INTERNSHIP REPORT

FESCO OF PAKISTAN

By: Muhammad Shafay

Institute: Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences
(PIEAS)
Department: Department of Electrical Engineering
 Table of Contents
INTERNSHIP REPORT................................................................................................................................................... 0
F.E.S.C.O OF PAKISTAN................................................................................................................................................. 0
INTERNSHIP LETTER..................................................................................................................................................... 4
PREFACE......................................................................................................................................................................... 5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.................................................................................................................................................. 6
HISTORY OF FESCO....................................................................................................................................................... 7
BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF THE ORGANIZATION.....................................................................................................................................8
NATURE OF THE ORGANIZATION:......................................................................................................................................................... 8
VISION:................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
MISSION STATEMENT:........................................................................................................................................................................... 8
OBJECTIVES:.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
DISTRIBUTION COMPANIES (DISCO).......................................................................................................................... 9
GRID STATIONS IN FAISALABAD.................................................................................................................................. 9
GRID STATION NISHATABAD FAISALABAD................................................................................................................................9
GRID STATION JARANWALA ROAD FAISALABAD......................................................................................................................9
GRID STATION SUMMANDRI ROAD FAISALABAD.....................................................................................................................9
WHAT I HAVE LEARNED SO FAR.................................................................................................................................. 10
COMPONENTS OF GRID STATION............................................................................................................................... 10
Substation:................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
Functions of a Substation:......................................................................................................................................................... 10
EQUIPMENT USED IN A SUB-STATION................................................................................................................................................. 10
Transformers:.............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS...................................................................................................................................................... 11
Power Transformer:..................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Parts of power transformer:....................................................................................................................................................... 12
Instrument Transformers:.......................................................................................................................................................... 15
CURRENT TRANSFORMER:...................................................................................................................................................... 15
POTENTIAL OR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER:.......................................................................................................................... 16
Unit Auxiliary Transformers (UAT)........................................................................................................................................... 17
CIRCUIT BREAKER:............................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Sf6 Circuit Breaker:.................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Construction of SF6 Circuit Breaker:......................................................................................................................................... 18
BUS COUPLER:.................................................................................................................................................................................... 20

PAGE 1
 11 KV INCOMING AND OUTGOING PANELS...........................................................................................................................................21
11 KV incoming panel................................................................................................................................................................ 21
11 kv outgoing panel:................................................................................................................................................................. 23
STATION BATTERIES............................................................................................................................................................................. 24
PROTECTION IN POWER SYSTEMS............................................................................................................................. 25
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF PROTECTION RELAY.......................................................................................... 25
RELIABILITY......................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
SELECTIVITY........................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
SENSITIVITY........................................................................................................................................................................................ 26
SPEED................................................................................................................................................................................................. 26
IMPORTANT ELEMENTS FOR POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION...................................................................................26
SWITCHGEAR...................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
PROTECTIVE GEAR.............................................................................................................................................................................. 26
STATION BATTERY............................................................................................................................................................................. 26
PICK UP CURRENT SETTING PLUG SETTING MULTIPLIER AND TIME SETTING MULTIPLIER OF RELAY...............27
PICK UP CURRENT OF RELAY.............................................................................................................................................................. 27
CURRENT SETTING OF RELAY.............................................................................................................................................................. 27
PLUG SETTING MULTIPLIER OF RELAY.................................................................................................................................................28
TIME SETTING MULTIPLIER OF RELAY.................................................................................................................................................28
CALCULATION OF RELAY OPERATION TIME........................................................................................................................................29
OVER CURRENT RELAY WORKING PRINCIPLE TYPE................................................................................................. 29
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF OVER CURRENT RELAY................................................................................................................................29
TYPES OF OVER CURRENT RELAY........................................................................................................................................................30
Instantaneous Over Current Relay............................................................................................................................................ 30
Definite Time over Current Relay............................................................................................................................................... 31
Inverse Time OC Relay............................................................................................................................................................... 31
Overcurrent Protection...................................................................................................................................................... 31
METHODS OF PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING................................................................................................... 31
EARTHING SCREEN............................................................................................................................................................................... 31
OVERHEAD EARTH WIRE..................................................................................................................................................................... 31
LIGHTNING ARRESTER......................................................................................................................................................................... 32
DIFFERENTIAL RELAY.................................................................................................................................................. 32
DEFINITION OF DIFFERENTIAL RELAY................................................................................................................................................. 32
DISTANCE RELAY OR IMPEDANCE RELAY WORKING PRINCIPLE TYPES..................................................................33
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DISTANCE OR IMPEDANCE RELAY.................................................................................................................33
INSTANTANEOUS RELAY.............................................................................................................................................. 34
DEFINITION OF INSTANTANEOUS RELAY..............................................................................................................................................34
EXAMPLES OF INSTANTANEOUS RELAYS...............................................................................................................................................34
FAULTS IN POWER TRANSFORMERS........................................................................................................................... 35
INTERNAL FAULTS IN POWER TRANSFORMER......................................................................................................................................35
Inter Turns Fault in Power Transformer.................................................................................................................................... 35
Internal Phase to Phase Faults in Power Transformer.............................................................................................................. 35
Inter Turns Fault in Power Transformer.................................................................................................................................... 35
Core Fault in Power Transformer.............................................................................................................................................. 35
PAGE 2
PAGE 3
Internship Letter

PAGE 4
Preface
In order to be able to cope with the changing environment, it is necessary to have some practical
experience. As the students of the Electrical Engineering, we must have some practical knowledge about how
different equipment work. During this practical course we are provided with an opportunity to learn that how
the theoretical knowledge can be implemented in practical grounds.

I was selected to do my internship in FAISALABAD ELECTRIC SUPPLY COMPANY OF

PAKISTAN. I worked there for eight weeks & it gave me a greater practical knowledge about the protection
systems installed. In the following pages I have narrated my experience, observations & all the working
activities which I observed during my eight weeks internship at F.E.S.C.O.

