STRENGTH AND SULPHATE RESISTANCE OF CEMENT MORTARS

CONTAINING NEUTRALISED BAUXITE REFINERY RESIDUE (BAUXSOLTM)

Barbhuiya SA1, Basheer PAM1, McPolin D1, Rankin GIB1, Sengupta B1 and Clark MW2*
1
Queens University Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
2
Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia
Abstract
Bauxite refinery residue (BRR) is a major disposal problem in the aluminium industry due to its causticity. BRR can be
neutralised using seawater or by artificial brines, which converts the soluble alkalinity into low soluble minerals; artificially-
neutralised BRR (Bauxsol) is currently marketed by Virotec International plc. The reduced causticity and sodicity, metal
binding and acid neutralising capacity of Bauxsol, suggests that there is potential to use it in cementitious materials
(e.g. concretes) with the possibility to improve their physical properties. On this basis, a comprehensive research
programme was carried out to establish if the use of BauxsolTM in concrete production could provide benefit without any
adverse detrimental affects. Consequently, one of the main concerns was the effect of Bauxsol inclusion in concrete
on its sulphate resistance, due to the high alumina content. Therefore, an investigation into the strength and sulphate
resistance of cement mortar where Bauxsol was used as a partial sand replacement material at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and
20% by cement mass was conducted. Results of these investigations indicated that BauxsolTM may replace the natural
sand up to 10% by cement mass, to improve the compressive strength of cement mortar without affecting the sulphate
resistance. Similar investigations had shown that the BauxsolTM may replace the natural sand up to 15% by cement mass
without detrimentally affecting strength, modulus of elasticity and alkali-aggregate reactivity of the resultant concrete.
Consequently, it is believed that Bauxsol use in concrete could provide an environmentally sustainable way of consuming
large volumes of BRR.

1. Introduction other ceramic products have been made by many researchers

Aluminium is the third most abundant element in the Earths
crust after oxygen and silicon and constitutes 7.3% by mass [1].
In nature, however, it only exists in very stable combinations
with other materials (particularly as silicates and oxides) and
has to be extracted from an ore, most commonly bauxite by a
process called Bayer process. The production of alumina by
the Bayer process results in the creation of process residues,
called bauxite refinery residue (BRR) [2]. The production of 1 ton
of alumina generally results in the generation of 1-1.5 tons of
BRR [3]. In 2006 approximately 60 million tons of alumina was
produced worldwide. This translates to an annual production of
roughly 90 million tones of BRR worldwide [1]. BRR usually has
a pH greater than 13.5 and exits the process stream as slurry
with 15-30% solids [4-6]. It is highly caustic because of the use
of sodium hydroxide in the Bayer process to dissolve alumina
from the bauxite and, hence, BRR represents a major disposal
problem in the aluminium industry. Currently most of the BRR are
stored in ponds or dams [7], although some refineries dispose of
BRR to the sea. The BRR dams occupy large land areas and can
constitute a serious environmental hazard due to high causticity,
exceptionally slow nature of drying and very low physical strength
of BRR [8]. The stored BRR presents potential pollution to soil,
surface water and groundwater, and can pose a serious threat to
the lives and properties if a BRR dam bursts [9,10]. A proportion
of the cost of the alumina produced is spent on managing BRR,
therefore the reuse of BRR is an environmentally beneficial
and may be a potentially cost-effective alternative to long-term
storage in impoundments [11-13].
Over the years, many attempts to find a use for BRR and initial
attempts aimed mainly at re-vegetating the abandoned ponds
[14]. However, this is not an ideal solution because a pollutant
covered or stored is not the solution, but temporarily pushing the
problem out of sight. Moreover, as BRR contains few nutrients,
humus or organic matter, these must be supplied from external
sources to sustain plant growth. Investigations on the use of BRR
as a partial substitute for clay in the production of bricks and
[15-20]. Others have also investigated the application of BRR
in environmental management and remediation purposes after
neutralisation [21-23].
BRR can also be neutralised using the patented Basecon
Technology, which converts the soluble alkalinity in BRR into low
soluble minerals (essentially Ca and Mg hydroxides, carbonates
and hydrocarbonates) [24]. The effect of this is that the pH falls
from 13 to about 9 and sodicity is substantially reduced [25]. This
neutralised BRR, which is currently being marketed by Virotec
International Ltd. under the trade name Bauxsol, provides acid
buffering capacity, excellent trace metal and phosphorous binding
and, hence, it is being used in environmental remediation [26,
27]. Further treatment of the material, such as acid and, heat
treatments, addition of Fe(II) and Fe(III) sulphates, or aluminium
sulphates, has been studied by Genc-Fuhrman et al. [28] in order
to enhance specific geochemical properties of the final product
[29].
Because of the reduced causticity and sodicity of Bauxsol there
is the potential for consuming it in cementitious materials, or to
use it to improve hydrated cement properties and is the basis of
a comprehensive research programme in progress at Queens
University Belfast, UK. A study [30] carried out by the authors
on using BauxsolTM as a natural sand replacement material in
concrete has indicated that, BauxsolTM could be used to replace
the natural sand as fine aggregate up to 15% by mass of cement
without detrimentally affecting strength, modulus of elasticity and
alkali-aggregate reactivity of concrete. However, as the Bauxsol
contains a substantial quantity of alumina, there is a distinct
possibility that, depending on the alumina/sulphate ionic ratio
of the solution, ettringite may form, which may become unstable
and decompose to form mono-sulphate-hydrate. The presence of
a mono-sulphate-hydrate makes the cement mortar vulnerable
to sulphate attack [31]. Therefore, it is essential to examine the
sulphate resistance of cement mortar containing Bauxsol. This
paper reports the compressive strength results and sulphate

