Sampling Design

Primary data new data collected by researches for a particular purpose.

Secondary data refer to existing data which have already been collected by others or for
another purpose.

Types of Sampling

Non probability (non-random) sampling

Some population units have no chance (zero probability) of being selected.

Units which can be selected have an unknown (non-zero) probability of selection.
Sampling errors cannot be quantified.
Non-probability samples are used in the absence of a sampling frame.

Types of non-probability sampling: -

1. Convenience sampling: individuals are selected from the members of the population
which happen to be in a vicinity (near).
E.g.:- people in a shopping mall at a time of the survey (on a school day, where children and
working people are unlikely to be in the mall at that time).
2. Judgment sampling: this uses expert opinion to judge which individuals to choose.
E.g.:- research firm selecting people to participate in a focus group by telephoning people
and identifying who matches the target profile through a series of questions developed by
an expert.
3. Quota sampling: -
This attempts to obtain a representative sample by specifying quota controls (age,
gender, social class etc.)
This is useful in the absence of a sampling frame. (Since non-random sampling do
not require sampling frame).
Faster compared to random sampling, as it is much quicker to set target numbers
(quotas) to interview.
This is cheap.
In this the interviewer seeks out units which satisfy quota controls and requires the
distribution of these characteristics in the population in order to replicate it in the
sample.
It maybe systematically biased by the choice of interviewee made by the
interviewer, and their willingness to reply.
E.g.: - interviewers might avoid chasing busy, strange and threatening (looks)
people.
Quota sampling does not allow us to measure the sampling error.
Probability (random) Sampling

Selection is performed through some form of randomisation.

Every population unit has a known (not necessarily equal), non-zero probability of being
selected.
Expensive.
Time consuming.
Require sampling frame.

Types of probability sampling: -

1. Simple random sampling (SRS) where each population unit has a known, equal and non-
zero probability of selection and produces unbiased estimates (smaller standard errors).
2. Systematic random sampling 1 in x systematic random sample is obtained by randomly
selecting one of the first x units in the sampling frame and then selecting every subsequent
xth unit.
3. Stratified random sampling
Higher level of accuracy (smaller standard errors), by manipulating natural
groupings within the population known as strata.
Population units are similar within strata and different between strata (elements
within a stratum are homogeneous while the strata are collectively
heterogeneous).
E.g.:- when investigating student satisfaction levels at a university, a sensible
stratification factor would be the year of study, as students in different years of
study may have very different opinions on their satisfaction levels. Therefore, by
doing this it is certain that you will not end up with an extreme (non-repetitive)
sample and avoid the possibility of one particular group not being present.

4. Cluster sampling
Used to reduce cost (time and money).
Here the population is divided into clusters.
Each cluster is as variable as the overall population (I.e. heterogeneous within
clusters and homogenous between clusters).
One stage cluster sample some clusters chosen, all units selected in each sample
clustered.
Two stage cluster sample some clusters chosen, some units selected in each
sample.
Multi stage design when a subsample is taken from a selected cluster.
5. Multistage sampling
Refers to the case when sample selection occurs at two or more successive stages.
Frequently used in large surveys.
First stage large compound units are sampled (primary units).
Second stage smaller units are sampled (secondary units).
From there additional sampling stages of this type may be performed.
E.g.:- divide the areas of the country into strata by industrial region.
Types of error

Sampling error occurs as a result of us selecting a sample, rather than performing census.
Non-sampling error occurs as a result of the failures of the sampling scheme.
Selection bias this may be due to: -
i. The sampling frame not being equal to the target population.
ii. The sampling frame not being strictly adhered to.
iii. Non-response bias.
Response bias the actual measurements might be wrong due to: -
i. Ambiguous questions wording.
ii. Misunderstanding of a word in a questionnaire by less educated people.
iii. Sensitivity of information which is required.
iv. Interviewer bias due to lack of training, etc.
Both these errors can be controlled by pilot survey, where it is used to:
Find the standard error which can be attached to different kinds of questions and
hence to underpin the sampling design chosen.
To sort out non-sampling questions:
i. Do people understand the questionnaires?
ii. Are our interviewers working well?
iii. Are there particular organisational problems associated with this enquiry?

Non-response

Item non-response occurs when a sampled member fails to respond to a question in the
questionnaire.
Unit non-response occurs when no information is collected from a sample member.
Non-response is maybe due to:
Not-at-home on holiday.
Refusals subject matter.
Incapacity to respond illness, language difficulties.
Not found incorrect address.
Lost schedules information being lost/ destroyed.

Sources of response error

Role of the interviewer due to the characteristics and opinions of the interviewer, asking
leading questions and the incorrect recording of responses.
Role of the respondent who may lack knowledge, forget information or be reluctant to
give information due to the sensitivity of the subject matter.

Method of contact

Face-to-face interviews:
Advantages:
i. Good for personal questions.
ii. Allow for probing issues in greater depth.
iii. Permit difficult concepts to be explained.
iv. Can show samples.
Disadvantages:
i. Very expensive.
ii. Not always easy to obtain detailed information on the spot.
 Telephone interviews
Advantages:
i. Easy to achieve a large number of interviews.
ii. Easy to check on quality on interviewers.
Disadvantages:
i. Not everyone has a telephone.
ii. Cannot usually show samples.
iii. Telephone directories only contain landline numbers.
Self-completion interviews
Advantages:
i. Most people can be contacted.
ii. Allow time for people to look up details such as income, tax returns etc.
Disadvantages:
i. High non-response rate.
ii. No control over who answers the questions.