PAGE 5
Acknowledgement
I am pleased to present this report on the successful completion of my internship at FAISALABAD
ELECTRIC SUPPLY COMPANY OF PAKISTAN. I am thankful to Almighty Allah that enables me to
present this report, which is the result of hard work, struggle, determination & delegation of mine (to present it
up to the best of its requirements) and blender of co-operation. I wish to acknowledge a lot of people for their
valuable contribution to this report.
I am certainly indebted to our institute Registrar, Dr. Haroon Rasheed, for providing me such a great
chance to learn. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Sir Sarfraz Ahmad for providing us practical
knowledge out of his valuable time. Moreover I am also thankful to Sir Zulfqar for his assistance.

PAGE 6
History of FESCO

The restructuring program of WAPDA's Power Wing is based on the new strategic policies of the GOP
and endorsed and supported by the donor institutions. The aim of this transition is to install corporate and
business culture through: adopting of good business practices, enhancing productivity and efficiency, including
customer orientation and service culture, improving quality of services setting performance targets, reducing
costs, theft and wastage. This will be based on extensive use of information technology, management
information systems, and monitoring and prudent decision-making. It has been decided that some of the
functions currently being performed by WAPDA are of national importance and will therefore continue to
remain with WAPDA/GoP in the largest interest of the country. PEPCO has been fully empowered and is
responsible for the management of all the affairs of corporatized ten Distribution Companies (DISCOs), four
Generation Companies (GENCOs) and a National Transmission Dispatch Company (NTDC). These companies
are working under independent Board of Directors (Chairman and some Directors are from Private Sectors). All
Entities have the physical possessions of all their operational assets. On 24th Feb. 2007 Ministry of Water &
Power notified NEPRA approved Tariff for all Distribution Companies replacing unified WAPDA Tariff. Legal
Agreements such as Business Transfer Agreements, Operation Development Agreement, Energy Supply
Agreement, Business Supplementary Agreement and Fuel Supply Agreement etc. are executed between
Faisalabad Electric Supply Co. and Corporate Entities to facilitate commercial operations. Regulatory
instruments like Grid Code, Distribution Codes, and Performance Standard for Distribution Companies and
Transmission Companies were drafted and got approved from NEPRA in 2007.

PAGE 7
BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF THE ORGANIZATION

FESCO was incorporated as a non -listed public limited company under Companies Ordinance, 1984 on
March 21, 1998. Certificate of commencement of Business was issued on March 26, 1998. As a result of
WAPDA Corporations and Commercialization process.

NATURE OF THE ORGANIZATION:

In exercise of the powers conferred on the National Electric Power Regulatory Authority u n d e r
S e c t i o n 2 1 o f t h e R e g u l a t i o n o f G e n e r a t i o n , Tr a n s m i s s i o n a n d D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Electric
Power Act 1997, the authority grants the license to the Faisalabad Electric Supply Co. for the
Distribution Services of Electric supply and make sale of Electric power to the consumers in the services
territory and concession territory subject to and in accordance with the terms and conditions of the NEPRA.
According to the license issued to the Faisalabad Electric Supply Co. the company have
to p r o v i d e electric supply to their Domestic, Bulk, Commercial and industrial
consumers.

VISION:
To provide reliable, affordable and safe electricity to make industry/ agriculture sectors competitive for
world market, thereby alleviating poverty in the area of responsibility.

MISSION STATEMENT:
To transform and develop the company into a viable entity and provide quality services to the
customers.

OBJECTIVES:
Smooth and consistent flow/supply of electricity prompt restoration of disrupted electricity supply.
Accurate and timely meter reading and billing Provision of electricity connection in minimum time.
Open door policy to facilitate our customers Special concessions for quick and timely payment of bill.
Availability of stores to deal with emergencies Feedback through Customer Services Centers.
Create awareness amongst employees for adopting safety measures while working on line.
Energy saving message dissemination creating positive image of FESCO Take steps for welfare of
company employees.
Morale building and to create sense of belonging amongst company employees.

PAGE 8
Distribution Companies (DISCO)
There are ten distribution companies in Pakistan.

Faisalabad Electric Supply Company (FESCO)

Gujranwala Electric Power Company (GEPCO)

Hyderabad Electric Supply Company (HESCO)

Islamabad Electric Supply Company (IESCO)

Lahore Electric Supply Company (LESCO)

Multan Electric Power Company (MEPCO)

Peshawar Electric Supply Company (PESCO)

Quetta Electric Supply Company (QESCO)

Sukkur Electric Power Company (SEPCO)

Tribal Areas Electricity Supply Company (TESCO)

Grid Stations in Faisalabad

GRID STATION NISHATABAD FAISALABAD

220KV Nishatabad G/Stn. was commissioned on 03.03.1960 with 4x63 MVA & 1x100MVA,
220/132 KV Auto Transformer Banks. 2x37.5 MVA, 132/66KV Power Transformers are also
installed at the grid station. The grid station is being fed from 500 KV Gatti grid station through
220KV D/C transmission line and also connected with 220KV Sammundri Road Grid Station
through 220KV D/C transmission line.

GRID STATION JARANWALA ROAD FAISALABAD

220KV Jaranwala Road Faisalabad G/Stn. was commission on 08.12.1982. There are three Nos.
160MVA, 220/132KV Auto Transformers Banks installed at the grid station. The 220KV
Jaranwala Road G/Stn. is being fed from 500KV Gatti G/Stn. through 220KV D/C 500KV
Gatti-Jaranwala Road transmission line. Two Nos. 26 MVA, 132/11KV Power Transformers are
also installed at the grid station. For 220KV bays as well 132KV bays double bus bar with
single breaker scheme is used.