Proceedings of the 8th International Alumina Quality Workshop 2008 249

AQW2008_Proceedings_FINAL-121-37249 249 4/08/2008 2:58:09 AM

 resistance of cement mortar in which the Bauxsol was used as
a partial sand replacement material.
2. Experimental Programme
2.1 Materials
Class 42.5N Portland cement supplied by Blue Circle, complying
with BS EN 197-1:2000 [32] as a CEM I material, was used in
this study. The coarse aggregate used was crushed basalt with
20mm and 10mm size fractions mixed in the ratio 2:1 by mass
and the fine aggregate used was medium graded natural sand
complying with BS EN 12620: 2002 [33]. Both materials were
obtained from local sources in Northern Ireland. Bauxsol was
produced at Portoscuso, Sardinia, Italy.
2.2 Mix Proportions
The investigation was carried out in two series- Series A and
Series B. For both the series, the natural sand was replaced with
the BauxsolTM at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% by mass of cement
and the aggregate-cement ratio was fixed at 2.75. Series A was
designed at a fixed water-cement ratio (W/C) of 0.62 and Series
B at a fixed flow of 400 (10) mm (to control the consistency) by
adjusting the water content. Details of the mix proportions for
both the series are summarised in Tables 3 and 4 respectively.
The sulphate resistance of cement mortar was measured only
for Series A.
100

Particle size distributions of the OPC, the Bauxsol, and the 80

Cumulative passing (%)

natural sand are presented in Figure 1. This figure shows that
the Bauxsol particles have a size distribution much finer than 60

that of the natural sand. It can also be observed that 95% of the
Bauxsol particles are <10m and finer than that of the OPC. 40

The physical properties of the OPC, the Bauxsol and the natural
sand are presented in Table 1. It can be observed that Bauxsol 20

has a specific gravity same as that of the natural sand. The

chemical composition, determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) 0
spectroscopy, of the OPC and the Bauxsol is shown in Table 2 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

and it indicates that Bauxsol contains six major constituents, Particle size ()
namely Fe2O3, Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2, Na2O and CaO. Scanning electron
Figure 1. Particle size distributions of OPC, Bauxsol and natural sand
micrographs of Bauxsol and the natural sand are shown in
Figs. 2 and 3 respectively. From these figures, it can be seen Table 1. Physical properties of materials used
that Bauxsol is an aggregate of very fine particles and appears
to be relatively more porous compared to the natural sand. Physical properties Specific gravity Blaine fineness (m2/kg)

The X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of Bauxsol is presented in OPC 3.18 352-359
Figure 4, which highlights that the mineralogy of the Bauxsol Bauxsol 2.75 190-210
is dominated by hematite and some silicates and aluminium oxy-
Natural sand 2.72 -
hydroxide, with minor TiO2 (rutile and anatase).

