stars.

Interstellar dust: it obscures our view. Short wavelength radiation is blocked by dust where long
wavelength is not, so IR telescopes often used for looking through obscured areas.)
Interstellar gas mostly resides in about 2% of interstellar space, called interstellar clouds. The rest is
called inter cloud gas. About half of the gas is ionized and half neutral.

Nebulae- types

A cloud of interstellar gas and dust. We classify them by how they are made visible. If illuminated
by cooler stars, (spectral class A thru M) the gas shines with reflected starlight, and we refer to them as
Reflection nebulae.
If illuminated by hot(spectral class O or B) stars, the gases are excited by UV photons and glow
with the emission lines of hydrogen, appearing red in photographs. This process is similar to the glowing
of a black light poster! We call these Emission Nebulae. The ionized hydrogen is produced when large
amounts of ultraviolet radiation are released by hot newly formed stars. This radiation ionizes the
surrounding clouds of gas. Visible light is emitted when electrons recombine with the ionized hydrogen,
which is seen as beautiful red colors of emission nebulae
If the cloud is seen as a darker mass silhouetted against a illuminated background, we call it a
Dark nebulae.

Molecular clouds
An interstellar cloud composed primarily of molecular hydrogen. Denser and cooler then most gas
clouds, these can collapse under their own weight from self-gravity being greater than pressure. These
cold clouds of neutral or molecular hydrogen are the birthplace of new stars if they become compressed,
allowing them to collapse. They emit feeble but common radiation in the radio band of the
electromagnetic spectrum (especially at 21 cm wavelength)

Stellar formation is usually initiated by some sort of compression by an external agent.

Causes of compression: All of the following have been observed observed to trigger cloud collapse.
! Light pressure from nearby hot stars.
! Shock waves from nova or supernovae explosions,
! Compression fronts caused by cloud collisions.
! Passing stars.
! Density waves associated with spiral arm formation .

As a region implodes, it becomes denser and makes itself visible as a Bok Globule. A small but
relatively dense cloud often visible in pictures of nebulous regions.
 Bok Globules are evident in this photo of the southern Milky Way region.

Rotation sets in as a result of conservation of angular momentum. (figure skaters arms )

The cloud starts to flatten and spin.

The cloud heats up due to the release of vast amounts of gravitational energy. Collisions between
particles become more frequent, resulting in kinetic energy converting to heat.
A molecular cloud core collapses under its own weight
As the center core falls inward faster than the cloud can follow, the cloud collapses from the inside
out, with falling material feeding an accretion disk and growing proto star at its center.
This contracting, spinning disk of gas and dust, with an increasing infrared source in its centre, is
now called a protostar. We see many examples, here are two:

Proto stars- A young undeveloped star that gets its energy from gravitational energy converting to
thermal energy rather than nuclear reactions. We cant see protostars directly because they are relatively
cool and usually hidden in the cloud of dust and gas they are forming from. However, they do release a
lot of heat, and the inner cloud will be warm and thus emit infrared radiation. Gravity pulling material
to the center is balanced with pressure.

T Tauri star- (Strong magnetic field and HH object, IR emission.)As the star contracts further, the
rapid spinning leads to an intense magnetic field, which in turn creates bipolar jets which flare outwards,
often creating Herbig-Haro objects, (H-H Objects) In the centre, the new T Tauri star and its
circumstellar disk become visible. Now the star will begin dispersing enough material around it to be
seen in visible light. T-Tauri stars are found just on top of the main sequence as shown in the HR
diagram below.

! ! The above graphic shows an artist interpretation of what an active T-Tauri star might look
like on the left, and a picture of a Herbig Haro object on the right. The T-Tauri star can clearly be seen in
the middle of the HH object. Soon, the star dispels the rest of the material around it, revealing a new
main sequence star. The remaining metal material in the accretion disk may start to aggregate to form a
planetary system. Remember, the mass of the new star now determines its major characteristics. (Where
it lies on the HR diagram.)