GRID STATION SUMMANDRI ROAD FAISALABAD

220 KV Summandri Road Faisalabad G/Stn. was commissioned on 12.10.1995. 3x160MVA,

PAGE 9
220/132KV Auto Transformer Banks are installed. The G/Stn. is being fed through IN-OUT
arrangement of 220 KV D/C Nishatabad - 500 KV New Multan T/Line. 2x13MVA, 132/11KV
Power T/F are installed at the G/Stn. For 220 KV bays, double bus bar with one and a half
breaker scheme is used. whereas for 132KV bays double bus bar with single breaker scheme is
used.

What I have learned so far

Components of Grid Station

Substation:
An electrical substation is a subsidiary station of an electricity generation, transmission
and distribution system where voltage is transformed high to low or the reverse using transformers.
Electric power may flow through several substations between generation plant and consumer, and may
be changed in voltage in several steps. The main equipment used in substation are transformers
lighting arresters, Circuit breakers, isolators, bus bars, protective relays,110V Batteries, earth
switches, earth rods.

According to service requirements: According to service requirements substations are classified into:

Transformer Substations
Switching Substations
Power factor correction substations
Frequency changer substations
Converting substations
Industrial substations
Functions of a Substation:
1 - Supply of required electrical power.

2 - Maximum possible coverage of the supply network.

3 - Maximum security of supply.

4 - Shortest possible fault-duration.

5 - Optimum efficiency of plants and the network.

6 - Supply of electrical power within targeted frequency limits, (49.5 Hz and50.5 Hz).

7 - Supply of electrical power within specified voltage limits.

8 - Supply of electrical energy to the consumers at the lowest cost.

PAGE 10
EQUIPMENT USED IN A SUB-STATION
The equipment required for a transformer Sub-Station depends upon the type of Sub-Station,
Service requirement and the degree of protection desired.

Transformers:
Transformer is a static machine, which transforms the potential of alternating current at same
frequency. It means the transformer transforms the low voltage into high voltage & high voltage to low
voltage at same frequency. It works on the principle of static induction principle.

When the energy is transformed into a higher voltage, the transformer is called step up transformer but
in case of other is known as step down transformer.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
Power Transformer:
It is used for the transmission purpose at heavy load, high voltage greater than 33
KV & 100% efficiency. It also having a big in size as compare to distribution transformer, it
used in generating station and Transmission substation at high insulation level. They can be of
two types: Single Phase Transformers and Multi Phase Transformers.

PAGE 11
Parts of power transformer:
i. Conservator Tank:

PAGE 12
 This is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof the transformer
main tank. The main function of conservator tank of transformer is to provide adequate space for
expansion of oil inside the transformer.

Function of Conservator Tank of a Transformer:

When transformer is loaded and when ambient temperature rises, the volume of oil inside
transformer increases. A conservator tank of transformer provides adequate space to this expanded
transformer oil. It also acts as a reservoir for transformer insulating oil.

ii. Tape Changer:

A tap changer is a connection point selection mechanism along a power transformer

winding that allows a variable number of turns to be selected in discrete steps. A transformer with a
variable turns ratio is produced, enabling stepped voltage regulation of the output. The tap selection
may be made via an automatic or manual tap changer mechanism.

iii. Buchholz Relay:

Buchholz relay in transformer is an oil container housed the connecting pipe from main
tank to conservator tank. It has mainly two elements. The upper element consists of a float. The
float is attached to a hinge in such a way that it can move up and down depending upon the oil
level in the Buchholz relay Container. One mercury switch is fixed on the float. The alignment
of mercury switch hence depends upon the position of the float. The lower element consists of a
baffle plate and mercury switch. This plate is fitted on a hinge just in front of the inlet (main
tank side) of Buchholz relay in transformer in such a way that when oil enters in the relay from
that inlet in high pressure the alignment of the baffle plate along with the mercury switch
attached to it, will change.

PAGE 13
 In addition to these main elements a Buchholz relay has gas release pockets on top. The
electrical leads from both mercury switches are taken out through a molded terminal block.

iv. Silica Gel Breather of Transformer:

Whenever electrical power transformer is loaded, the temperature of the transformer

insulating oil increases, consequently the volume of the oil is increased. As the volume of the oil is
increased, the air above the oil level in conservator will come out. Again at low oil temperature; the
volume of the oil is decreased, which causes the volume of the oil to be decreased which again causes
air to enter into conservator tank.

The natural air always consists of more or less moisture in it and this moisture can be mixed up
with oil if it is allowed to enter into the transformer. The air moisture should be resisted during entering
of the air into the transformer, because moisture is very harmful for transformer insulation. A silica gel
breather is the most commonly used way of filtering air from moisture.

Silica gel breather for transformer is connected with conservator tank by means of breathing
pipe.

Construction of Silica Gel Breather:

PAGE 14
 The silica gel breather of transformer is very simple in the aspect of design. It is nothing but a
pot of silica gel through which, air passes during breathing of transformer. The silica gel is a very good
absorber of moisture. Freshly regenerated gel is very efficient, it may dry down air to a dew point of
below 40C. A well maintained silica gel breather will generally operate with a dew point of 35C as
long as a large enough quantity of gel has been used. The picture shows a silica gel breather of
transformer.

Working Principle of Silica Gel Breather:

Silica gel crystal has tremendous capacity of absorbing moisture. When air passes through these
crystals in the breather; the moisture of the air is absorbed by them. Therefore, the air reaches to the
conservator is quite dry, the dust particles in the air get trapped by the oil in the oil seal cup. The oil in
the oil sealing cup acts as barrier between silica gel crystal and air when there is no flow of air through
silica gel breather. The color of silica gel crystal is dark blue but, when it absorbs moisture; it becomes
pink.

When there is sufficient difference between the air inside the conservator and the outside air, the
oil level in two components of the oil seal changes until the lower oil level just reaches the rim of the
inverted cup, the air then moves from high pressure compartment to the low pressure compartment of
the oil seal. Both of these happen when the oil acts as core filter and removes the dust from the outside
air.