Table 2. Chemical composition (major elements) in OPC and Bauxsol

Oxides (%) SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2O TiO2 SO3 P2O5 LOI1

OPC 21.41 5.11 2.61 1.78 61.50 0.33 0.61 -- 3.03 0.16 2.58

Bauxsol 24.06 20.01 29.60 0.95 2.64 7.45 0.68 5.81 0.90 0.14 7.81

1
LOI- Loss of ignition

a b c

Figure 2. SEM of Bauxsol particles (a) 300x magnification (b) 1000x magnification and (c) 2000x magnification

a b c

Figure 3. SEM of natural sand particles (a) 150x magnification (b) 300x magnification and (c) 500x magnification

250 Proceedings of the 8th International Alumina Quality Workshop 2008

AQW2008_Proceedings_FINAL-121-37250 250 4/08/2008 2:58:10 AM

 5000
effect of SO42- without equal attention to the cations associated
A - A natas e

4500
B- Boehmite
C- Calc ite
with them. It is now known that the cement mortars, which are
4000
G- Gibbs ite
H- Hematite
considered to be resistant to sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) attack,
3500
Q- Quartz
R- Rutile can be detrimentally affected when exposed to magnesium
Z - Z eolite

3000 H sulphate (MgSO4) [35]. Moreover, the intensity and rate of attack
also depend on the concentration of the sulphate solution [36].
Intensity