Instrument Transformers:
These transformers are used for the measurement purposes at that points where standard
voltmeters and ammeters cannot be used. They are of two types:

CURRENT TRANSFORMER:
A current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of
alternating electric currents. When current in a circuit is too high to
apply directly to measuring instruments, a current transformer
produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in
the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and
recording instruments. A current transformer isolates the measuring
instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored
circuit.

PAGE 15
 Nameplate of CT

POTENTIAL OR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER:

Voltage transformers (VT) (also called potential
transformers (PT)) are a parallel connected type of instrument
transformer, used for metering and protection in high-voltage circuits or
phase shift isolation. They are designed to present negligible load to the
supply being measured and to have an accurate voltage ratio to enable
accurate metering. A potential transformer may have several secondary
windings on the same core as a primary winding, for use in different
metering or protection circuits.

PAGE 16
Nameplate:

Unit Auxiliary Transformers (UAT)

The Unit Auxiliary Transformer is the Power Transformer that provides power to the
auxiliary equipment of a power generating station during its normal operation. This transformer is
connected directly to the generator out-put by a tap-off of the isolated phase bus duct and thus becomes
cheapest source of power to the generating station.

It is generally a three-winding transformer i.e. one primary and two separate secondary
windings. Primary winding of UAT is equal to the main generator voltage rating. The secondary
windings can have same or different voltages i.e. generally 11KV and or 6.9KV as per plant layout.

PAGE 17
CIRCUIT BREAKER:
Sf6 Circuit Breaker:

In such breakers, Sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) is used as the arc quenching medium.

The Sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) is an electronegative gas and has a strong tendency
to absorb free electrons. The contacts of the breaker are opened in a high pressure flow of
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas and an arc is struck between them. The gas captures the
conducting free electrons in the arc to form relatively immobile negative ions. This loss of
conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough insulation strength to extinguish the
arc.

The Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breakers have been found to be very effective for high
power and high voltage service.

Construction of SF6 Circuit Breaker:

A Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breaker consists of fixed and moving contacts
enclosed in a chamber. The chamber is called arc interruption chamber which contains the
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas. This chamber is connected to Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas
reservoir. A valve mechanism is there to permit the gas to the arc interruption chamber. When
the contacts of breaker are opened, the valve mechanism permits a high pressure Sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) gas from the reservoir to flow towards the arc interruption chamber.

The fixed contact is a hollow cylindrical current carrying contact fitted with an arc horn.
The moving contact is also a hollow cylinder with rectangular holes in the sides. The holes
permit the Sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) gas to let out through them after flowing along and
across the arc. The tips of fixed contact, moving contact and arcing horn are coated with copper-
PAGE 18
tungsten arc resistant material. Since Sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) gas is costly, it is
reconditioned and reclaimed using suitable auxiliary system after each operation of breaker.

Working of SF6 CB:

In the closed position of the breaker, the contacts remain surrounded by Sulphur
hexafluoride gas (SF6) gas at a pressure of about 2.8 kg/cm2. When the breaker operates, the
moving contact is pulled apart and an arc is struck between the contacts. The movement of the
moving contact is synchronized with the opening of a valve which permits Sulphur hexafluoride
gas (SF6) gas at 14 kg/cm2 pressure from the reservoir to the arc interruption chamber.

The high pressure flow of Sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) rapidly absorbs the free electrons in
the arc path to form immobile negative ions which are ineffective as charge carriers. The result
is that the medium between the contacts quickly builds up high dielectric strength and causes the
extinction of the arc. After the breaker operation (i.e. after arc extinction), the valve is closed by
the action of a set of springs.

Advantages of SF6:
Due, to the superior arc quenching properties of Sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) gas, the
Sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) circuit breakers have many advantages over oil or air circuit
breakers. Some of them are listed below Due to the superior arc quenching property of Sulphur
hexafluoride gas (SF6), such circuit breakers have very short arcing time.

Since the dielectric strength of Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is 2 to 3 times that
operation due unlike of air, such breakers can interrupt much larger currents.

The Sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) circuit breaker gives noiseless operation due its
closed gas circuit and no exhaust to atmosphere unlike the air blast circuit breaker.

PAGE 19
BUS COUPLER:
Bus coupler is a device which is used to couple one bus to the other without any interruption in
power supply and without creating hazardous arcs. Bus coupler is a breaker used to couple two bus-
bars in order to perform maintenance on other circuit breakers associated with that bus-bar.

It is achieved with the help of a circuit breaker and isolators.

PAGE 20
11 KV INCOMING AND OUTGOING PANELS
11 KV incoming panel
Specifications:
11KV Incoming Panel for 20/26MVA power transformer with draw out type vacuumed circuit breaker,
2500A, 25KA, BIL 95KV, One minute power frequency withstand voltage 36KV, C.T. Ratio
1600:800/5/5A for metering and protection purpose having class 0.5 and 5P20 respectively, C.T. Ratio
1600:800/5A having protection class 5P20, P.T. 11000/110V AC, complete with over current and earth
fault relay CDG61, Back up earth fault relay CDG21, DC supervision relay along with DC healthy
lamp, 3 phase 4 wire energy meter for energy metering, moving iron type ampere meter, moving iron
type power factor meter, Moving iron type volt meter with selector switch, On Off push button and
indication lamps, DP and TP control MCB for AC & DC auxiliary voltage controls, Trip coil 110 V
DC, Closing coil 110 V DC, Anti pumping feature, Spring charging motor 220 V AC, insulators and
99.9% pure tine coated copper bus bar arrangement covered with heat shrinkable tubing, Cable
termination pads, Earthing ball arrangement for earthing kit, Explosion vents and Protection class IP3X

PAGE 21
PAGE 22
11 kv outgoing panel:
Specifications:
11KV Outgoing Panel with draw out type vacuumed circuit breaker, 630A, 25KA, BIL
95KV, One minute power frequency withstand voltage 36KV, C.T. Ratio 400:200/5/5A, complete with
over current and earth fault relay CDG61, DC supervision relay along with DC healthy lamp, 3 phase 4
wire energy meter for energy metering, moving iron type ampere meter, moving iron type power factor
meter, On Off push button and indication lamps, DP and TP control MCB for AC & DC auxiliary
voltage controls, Trip coil 110 V DC, Closing coil 110 V DC, Anti pumping feature, Spring charging
motor 220 V AC, insulators and 99.9% pure tine coated copper bus bar arrangement covered with heat
shrinkable insulation tubing, Cable termination pads, Earthing ball arrangement for earthing kit,
explosion vents and Protection class IP3X.