2500 H H
Q
2000
Z
Therefore, three different sulphate solutions viz. 5% Na2SO4, 10%
A
1500
H
Na2SO4 and 10% MgSO4 were used to determine the expansion
C H
due to sulphate attack. Six bars from each mix were submerged
B G A G H
1000 A H H
RB A
G Q
Q Q
500 in each of the three solutions. The containers in which the bars
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
were immersed were made of plastic. The pH of the sulphate
2 solution was maintained in the range 6-8 by replacing the
solution with a fresh one when needed.
Figure 4. XRD pattern of BauxsolTM
In most cases, the loss of adhesion and strength, not expansion
Table 3. Mix proportions for Series A and cracking, is the primary manifestation of sulphate attack
[37]. Hence, sulphate attack on cement mortar was also
Mix ID OPC (g) Natural sand (g) BauxsolTM (g) Water (g)
evaluated by the change in the compressive strength and mass
BX0 1000 2750 0 620 loss of 50mm cubes. For this purpose, nine 50mm cubes were
BX5 1000 2700 50 620 cast for each mix and stored as stated in the previous paragraph.
BX10 1000 2650 100 620 When the cubes reached a compressive strength of 20 (1) MPa,
each cube was covered with a damp hessian cloth and placed
BX15 1000 2600 150 620
in an air-tight plastic bag, which were then stored in a constant
BX20 1000 2550 200 620
temperature room at 20 (1) 0C and 40 (1)% RH. At the age of
28 days these were submerged in 5% Na2SO4, 10% Na2SO4 and
Table 4. Mix proportions for Series B
10% MgSO4 for 180 days.
Mix ID OPC (g) Natural sand (g) BauxsolTM (g) Water (g)
3. Test Methods
BX0 1000 2750 0 590
The consistency of fresh cement mortar was measured using
BX5 1000 2700 50 610
the flow table test, in accordance with BS EN 12350-5:2000
BX10 1000 2650 100 620
[38]. The compressive strength test was conducted as per BS
BX15 1000 2600 150 630 EN 12390-3:2002 [39] on three 100mm cubes at the specified
BX20 1000 2550 200 640 ages, using a compression testing machine and at a rate of
loading of 100kN/min.
2.3 Manufacture and Conditioning Test Specimens
The sulphate expansion of cement mortar was determined
2.3.1 Specimens for Compressive Strength according to ASTM C 1012-95a [40]. Before placing the bar
specimens in the sulphate solution, the lengths were measured
Eighteen cubes of 100mm size were cast for each mix to determine using a high-accuracy digital length comparator. The length
the compressive strength of cement mortar at 1, 3, 7, 28, 56 and change of the specimens was then monitored at 1, 2, 4, 8
90 days. Cement mortar was manufactured in accordance with weeks after they were placed in the sulphate solutions. The next
BS EN 1015-2:1999 [34] using a 60 kg capacity pan mixer. All measurements were made at 3, 6 and 8 months. The compressive
specimens were cast in two layers and compacted on a vibrating strength test of 50mm cubes immersed for 180 days in the three
table until air bubbles appearing on the surface stopped. The sulphate solutions was conducted as per BS EN 12390-3:2002
specimens in their moulds were covered with a plastic sheet and [39] and at a rate of loading of 50kN/min.
kept in the casting room at 20 (1) 0C for 24 hours. The 1 day
specimens were tested immediately after demoulding. The rest 4. Results and Discussion
of the specimens were cured in water at 20 (1) 0C for 2 days 4.1 Fresh Properties
and then wrapped in polythene sheet and stored in a constant
temperature room at 20 (1) 0C and 40 (1)% RH until they The properties of fresh cement mortar are shown in Figs. 5 and
were tested at 7, 28, 56 and 90 days. This curing regime was 6. Figure 5 shows that for a fixed W/C of 0.62 (Series A), the flow
considered to result in most of the hydration reactions being decreased with an increase in the BauxsolTM content, indicating
completed along with the prevention of any leaching of calcium that an increase in the BauxsolTM content increases the water
hydroxide from the specimens. Another reason for the adoption demand. For Series B (Figure 6), the water content had to be
of the two-days of water curing was to simulate the curing regime increased with the increase in BauxsolTM content in order to
in most concrete construction sites. The three-day specimens maintain a fixed flow of 400 (10) mm, suggesting again that the
were tested immediately after removing from the water bath, increase in the water demand with the increase in the BauxsolTM
instead of wrapping in polythene sheet. content. The increased water demand with an increase in the
BauxsolTM content is most likely due to an increased particle
2.3.2 Specimens for Sulphate Resistance surface area provided by the fine grained BauxsolTM (Figure 1)
compared to the natural sand, which necessitates more water for
For each mix, 12 cubes of 50mm size were made to monitor inter-particle lubrication.
the development of compressive strength, and 18 bars
(25x25x285mm) were made for the sulphate expansion test. 4.2 Compressive Strength
The specimens in their moulds were covered with a plastic sheet The compressive strength values of cement mortar at the age
and kept in the casting room at 20 (1) 0C for 24 hours. After of 1, 3, 7, 28, 56 and 90 days for Series A and Series B in Figs.
demoulding these were transferred to the curing chamber at 7 and 8 respectively show that the strength increased with age
23 (1) 0C where they remained until the 50mm cube reached in both test series. In series A (Figure 7), where the W/C was
a compressive strength of 20 (1) MPa. While determining the kept constant, the addition of BauxsolTM resulted in an increase
effect of sulphate attack, researchers have often focused on the in compressive strength at all ages. This might be due to the

Proceedings of the 8th International Alumina Quality Workshop 2008 251

AQW2008_Proceedings_FINAL-121-37251 251 4/08/2008 2:58:11 AM

 formation of a greater quantity of ettringite due to the reaction 4.3 Sulphate Resistance
between sulphate phases from cement and the aluminate
phases from the BauxsolTM. 4.3.1 Expansion of Mortar Bars

470
The expansion test results of the mortar bars immersed in 5%
500 Na2SO4, 10% Na2SO4 and 10% MgSO4 solution are presented in
430
410
375 Figs. 9, 10 and 11 respectively. From Figs. 9 and 10 it can be seen
400
325 that the expansion caused by the immersion in both 5% and 10%
300 Na2SO4 increased with the increase in the Bauxsol content.
Flow (mm)

200 0.6

100
0.5

Expansion (%)
0.4
0
B X0 B X5 B X10 B X15 B X20 0.3

0.2
Figure 5. Flow at fixed W/C= 0.62
0.1

0
0.66 0 50 100 150 200 250
0.64
Immersion period (days)
0.64
0.63
0.62
Water-cement ratio