Nameplate:

PAGE 23
STATION BATTERIES
The purpose of station batteries system is to provide safe and liable power supply to all
primary functions. The system is almost independent of all other power supply and ensures reliable
execution of control functions.

Dc batteries (110V) are installed in grid for protection, emergency power, alarm and
indications.

These batteries have their own battery charger. Under normal conditions, dc supplies are
obtaining through AC to DC rectifier but in case of failure of AC supplies; DC are used to run the
system.

PAGE 24
Protection in Power Systems
The objective of power system protection is to isolate a faulty section of electrical power system from
rest of the live system so that the rest portion can function satisfactorily without any severer damage
due to fault current.
Actually circuit breaker isolates the faulty system from rest of the healthy system and this circuit
breakers automatically open during fault condition due to its trip signal comes from protection relay.
The main philosophy about protection is that no protection of power system can prevent the flow of
fault current through the system, it only can prevent the continuation of flowing of fault current by
quickly disconnect the short circuit path from the system. For satisfying this quick disconnection the
protection relays should have following functional requirements.
Basic concept of protection system in power system and coordination of protection relays.

In the picture the basic connection of protection relay has been shown. It is quite simple. The secondary
of current transformer is connected to the current coil of relay. And secondary of voltage transformer is
connected to the voltage coil of the relay. Whenever any fault occurs in the feeder circuit, proportionate
secondary current of the CT will flow through the current coil of the relay due to which mmf of that
coil is increased. This increased mmf is sufficient to mechanically close the normally open contact of
the relay. This relay contact actually closes and completes the DC trip coil circuit and hence the trip
coil is energized. The mmf of the trip coil initiates the mechanical movement of the tripping
mechanism of the circuit breaker and ultimately the circuit breaker is tripped to isolate the fault.

Functional Requirements of Protection Relay

RELIABILITY

The most important requisite of protective relay is reliability. They remain inoperative for a long time
before a fault occurs; but if a fault occurs, the relays must respond instantly and correctly.
SELECTIVITY

The relay must be operated in only those conditions for which relays are commissioned in the electrical
power system. There may be some typical condition during fault for which some relays should not be

PAGE 25
operated or operated after some definite time delay hence protection relay must be sufficiently capable
to select appropriate condition for which it would be operated.

SENSITIVITY

The relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive so that it can be operated reliably when level of
fault condition just crosses the predefined limit.
SPEED

The protective relays must operate at the required speed. There must be a correct coordination provided
in various power system protection relays in such a way that for fault at one portion of the system
should not disturb another healthy portion. Fault current may flow through a part of healthy portion
since they are electrically connected but relays associated with that healthy portion should not be
operated faster than the relays of faulty portion otherwise undesired interruption of healthy system may
occur. Again if relay associated with faulty portion is not operated in proper time due to any defect in it
or other reason, then only the next relay associated with the healthy portion of the system must be
operated to isolate the fault. Hence it should neither be too slow which may result in damage to the
equipment nor should it be too fast which may result in undesired operation.

Important Elements for Power System Protection

SWITCHGEAR

Consists of mainly bulk oil circuit breaker, minimum oil circuit breaker, SF6 circuit breaker, air blast
circuit breaker and vacuum circuit breaker etc. Different operating mechanisms such as solenoid,
spring, pneumatic, hydraulic etc. are employed in circuit breaker. Circuit breaker is the main part of
protection system in power system it automatically isolates the faulty portion of the system by opening
its contacts.
PROTECTIVE GEAR

Consists of mainly power system protection relays like current relays, voltage relays, impedance relays,
power relays, frequency relays, etc. based on operating parameter, definite time relays, inverse time
relays, stepped relays etc. as per operating characteristic, logic wise such as differential relays, over
fluxing relays etc. During fault the protection relay gives trip signal to the associated circuit breaker for
opening its contacts.

STATION BATTERY
All the circuit breakers of electrical power system are DC (Direct Current) operated. Because DC
power can be stored in battery and if situation comes when total failure of incoming power occurs, still
the circuit breakers can be operated for restoring the situation by the power of storage battery . Hence
the battery is another essential item of the power system. Some time it is referred as the heart of the
electrical substation. An electrical substation battery or simply a station battery containing a number of
cells accumulate energy during the period of availability of A.C supply and discharge at the time when
relays operate so that relevant circuit breaker is tripped.

PAGE 26
Pick Up Current Setting Plug Setting Multiplier and Time Setting Multiplier of
Relay
During study of electrical protective relays, some special terms are frequently used. For proper
understanding, the functions of different protective relays, the definition of such terms must be
understood properly. Such terms are,
1. Pick up current.
2. Current setting.
3. Plug setting multiplier (PSM).
4. Time setting multiplier (TSM).

PICK UP CURRENT OF RELAY

In all electrical relays, the moving contacts are not free to move. All the contacts remain in their
respective normal position by some force applied on them continuously. This force is called controlling
force of the relay. This controlling force may be gravitational force, may be spring force, and may be
magnetic force. The force applied on the relays moving parts for changing the normal position of the
contacts, is called deflecting force. This deflecting force is always in opposition of controlling force
and presents always in the relay. Although the deflecting force always presents in the relay directly
connected to live line, but as the magnitude of this force is less than controlling force in normal
condition, the relay does not operate. If the actuating current in the relay coil increases gradually, the
deflecting force in electro mechanical relay is also increased. Once, the deflecting force crosses the
controlling force, the moving parts of the relay initiate to move to change the position of the contacts in
the relay. The current for which the relay initiates it operation is called pick up current of relay.