BX0 BX5 BX10 BX15 BX20

0.62
0.61

0.6 Figure 9. Average expansion of cement mortar immersed in 5% Na2SO4

0.59
solution
0.58
0.6
0.56
0.5
B X0 B X5 B X10 B X15 B X20
Expansion (%)

0.4

Figure 6. Water demand at fixed flow of 400 (10) mm 0.3

0.2
At fixed flow (Figure 8), the compressive strength of the cement
mortar containing BauxsolTM was found to be comparable with 0.1

that of the control mortar for replacement levels up to 15%, but a 0

decrease in strength was found for cement mortar containing the 0 20 40 60 80 100

20% replacement from the age of 28 days. The increased free Immersion period (days)
water content due to the increased addition of BauxsolTM whilst
BX0 BX5 BX10 BX15 BX20
maintaining a constant flow value of 400 (10)mm for these
mixes is considered to be the reason for the behaviour depicted
Figure 10. Average expansion of cement mortar immersed in 10% Na2SO4
in Figure 8. The two sets of results in Figs. 7 and 8 jointly would solution
indicate that BauxsolTM could be used in cement mortar to replace
the natural sand up to 15% by mass of cement. Sodium sulphate attack is based on the generation of secondary
ettringite as per Eqs. 1, 2 and 3. As ettringite (C6AS3H32) is a low
60 density mineral (1.73g/cm3) compared to the other products of
50
hydration (2.50g/cm3), its formation will lead to expansion and
Compressive strength (MPa)

BX0 cracking of cement mortar bars during the Na2SO4 attack. The
40
BX5 ettringite formtion (Eqs. 1, 2 and 3) all require aluminate phases
30 BX10
(i.e., monosulphate, hydrated aluminate and/or anhydrous C3A)
BX15
20 and the increased expansion due to Na2SO4 attack in the samples
BX20
10 with higher Bauxsol contents is most likely because of the high
alumina content in BauxsolTM.
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
C 4 A S H12 + 2C S H 2 + 16H C 6 A S3 H 32 (1)
Age (days)
C 4 AH13 + 3C S H 2 + 14H C 6 A S3 H 32 + CH (2)

Figure 7. Compressive strength at fixed W/C of 0.62 (Series A) C 3 A + 3C S H 2 + 26H C 6 A S3 H 32 (3)

Figure 11 shows that, although the expansion due to MgSO4

60
also increased with increasing Bauxsol content, the effect was
50
less pronounced compared to that for the Na2SO4 attack. This
Compressive strength (MPa)

BX0
40
BX5
would suggest that the reaction products (See Eqs. 4 to 6) in
30 BX10 the specimens exposed to the MgSO4 solution do not expand as
BX15 much as those produced by the Na2SO4 attack.
20
BX20
10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Age (days)

Figure 8. Compressive strength at fixed flow of 400 (10)mm (Series B)

252 Proceedings of the 8th International Alumina Quality Workshop 2008

AQW2008_Proceedings_FINAL-121-37252 252 4/08/2008 2:58:12 AM

 0.12 30

0.10 25 Anomalous
data
Expansion (%)
20

Mass loss (%)

0.08
0.06 15

0.04 10

0.02 5

0.00 0
5% Sodium sulphate 10% Sodium sulphate 10% M agnesium sulphate
0 50 100 150 200 250
Immersion peroid (days) BX0 BX5 BX10 BX15 BX20

BX0 BX5 BX10 BX15 BX20 Figure 13. Average mass loss for 50mm cement mortar cubes immersed for
180days