CURRENT SETTING OF RELAY

The minimum pick up value of the deflecting force of an electrical relay is constant. Again the
deflecting force of the coil is proportional to its number of turns and current flowing through the coil.
Now, if we can change the number of active turns of any coil, the required current to reach at minimum
pick value of the deflecting force, in the coil also changes. That means if active turns of the relay coil
are reduced, then proportionately more current is required to produce desired relay actuating force.
Similarly, if active turns of the relay coil are increased, then proportionately reduced current is required
to produce same desired deflecting force.
Practically same model relays may be used in different systems. As per these systems requirement the
pick-up current of relay is adjusted. This is known as current setting of relay. This is achieved by
providing required number of tapping in the coil. These taps are brought out to a plug bridge. The
number of active turns in the coil can be changed by inserting plug in different points in the bridge.
The current setting of relay is expressed in percentage ratio of relay pick up current to rated
secondary current of CT.
That means,

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For example, suppose, you want that, an over current relay should operate when the system current just
crosses 125% of rated current. If the relay is rated with 1 A, the normal pick up current of the relay is 1
A and it should be equal to secondary rated current of current transformer connected to the relay.
Then, the relay will be operated when the current of CT secondary becomes more than or equal 1.25 A.
As per definition,

The current setting is sometimes referred as current plug setting. The current setting of over current
relay is generally ranged from 50% to 200%, in steps of 25%. For earth fault relay it is from 10% to
70% in steps of 10%.

PLUG SETTING MULTIPLIER OF RELAY

Plug setting multiplier of relay is referred as ratio of fault current in the relay to its pick up current.

Suppose we have connected on protection CT of ratio 200/1 A and current setting is 150%.
Hence, pick up current of the relay is, 1 150 % = 1.5 A
Now, suppose fault current in the CT primary is 1000 A. Hence, fault current in the CT secondary i.e.
in the relay coil is, 1000 1/200 = 5 A
Therefore, PSM of the relay is, 5 / 1.5 =3.33

TIME SETTING MULTIPLIER OF RELAY

The operating time of an electrical relay mainly depends upon two factors:
How long distance to be travelled by the moving parts of the relay for closing relay contacts and
1. How fast the moving parts of the relay cover this distance.
So far adjusting relay operating time, both of the factors to be adjusted. The adjustment of travelling
distance of an electromechanical relay is commonly known as time setting. This adjustment is
commonly known as time setting multiplier of relay. The time setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in
steps 0.05 sec. But by adjusting only time setting multiplier, we cannot set the actual time of operation
of an electrical relay. As we already said, the time of operation also depends upon the speed of
operation. The speed of moving parts of relay depends upon the force due to current in the relay coil.
Hence it is clear that, speed of operation of an electrical relay depends upon the level of fault current.
In other words, time of operation of relay depends upon plug setting multiplier. The relation between
time of operation and plug setting multiplier is plotted on a graph paper and this is known as time /
PSM graph. From this graph one can determine, the total time taken by the moving parts of an
electromechanical relay, to complete its total travelling distance for different PSM. In time setting
multiplier, this total travelling distance is divided and calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05. So when
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 time setting is 0.1, the moving parts of the relay has to travel only 0.1 times of the total travelling
distance, to close the contact of the relay. So, if we get total operating time of the relay for a particular
PSM from time / PSM graph and if we multiply that time with the time setting multiplier, we will get,
actual time of operation of relay for said PSM and TSM. For getting clear idea, let us have a practical
example. Say a relay has time setting 0.1 and you have to calculate actual time of operation for PSM
10. From time / PSM graph of the relay as shown below, we can see the total operating time of the
relay is 3 seconds. That means, the moving parts of the relay take total 3 seconds to travel 100%
travelling distance. As the time setting multiplier is 0.1 here, actually the moving parts of the relay have
to travel only 0.1 100% or 10% of the total travel distance, to close the relay contacts. Hence, actual
operating time of the relay is 3 0.1 = 0.3 sec. i.e. 10% of 3 sec.

CALCULATION OF RELAY OPERATION TIME

For calculating actual relay operating time, we need to know these following operations.
I. Current setting.
II. Fault current level.
III. Ratio of current transformer.
IV. Time / PSM curve.
V. Time setting.
Step 1
From CT ratio, we first see the rated secondary current of CT. Say the CT ratio is 100 / 1 A, i.e.
secondary current of CT is 1 A.
Step 2
From current setting we calculate the trick current of the relay. Say current setting of the relay is 150%
therefore pick up current of the relay is 1 150% = 1.5 A.
Step 3
Now we have to calculate PSM for the specified faulty current level. For that, we have to first divide
primary faulty current by CT ratio to get relay faulty current. Say the faulty current level is 1500 A, in
the CT primary, hence secondary equivalent of faulty current is 1500/(100/1) = 15 A

Step 4
Now, after calculating PSM, we have to find out the total time of operation of the relay from Time /
PSM curve. From the curve, say we found the time of operation of relay is 3 second for PSM = 10.
Step 5
Finally, that operating time of relay would be multiplied with time setting multiplier, in order to get
actual time of operation of relay. Hence say time setting of the relay is 0.1.
Therefore, actual time of operation of the relay for PSM 10 is 3 0.1 = 0.3 sec or 300 ms.

Over Current Relay Working Principle Type

In an over current relay or o/c relay the actuating quantity is only current. There is only one current
operated element in the relay, no current coil etc. are required to construct this protective relay.
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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF OVER CURRENT RELAY
In an over current relay, there would be essentially a current coil. When normal current flows through
this coil, the magnetic effect generated by the coil is not sufficient to move the moving element of the
relay, as in this condition the restraining force is greater than deflecting force. But when the current
through the coil increased, the magnetic effect increases, and after certain level of current, the
deflecting force generated by the magnetic effect of the coil, crosses the restraining force, as a result,
the moving element starts moving to change the contact position in the relay.
Although there are different types of over current relays but basic working principle of over current
relay is more or less same for all.