Figure 11. Average expansion of cement mortar immersed in 10% MgSO4

solution
The sequential reactions of MgSO4 attack on cement hydration
products determined by Rasheeduzzafar et al. [41] are as shown
below:
CH + M S + 2H C S H 2 + MH
C x S y H z + xM S + (3x + 0.5y z)H xC S H 2 + xMH + 0.5yS2 H (5)
4MH + SH n M 4 SH 8.5 + (n 4.5)H
The damaging attribute of MgSO4 attack stems from the
observation that reactions (5) and (6) go to completion, thereby
converting the CSH phase to MSH, which has no binding capacity
[41]. Therefore, unlike Na2SO4 attack that causes damage through
expansion, MgSO4 attack is characterised essentially by a loss of
strength, and cohesive properties resulting in the formation of
gypsum and brucite, (Eqs. 4 and 5), and epsomite (Eq. 6).
4.3.2 Strength and Mass Loss
Figure 12 shows the compressive strength loss of 50mm cement
mortar cubes immersed for 180 days in 5% Na2SO4, 10% Na2SO4
and 10% MgSO4. In all cases the compressive strength of cement
mortar cubes was the highest for the mixes containing 10%
Bauxsol content. A similar trend can also be observed in the
mass loss in Figure 13, where the lowest mass loss was observed
for the 10% replacement level.
50
Compressive strength (MPa)
The current study is not sufficient to identify the reasons for the
improvement in both compressive strength and reduced mass
loss of mixes containing up to 10% Bauxsol replacement levels
when exposed to sulphate solutions. Further investigations are
currently in progress to analyse the hydration products during the
sulphate attack using XRD, SEM and DSC/TG, which are expected
(4)
to provide greater insight into this apparent anomaly.
(6) 5. Conclusions
On the basis of the results obtained in this study, where the
natural sand was replaced with the BauxsolTM by mass of cement,
the following conclusions have been drawn:
(i) The water demand of fresh cement mortar increases with
an increase in the BauxsolTM content.
(ii) At fixed W/C, the addition of BauxsolTM resulted in an
increase in compressive strength at all ages.
(iii) At fixed flow, the compressive strength of the cement mortar
containing BauxsolTM was found to be comparable with that
of the control mortar for a replacement level up to 15%.
(iv) The expansion due to sulphate attack increased with the
increase in the Bauxsol content. However, there was an
improvement in the compressive strength and mass loss of
cement mortar containing natural sand replaced with the
Bauxsol up to 10% by mass of cement.
These results suggest that the BauxsolTM can be used to replace
the natural sand by up to 10% by mass of cement to improve the
compressive strength of cement mortar without detrimentally

40
affecting its sulphate resistance.
30
Acknowledgements
20
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Virotec
10 International Ltd. and the Australian Research Council (Grant
Reference No. LP 0562012) for the financial support for carrying
0
5% Sodium sulphate 10% Sodium sulphate 10% M agnesium sulphate
out the research. The facilities provided by the School of Planning,
Architecture and Civil Engineering at Queens University Belfast,
BX0 BX5 BX10 BX15 BX20 UK for carrying out this research are also gratefully acknowledged.
Commercial products that may be developed from this research
Figure 12. Compressive strength of 50mm cement mortar cubes immersed
for 180 days are to be marketed by Greenhouse Funds Pyt. Ltd, under the
trade name ViroConcrete.

References
1. International Aluminium Institute: History of Aluminium. www.world-aluminium.org
2. D. Chvedov, S. Ostap and T. Le, Surface Properties of Red Mud Particles from Potentiometric Titration, Coll. Surf. A, Vol 182, 2001, p 131-141.
3. D. McConchie, M. Clark, G. Maddocks, F. Davies-McConchie, S. Pope and W. Caldicott, The use of Bauxsol Technology in Mine Site Management and
Remediation, Proc. CIM Mining Industry Conf., Montreal, May 2003, published in CD, 20pp.
4. J. Zambo and K. Solymar, Prospects of Phase Transformation in the Bayer Process, Proc. 3rd Intl. Cong. Study of Bauxites, Alumina and Aluminum,
Nice, 1973, p 491-502.