TYPES OF OVER CURRENT RELAY

Depending upon time of operation, there are various types of OC relays, such as,
1. Instantaneous over current relay.
2. Definite time over current relay.
3. Inverse time over current relay.

Instantaneous Over Current Relay

Construction and working principle of instantaneous over current relay quite simple.

Here generally a magnetic core is wound by current coil. A piece of iron is so fitted by hinge support
and restraining spring in the relay, that when there is not sufficient current in the coil, the NO contacts
remain open. When current in the coil crosses a present value, the attractive force becomes sufficient to
pull the iron piece towards the magnetic core and consequently the No contacts are closed.
The pre-set value of current in the relay coil is referred as pick up setting current. This relay is referred
as instantaneous over current relay, as ideally, the relay operates as soon as the current in the coil gets
higher than pick up setting current. There is no intentional time delay applied. But there is always an
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inherent time delay which cannot be avoided practically. In practice the operating time of an
instantaneous relay is of the order of a few milliseconds.

Definite Time over Current Relay

This relay is created by applying intentional time delay after crossing pick up value of the current. A
definite time over current relay can be adjusted to issue a trip output at definite amount of time after
it picks up. Thus, it has a time setting adjustment and pick up adjustment.

Inverse Time OC Relay

Inverse time is a natural character of any induction type rotating device. This means the speed of
rotation of rotating art of the device is faster if input current is increased. In other words, time of
operation inversely varies with input current. This natural characteristic of electromechanical induction
disc relay in very suitable for over current protection. This is because, in this relay, if fault is more
severe, it would be cleared faster. Although time inverse characteristic is inherent to electromechanical
induction disc relay, but the same characteristic can be achieved in microprocessor based relay also by
proper programming.
Overcurrent Protection
There is always a chance of suffering an electrical power system from abnormal over voltages. These
abnormal over voltages may be caused due to various reasons such as, sudden interruption of heavy
load, lightening impulses, switching impulses etc. These over current stresses may damage insulation
of various equipments and insulators of the power system. Although, all the over current stresses are
not strong enough to damage insulation of system, but still these over voltages also to be avoided to
ensure the smooth operation of electrical power system.

Methods of Protection against Lightning

These are mainly three main methods generally used for protection against lightning. They are
1. Earthing screen.
2. Overhead earth wire.
3. Lightning arrester or surge dividers.
EARTHING SCREEN

Earthing screen is generally used over electrical sub-station. In this arrangement a net of GI wire is
mounted over the sub-station. The GI wires, used for earthing screen are properly grounded through
different sub-station structures. This network of grounded GI wire over electrical sub-station, provides
very low resistance path to the ground for lightning strokes.
This method of high voltage protection is very simple and economic but the main drawback is, it
cannot protect the system from travelling wave which may reach to the sub-station via different
feeders.

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OVERHEAD EARTH WIRE

This method of over voltage protection is similar as earthing screen. The only difference is, an earthing
screen is placed over an electrical sub-station, whereas, overhead earth wire is placed over electrical
transmission network. One or two stranded GI wires of suitable cross-section are placed over the
transmission conductors. These GI wires are properly grounded at each transmission tower. These
overhead ground wires or earth wire divert all the lightning strokes to the ground instead of allowing
them to strike directly on the transmission conductors.
LIGHTNING ARRESTER

The previously discussed two methods, i.e. earthing screen and over-head earth wire are very suitable
for protecting an electrical power system from directed lightning strokes but system from directed
lightning strokes but these methods cannot provide any protection against high voltage travelling wave
which may propagate through the line to the equipment of the sub-station.
The lightning arrester is a devices which provides very low impedance path to the ground for high
voltage travelling waves.
The concept of a lightning arrester is very simple. This device behaves like a nonlinear electrical
resistance. The resistance decreases as voltage increases and vice-versa, after a certain level of voltage.
The functions of a lightning arrester or surge dividers can be listed as below.
1. Under normal voltage level, these devices withstand easily the system voltage as electrical
insulator and provide no conducting path to the system current.
2. On occurrence of voltage surge in the system, these devices provide very low impedance path
for the excess charge of the surge to the ground.
3. After conducting the charges of surge, to the ground, the voltage becomes to its normal level.
Then lightning arrester regains its insulation properly and prevents regains its insulation property
and prevents further conduction of current, to the ground.

Differential Relay
The relays used in power system protection are of different types. Among them differential relay is
very commonly used relay for protecting transformers and generators from localized faults.

Differential relays are very sensitive to the faults occurred within the zone of protection but they are
least sensitive to the faults that occur outside the protected zone. Most of the relays operate
When any quantity exceeds beyond a predetermined value for example over current relay operates
when current through it exceeds predetermined value. But the principle of differential relay is
somewhat different. It operates depending upon the difference between two or more similar electrical
quantities.

DEFINITION OF DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

The differential relay is one that operates when there is a difference between two or more similar
electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value. In differential relay scheme circuit, there are two
currents come from two parts of an electrical power circuit. These two currents meet at a junction point
where a relay coil is connected. According to Kirchhoff Current Law, the resultant current flowing
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through the relay coil is nothing but summation of two currents, coming from two different parts of the
electrical power circuit. If the polarity and amplitude of both currents are so adjusted that the phasor
sum of these two currents, is zero at normal operating condition. Thereby there will be no current
flowing through the relay coil at normal operating conditions. But due to any abnormality in the power
circuit, if this balance is broken, that means the phasor sum of these two currents no longer remains
zero and there will be non-zero current flowing through the relay coil thereby relay being operated.

In current differential scheme, there are two sets of current transformer each connected to either side of
the equipment protected by differential relay. The ratio of the current transformers are so chosen, the
secondary currents of both current transformers matches each other in magnitude. The polarity of
current transformers are such that the secondary currents of these CTs opposes each other. From the
circuit is clear that only if any nonzero difference is created between this to secondary currents, then
only this differential current will flow through the operating coil of the relay. If this difference is more
than the peak up value of the relay, it will operate to open the circuit breakers to isolate the protected
equipment from the system. The relaying element used in differential relay is attracted armature type
instantaneously relays since differential scheme is only adapted for clearing the fault inside the
protected equipment in other words differential relay should clear only internal fault of the equipment
hence the protected equipment should be isolated as soon as any fault occurred inside the equipment
itself. They need not be any time delay for coordination with other relays in the system.

Distance Relay or Impedance Relay Working Principle Types

There is one type of relay which functions depending upon the distance of fault in the line. More
specifically, the relay operates depending upon the impedance between the point of fault and the point
where relay is installed. These relays are known as distance relay or impedance relay.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DISTANCE OR IMPEDANCE RELAY

The working principle of distance relay or impedance relay is very simple. There is one voltage
element from potential transformer and an current element fed from current transformer of the system.
The deflecting torque is produced by secondary current of CT and restoring torque is produced by
voltage of potential transformer. In normal operating condition, restoring torque is more than deflecting
torque. Hence relay will not operate. But in faulty condition, the current becomes quite large whereas
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voltage becomes less. Consequently, deflecting torque becomes more than restoring torque and
dynamic parts of the relay starts moving which ultimately close the No contact of relay. Hence clearly
operation or working principle of distance relay depends upon the ratio of system voltage and current.
As the ratio of voltage to current is nothing but impedance a distance relay is also known as impedance
relay.
The operation of such relay depends upon the predetermined value of voltage to current ratio. This ratio
is nothing but impedance. The relay will only operate when this voltage to current ratio becomes less
than its predetermined value. Hence, it can be said that the relay will only operate when the impedance
of the line becomes less than predetermined impedance (voltage / current). As the impedance of a
transmission line is directly proportional to its length, it can easily be concluded that a distance relay
can only operate if fault is occurred within a predetermined distance or length of line.

Instantaneous Relay
In a simple electrical relay shown in the figure above. Here the fixed coil is fed from the circuit to be
protected. When there is a current in fixed coil above the pick-up value, the iron plunger is so attracted,
it moves upward and makes No contact closed. The function of this relay is very fast. The normally
open (NO) contacts of the relay are closed as soon as current in the fixed coil crosses the pick-up value.
This is a simplest example of instantaneous relay. Because ideally there is no time delay between the
instant when actuating current crosses the pick-up level and the instant of closing the No contacts.

DEFINITION OF INSTANTANEOUS RELAY

An instantaneous relay is one in which there is no time delay provided intentionally. More specifically
ideally there is no time required to operate the relay. Although there is some time delay which cannot
be avoided. As the current coil is an inductor, there would be a certain delay to reach the current in the
coil to its maximum value. There is also some time required for mechanical movement plunger in the
relay. These time delays are inherent in the instantaneous relay but no other time delay is intentionally
added. These relays can be operated in less than 0.1 sec.

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EXAMPLES OF INSTANTANEOUS RELAYS

There are various types of relay which can be considered as instantaneous relay. Such as, attracted
armature relay where an iron plunger is attracted by an electro-magnet to actuate the relay. When
attractive force of the electro-magnet crosses its pick up level, the iron plunger starts move towards the
magnet and crosses the relay contacts. The magnetic strength of the electromagnet, depends upon the
current flows the coil conductors.
Another popular example of instantaneous relay, is solenoid type relay. When current in the solenoid
crosses pick up value, the solenoid attracts an iron plunger which moves to close the relay contacts.

Faults in Power Transformers

INTERNAL FAULTS IN POWER TRANSFORMER

The principle faults which occurs inside a power transformer are categorized as:
(1) Insulation breakdown between winding and earth
(2) Insulation breakdown in between different phases
(3) Insulation breakdown in between adjacent turns i.e. inter - turn fault
(4) Transformer core fault

Inter Turns Fault in Power Transformer

Power Transformer connected with electrical extra high transmission system, is very likely to be
subjected to high magnitude, steep fronted and high frequency impulse due to lightening surge on
the transmission line. The stresses between winding turns become so large, it cannot sustain the
stress and causing insulation failure between inter - turns in some points. Also LV winding is
stressed because of the transferred surge voltage. Very large numbers of Power Transformer failure
arise from fault between turns. Inter turn fault may also be occurred due to mechanical forces
between turns originated by external short circuit.

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Internal Phase to Phase Faults in Power Transformer

Phase to phase fault in the transformer are rare. If such a fault does occur, it will give rise to substantial
current to operate instantaneous over current relay on the primary side as well as the differential relay.

Inter Turns Fault in Power Transformer

Power Transformer connected with electrical extra high transmission system, is very likely to be
subjected to high magnitude, steep fronted and high frequency impulse due to lightening surge on the
transmission line. The stresses between winding turns become so large, it cannot sustain the stress and
causing insulation failure between inter - turns in some points. Also LV winding is stressed because of
the transferred surge voltage. Very large numbers of Power Transformer failure arise from fault
between turns. Inter turn fault may also be occurred due to mechanical forces between turns originated
by external short circuit.
Core Fault in Power Transformer
In any portion of the core lamination is damaged, or lamination of the core is bridged by any
conducting material causes sufficient current to flow, hence, this part of the core becomes over heated.
Sometimes, insulation of bolts (Used for tightening the core lamination together) fails which also
permits sufficient to flow through the bolt and causing overheating. This insulation failure in
lamination and core bolts causes severe local heating. Although these local heating, causes additional
core loss but cannot create any noticeable change in input and output in the transformer, hence these
faults cannot be detected by normal electrical protection scheme. This is desirable to detect the local
over heating condition of the transformer core before any major fault occurs. Excessive over heating
leads to breakdown of transformer insulating oil with evolution of gases. These gases are accumulated
in Buchholz relay and actuating Buchholz Alarm.

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