Proceedings of the 8th International Alumina Quality Workshop 2008 253

AQW2008_Proceedings_FINAL-121-37253 253 4/08/2008 2:58:12 AM

 5. S. Ostap, Effect of Bauxite Mineralogy on its Processing Characteristics, Proc. Bauxite Symposium, Los Angeles, CA, 1984, p 651-671.
6. C. Brunori, C. Cremisini, P. Massanisso, V. Pinto and L. Torricelli, Reuse of Treated Red Mud Bauxite Waste: Studies on Environmental Compatibility, J.
Haz. Mat. B117, 2005, p 55-63.
7. E. Lopez, B. Soto, M. Arias, A. Nunez, D. Rubinos and M. Barral, Adsorbent Properties of Red Mud and its use for Wastewater Treatment, Wat. Res.,
Vol 32(4), 1998, p 1314-1322.
8. A.R. Hind, A.K. Bhargava and S.C. Grocott, The Surface Chemistry of Bayer Process Solids: A Review, Coll. Surf. A, Vol. 146, p 259-274.
9. S.P. Varnavas and P.P. Achilleopoulos, Factors Controlling the Vertical and Spatial Transport of Metal-Rich Particulate Matter at the Outfall of Bauxite
Red Mud Toxic Waste, Sc. Tot. Env., Vol 175, 1995, p 199-205.
10. Y. Zhang, Y. Qu and S. Wu, Engineering Geological Properties and Comprehensive Utilisation of the Solid Waste (Red Mud) in Aluminum Industry, Env.
Geo. Vol 41, 2001, p 249-256.
11. D. McConchie, C. Hanahan and R.J. Fawkes, The use of Seawater-Neutralised Bauxite Refinery Residues (Red Mud) in Environmental Remediation
Programs, Proc. 1999 Global Symp. on Recycling Waste Treatment and Clean Tech., San Sebastian, Spain.
12. D. McConchie, M.W. Clark, F. Davies-McConchie and L. Fergusson, The use of Bauxsol Technology to Treat Acid Mine Drainage, Mining Env. Magmt.
Vol 10(4), 2002, p 12-13.
13. D. McConchie, M.W. Clark and F. Davies-McConchie, New Strategies for the Management of Bauxite Refinery Residues (Red Mud), Proc. 6th Intl.
Alumina Quality Workshop, Brisbane, Australia, 8-13 Sep, 2002, p 327-332.
14. S.N. Das, R.S. Thakur and H.S. Ray, Red Mud Pollution Problems: Some Observations, Env. Waste Magmt., 1988, p. 11-16.
15. A.S. Wagh and V.E. Douse, Silicate Bonded Unsintered Ceramics of Bayer Process Waste, J. Mat. Res., Vol 6(5), p 1094-1102.
16. P. Newton, Making Bricks with Red Mud in Jamaica, Intl. Dev. Res. Cen. (IDRC): Reports: Vol 21 (2), 1997.
17. J.N. Gordon, W.R. Pinnock and M.M. Moore, A Preliminary Investigation of Strength Development in Jamaican Red Mud Composites, Cem. Conc.
Comp., Vol 18, 1996, p 371-379.
18. N. Valcin and V. Sevinc, Utilisation of Bauxite Waste in Ceramic Glazes, Ceram. Intl. Vol. 26, 2000, p 485-793.
19. K. Sagoe-Crestsil and T. Brown, Bayer Process Waste Stream as Potential Feedstock Material for Geopolymer Binder Systems, 7th Alumina Quality
Workshop, Perth, 2005, p 214-217.
20. V.M. Sglavo, R. Campostrini, S. Maurina, G. Carturan, M. Monagheddu, G. Budroni and G. Cocco, Bauxite Red Mud in Ceramic Industry, Part 2:
Production of Clay-Based Ceramics, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc., Vol 20, 2000, p 245-252.
21. R. Apak, E. Tutem, M. Hugul and J. Hizal, Heavy Metal Cation Retention by Unconventional Sorbents (Red Mud and Fly Ashes), Wat. Res., Vol 32(2),
1998, p 430-440.
22. J. Pradhan, S.N. Das and R.S. Thakur, Adsorption of Exavalent Chromium from Aqueous Solution by using Activated Red Mud, J. Coll. Inter. Sc., Vol.
217, 1999, p 137-141.
23. H.S. Altundogan, S. Altundogan, F. Tumen and M. Bildik, Arsenic Removal from Aqueous Solutions by Adsorption of Red Mud, Waste Magmt., Vol 20,
2000, p 761-767.
24. D. McConchie, M. Clark, F. Davies-McConchie and T. Ryffel, Processes for the Treatment of a Waste Material Having a High pH and/or Alkalinity, Intl.
Patent No. PCT/AU03/00865 filed on 2nd July 2002, Assigned by Deed of Agreement to Nauveau Technology Invest. Ltd. on 2nd July 2002.
25. H. Genc-Fuhrman, J.C. Tjell, D. McConchie, and O. Schuiling, Adsorption of Arsenic from Water using Neutralised Red Mud, J. Coll.Inter. Sc., Vol 264,
2003, p 327-334.
26. H. Genc-Fuhrman, J.C. Tjell and D. McConchie, Increasing the Arsenate Adsorption Capacity of Neutralised Red Mud (BauxsolTM), J. Coll. Inter. Sc., Vol
2714, 2004, p 313-320.
27. D. McConchie, M.W. Clark and H. Genc-Fuhrman, The use of Jarosite Residues with Bauxsol to Remove Arsenate from Drinking Water and Industrial
Waste Waters. In: J.E. Dutrizac and P.A. Riveros (Eds.), Iron Control Technologies: Proc. 3rd Intl. Symp. on Iron Control in Hydrometallurgy, Montreal,
Canada, 1-4 Oct, 2006, p 927-941.
28. H. Genc-Fuhrman, J.C. Tjell, and D. McConchie, Adsorption of Arsenic from Water Using Activated Neutralised Red Mud, Env. Sc. and Tech., Vol 38,
2004, p 2428-2434.
29. D. McConchie, M. Clark and F. Davies-McConchie, Processes and Compositions for Water Treatment, Intl. Patent No. PCT/AU01/01383 filed 26
October 2001, Entitled Assigned by Deed of Agreement to Nauveau Technology Investments Ltd. on 26th Oct 2001.
30. S.A. Barbhuiya, P.A.M Basheer, M.W. Clark, D. McPolin, G.I.B. Rankin and B. Sen Gupta, Effect of Bauxsol in Concrete as a Sand Replacement
Material in Workability, Strength and Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity, Proc. Concrete Platform 2007, Intl. Conf., Belfast, United Kingdom, 2007, 19-20 Apr,
p 365-375.
31. P.K. Mehta, and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Structure, Properties and Materials, Sec. Ed. Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1993, p 26.
32. BS EN 197-1, Cement: Composition, Specifications and Conformity Criteria for Common Cements, British Standards Institution, London, 2000.
33. BS EN 12620, Aggregates for Concrete, British Standards Institution, London, 2002.
34. BS EN 1015-2, Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry: Bulk Sampling of Mortars and Preparation of Test Mortars, British Standards Institution,
London, 1999.
35. M. Santhanam, M.D. Cohen and J. Olek, Sulphate Attack Research- Whither Now? Cem. Conc. Res., Vol 31(6), 2001, p 845-851.
36. O.S.B. Al-Amoudi, Sulphate Attack and Reinforcement Corrosion in Plain and Blended Cements Exposed to Sulphate Environments, Build. Env. Vol
33(1), 1998, p 53-61.
37. P.K. Mehta, Sulphate Attack on Concrete: A Critical Review, in: R.R. Villarreal (Ed.), Concrete Durability, Univ. Autonoma de Nuevo Leon, 1993, p 107-
132.
38. BS EN 12350-5, Testing of Fresh Concrete- Flow Table Test, British Standards Institution, London, 2000.
39. BS EN 12390-3, Testing of Hardened Concrete- Compressive Strength of Test Specimens. British Standards Institution, London, 2002.
40. ASTM C 1012-95a, Standard Test Method for Length Change of Hydraulic Cement Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate Solution, 1995.
41. Rasheeduzzafar, O.S.B. Al-Amoudi OSB, S.N. Abduljauwad and M. Maslehuddin, Magnesium-Sodium Sulphate Attack in Plain and Blended Cements,
ASCE J. Mat. Civ. Eng. Vol 6(2), 1994, p 201-222.

254 Proceedings of the 8th International Alumina Quality Workshop 2008

AQW2008_Proceedings_FINAL-121-37254 254 4/08/2008 2:58:13 AM